Geography

Changing Nature, Rate and Distribution of the World’s Population

Nature – what population is and how does it change?

- Population
o a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in the same
geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. Population is dynamic

Rate of Change – how much change over time?

Demography – the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, which illustrate the changing structure
of human populations.

Population Density – number of individuals per unit geographic area  no. individuals/ area of land
Population Distribution – the pattern of where people live.

Population Doubling Time – the number of years required for a specified population to double in size at the
current rate of population growth.

Birth Rate – the number of live births per thousand of population per year
Death Rate – the number of deaths per thousand people per year

Child Mortality Rate – the probability of a child under 5 dying, expressed per thousand live births.
Infant Mortality Rate – the probability of a child under 1 dying, expressed per thousand live births.

TFR – total fertility rate – this is the number of births per woman over the course of her life.
The replacement rate is 2.1 births per woman, a population with this TFR will eventually stabilise.

The Causes of Rapid Growth in Human Numbers:

 Increase in life expectancy.  Poverty

o Medical science o Little access to education
o Technology o No freedom / autonomy
o Nutrition / diet o Take on role of motherhood.
o Education / knowledge

 High fertility rates  Infant mortality rates declining

o Economic development

Demographic Changes – changes in the size, comparison, rates of growth and density of population;
changes to fertility and mortality rates and changes to patterns of migration

Demographic Transition – theory that relates to the process of industrialisation, declining birth rates
followed by declining fertility rates.

Pre-Industrial Economy – rural based economy (agriculture)

Industrial Economy – shifted from rural based economy to secondary and/or tertiary and/or quaternary
based economies.
Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1 2 3 4 5
High Stationary Early Expanding Late Expanding Low Stationary Declining?
Examples A few remote USA, Japan,
groups – Sub Egypt, Kenya Brazil UK Germany
Saharan Africa
Birth Rate High High Falling Low Very low
Death Rate High Falls rapidly Falls slowly Low Low
Natural Stable or slow Very rapid Increase slows Stable or slow Slow
Increase increase increase down increase decrease
Reasons for Many children needed for farming. Improved Family planning. Good
Changes in Die at a young age. Religious / medical care and health. Improving status of
Birth Rate social encouragement. No family diet. Fewer women. Late marriages
planning (contraceptives) children needed
Reasons for Disease, famine. Improvements in medical care and Good health care. Reliable
Changes in Poor medical sanitation. Fewer children die food supply
Death Rate knowledge

Population Pyramid – graph showing the number of males and females in each age group of a population.

Aging Population – the median age of a country or region rises due to rising life expectancy and/or
declining fertility rates.

Productive Age Group – those working and earning money. economically active (usually 15-60)

Population Structure – age and gender composition of a population usually displayed in a population
pyramid.

Dependency ratio – the percentage of a population which is over 65 together with those under 15.
- Together, this part of the population is considered to be out of the work force and therefore they
must be supported (dependent) by the rest of the population.

Zero Population Growth (ZPG) – birth rates = death rates and the population remains stable

Natural Increase – the percentage of which a population grows in a year. Difference between birth rate and
death rate

Natural Decrease – the percentage of which a population decreases in a year. Difference between birth rate
and death rate (excludes migration)

Rate of Change
• Some continents / regions are growing faster than others.
• Today, Europe, North America and Australasia have very slow growth rates.
• Asia has a rapid but declining growth rate. India will overtake China by 2050 to be the world’s most
populous country.
• Africa has rapid population growth. Particularly Nigeria and sub-Saharan Africa.
Distribution

• Asia = most populous continent ¡ 2 most populated countries alone,

¡ 4.3 billion inhabitants account for China + India = 37% of the world's
60% of the world population. population.
• Africa = second most populated continent • Latin American and Caribbean regions
¡ 1 billion people • Northern America primarily consisting of
¡ 15% of the world's population the United States and Canada
• Europe = 733 million people ¡ home to 600 million (9%).

¡ 12% of the world's population

• Northern America primarily consisting of • Oceania = least-populated region

the United States and Canada ¡ 35 million inhabitants (0.5%)

¡ 352 million (5%)

Fertility
• High fertility rates are generally found in less developed countries
o this is changing  increased economic development + family planning initiatives

Religions and Babies – Hans Rosling

- To decrease fertility rates:

• Increase age of first marriage/first birth and duration between successive births
• Increase educational level of women
• More women integrated into the workforce

Low status of women  no education  limited opportunity of a career  forced into young age of
marriage  more childbearing years  possibility of having many more children

• Low fertility rates in many developed

countries
o fallen below replacement level
o main issue associated with this
decline = economic development

Population Policies
Anti-natalist – against births (discourages women to have children
- countries have introduced a range of responses to try to reduce fertility

Pro-natalist – for births (encourages women to have children)

