Computer p Organization

Lecture 1 Introduction History of computers

Introduction (1/3)
Computer Architecture
refers to attributes of a system visible to a programmer includes instruction set data bit widths I/O and set, widths, memory mechanisms, addressing modes conceptual/abstract model of a computer

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Introduction (2/3)
Computer Organization
refers to logical aspects of computer implementation (design technique used to realize the architecture) ) transparent to programmer includes control signals interfaces between signals, computer and its peripherals, memory technology used

Introduction (3/3)
Organization vs. Architecture
architectural decision : is there a multiply instruction? organizational decision : how will multiply operation be supported/implemented in hardware? (use dedicated multiply hardware or use repeated addition)

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Definitions
Digital Computer
fast electronic calculating machine accepts digitized input does processing according to an internal list of instructions outputs the result of the processing

Computer Types (1/3)

Desktop Computers
personal computer
most common type general purpose used in homes, schools, business offices

workstations
more computational power used in engineering/CAD applications

Program list of instructions Memory internal storage

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Notebook/Laptop Computers portability

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Computer Types (2/3)

Enterprise Systems/Mainframes
used for business data processing in medium to large corporations has more computing power and storage capacity

Computer Types (3/3)

Supercomputers
for large scale numerical calculations examples are weather forecasting and aircraft design and simulation

Servers
sizeable d b i bl database units i capable of handling large volumes of requests for data

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Functional Units (1/6)

Main parts of a computer
input lumped t l d together as I/O th output control units inside the processor arithmetic and logic memory

Functional Units (2/6)

Input/Output
concerned with getting information to and from the computer input unit gives data to processor output unit sends processed results to outside world includes keyboard, mouse, joystick, microphone (input), monitor, (input) monitor printer (output) etc (output), etc.

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Functional Units (3/6)

Memory
storage for input values and programs divided into different levels called memory hierarchy higher level: primary storage
fast memory comprised of semiconductor cells each storing 1 bit accessed in groups of bits called words that are uniquely identified by an address programs must reside in primary storage to be executed
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Functional Units (4/6)

primary storage (contd)
uses random access memory ( y (RAM) ) small, fast RAM are called caches largest and slowest is called main memory

lower level: secondary storage

slower and cheaper p greater storage capacity for infrequently accessed data q y longer term storage

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Functional Units (5/6)

Arithmetic and Logic
performs the processing on information residing in memory usually operates on registers (high speed memory within processor itself) data from memory needs to be placed in registers first

Functional Units (6/6)

Control Unit
provides the necessary signals (called control signals) to coordinate communication between different units of the computer p generates timing signals to initiate and stop operations

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Basic Operational Concepts (1/7)

Computer activity is governed by instructions
example:
location in memory register

Basic Operational Concepts (2/7)

Memory access is done by
first determining the memory address send address to memory unit apply proper control signals (e g read write) (e.g. read, data transfer

Add LOCA, R0 R0 = contents of LOCA + R0

Modern computers split the operation into memory access + operation on registers
Load LOCA, R1 Add R1, R0
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Basic Operational Concepts (3/7)

Special registers
Instruction Register (IR) holds the instruction currently being executed Program Counter (PC) contains address of instruction to be fetched and executed General Purpose Registers (GPR) temporary storage of data

Basic Operational Concepts (4/7)

Special registers (contd)
Memory Address Register (MAR) holds the target address of the next memory access Memory Data Register (MDR) contains data to be written into or read from memory

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Connections Between Processor and Memory

MAIN MEMORY

Basic Operational Concepts (5/7)

Typical operating steps
program is in memory set PC to point to address memory, of start of program MAR <= PC (MAR gets PC content) < read control signal (MemRead) is sent to memory after data is read from memory into MDR MDR, IR <= MDR instruction read instr ction is ready to be decoded and e ec ted executed

MAR PC IR

MDR CONTROL R0 R1
. .

ALU

Rn-1
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Basic Operational Concepts (6/7)

Example : Add LOCA, R1
MAR <= LOCA MemRead use a temporary register ( g R2) y g (e.g. ) R2 <= MDR use the ALU to add R2, R1 R1 <= ALU result

Basic Operational Concepts (7/7)

Interrupts
if a device requires immediate servicing ( q g (asserts interrupt signal), instruction execution is interrupted processor suspends execution of current program executes a special block of code called Interrupt Service Routine S i R ti (ISR) state of the processor is saved prior to transferring control to ISR and restored after ISR terminates
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PC is incremented to point to the next instruction

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Bus Structures (1/3)

Interconnection between computer units Made up of busses
bus group of lines that serve as connecting path must pro ide enough m st provide eno gh lines to transfer data data, address and control information in parallel data is d t i usually one word wide ll d id current news: high speed serial busses used in multi GH processors and controllers lti GHz d t ll

Bus Structures (2/3)

Single bus structure
simplest way of interconnection every device connects to a single bus only two units can access the bus at the same time additional control lines are needed for arbitration
INPUT OUTPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR

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Bus Structures (3/3)

Single bus structure (contd)
slow devices have buffer registers to prevent too slow long bus usage drawback of large capacitive load with large number of devices connected

Historical Perspective (1/11)

Calculating machines appeared in 16th century and perhaps earlier
Blaise Pascal invented an early mechanical calculator that could add and subtract decimals used a ratchet device Gottfried Leibniz extended Pascal s design with Pascals multiplication and division

Multiple bus structure

numerous parallel busses allows concurrent operation at the cost of more wires
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Historical Perspective (2/11)

Mechanical era (19th to mid 20th century)
used mechanical devices constructed from gears gears, levers, pulleys Charles Babbage designed the Difference and Analytical Engines
Difference Engine 1 performs addition to compute and print mathematical tables automatically Analytical Engine considered first general-purpose programmable computer Difference Engine
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Historical Perspective (3/11)

Mechanical era (contd)
Comptometer developed by Dorr E Felt in 1885 E. Herman Hollerith invented the punched-card tabulating machine, founded a company in 1896 machine that merged with other companies and became the International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) Howard Aiken designed the Harvard Mark I created by IBM, controlled by punched paper tape

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Historical Perspective (4/11)

Harvard Mark I

Historical Perspective (5/11)

Electronic computers
processing and storage of digital signals uses electrons First Generation
used vacuum tube technology Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) by Mauchly and Eckert stored programs and data in separate memories
ENIAC
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Hollerith machine

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Historical Perspective (6/11)

First Generation (contd)
John von Neumann introduced the concept of a stored p program used in Electronic Discrete Variable Computer (EDVAC) and I i d Institute of Ad f Advanced S di (IAS) d Studies computer magnetic core memories and magnetic tape devices were developed used machine language (binary format) and assembly language (symbolic format)

Historical Perspective (7/11)

Second Generation AT&T Bell Laboratories invented the transistor (late 1940s) used magnetic core memories and magnetic g g drum storage development of high-level g languages (Fortran) separate I/O processors
5MB IBM hard disk

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Historical Perspective (8/11)

Third Generation integrated circuit ( ) technology fabrication of g (IC) gy many transistors on a single silicon chip IC memories, cache and virtual memory were developed introduced microprogramming, parallelism, pipelining dominant products: IBM S/360, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP
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Historical Perspective (9/11)

Fourth Generation
Very Large Scale Integration ( y g g (VLSI) was introduced ) complete processor on a single chip: microprocessor dominant companies: Intel, National Semiconductor, Motorola, Texas Instruments, Advanced Micro Devices includes i l d personal computers, d kt l t desktops, workstations, k t ti etc.

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Historical Perspective (10/11)

Beyond Fourth Generation
artificial intelligence g massively parallel machines extensively distributed systems more powerful desktops large amount of information in the Internet

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References
Hayes, Computer Architecture and Organization Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture Hamacher, et. al., C H h t l Computer O t Organization i ti The Computer Museum History Center, www.computerhistory.org

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