- Attempts to improve fertility in developed countries include:
• Paid maternity leave
• Baby bonuses
• Provision of extra places in child-care
• Paternity leave entitlements

Populations

Ageing Population – shifts in the age distribution of a population toward older ages (China)

- typical cutoff of retirement age is 65 years

- society = relatively old when the population aged 65 and over exceeds 8-10%
- coffin shape on population pyramid

 Disadvantages
¡ cost of pensions and retirement homes

¡ large proportion of the workforce retired

Youthful Populations – broad base of young children, narrow apex of older people (Kenya)

 Advantages:
¡ large potential workforce

¡ lower medical costs

¡ attractive to new investment

¡ large potential market for selected goods

 Disadvantages:
¡ cost of supporting schools and clinics

¡ high rates of unemployment

¡ large numbers living in poor quality housing

¡ high rates of population growth

¡ high crime rates

Mortality
Global death rates; Summary of changes:

 Life expectancy = increased globally over time (71 years currently)

As a result of:

o Better nutrition
o Better access to medical facilities
o Increasing medical technologies
o Higher quality of life

 Global population is AGING

 Globally Crude Death Rate is decreasing = 7.89 per 1,000
 Maternal mortality has declined 45% globally since 1990s
 Child mortality has declined globally
 Huge gaps between rich and poor

Factors causing high mortality in developing countries:

 Poor nutritional  Access to medical and public health technology

standards  High incidence of infectious disease
 Poor standards of  Poor access to safe drinking water
personal hygiene  High incidence of natural hazards
 High frequency of wars and political unrest
Factors affecting mortality:

1. Sex and gender 4. Literacy

2. Occupation 5. Access to food
3. Income 6. Medical facilities

Implications of Declining Fertility

- Social / Cultural

o Increase in ageing population leading to isolation in rural areas. Social services cannot be
sustained – not financially viable such as access to transport

o Decrease in rural population – loss of tradition and loss of knowledge and labour

o Immigration may challenge traditional fabric of the community – demise of cultural identity

- Economic

o Reduction in purchasing and consumerism has an enormous impact on the local economy

o Infrastructure fails – transport systems cannot be sustained – impact on tourism mainly in

rural areas

o Loss of viable workers and intellect – “brain drain”

Population Movements

Migration – the act of moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination
permanently or for a long period of time
Immigration – people moving into a country
Emigration – people moving out of a country

There are two main types of population movements:

• International (between countries)

• Internal (within a country)

International Population Movements

Many contemporary migrations are closely related to the economic, political, and cultural links being
formed between nations due to the process of globalisation.

Types of international migration are:

- Resettlement migration
- Contract migration – e.g., guest workers, business migration, student migrant
- Forced migrations – the “slave trade”, refugees

Refugee – a person who is outside their country of citizenship because they have well-founded grounds for
fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or
political opinion, and is unable to obtain sanctuary ...

Asylum Seeker – someone seeking international protection but whose claim for refugee status has not yet
been determined

Internal Population Movements

Types of internal migration are:

- Rural-Urban migration
- Counter-urbanisation
- Population movements to regions where the growth of the service sector is greatest
- Urban consolidation / gentrification
- Seasonal movements

Push and Pull Factors

Push: encourage people to move away Pull: attract people to an area

o Poverty o Education
o Food shortages o Family and friends
o Unemployment o Higher salaries
o Lack of resources o Stable government
o Overpopulation o Access to services
o Political persecution o Freedom of expression
o Religious persecution
o Natural disasters
Biophysical Interactions

Biosphere

The biosphere is the global realm that encompasses all living things.
- the meeting point for the three other spheres and is dependent on them. It includes the surface
zone of the earth and its adjacent atmosphere in which all life exists.
Vocab:

Ecosystem – a community of species (biotic) and their non-living habitat (abiotic)

Habitat – the place where a particular species live

Biodiversity – the range of plants and animals and microorganisms, their genes and ecosystems that they
are a part of

Ecological niche – the ecological role and space that an organism fills in an ecosystem

Food web – a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains

Trophic level – the levels of a food chain

Ecosystems

Ecosystems are systems through which incoming solar energy is captured and channelled through a
hierarchy of life form

Plants capture sunlight and convert it into glucose, chemical energy, which animals then obtain 10% of
when they eat the plants. Nutrients are obtained and recycled

Ecotone – the zone of transition between two ecosystems. An ecotone contains organisms common to both
ecosystems. Often has greater biodiversity than surrounding ecosystems.

Ecosphere – the collection if living and dead organisms (the biosphere) interacting with one another and
heir non-living environment. The ecosphere therefore represents the aggregate of the world’s ecosystems -
the totality of all ecosystems.

Organism  Population  Community  Ecosystem  Biome  Biosphere/Ecosphere

The world’s ecosystems are dynamic.

They respond to change, whether
brought about by natural or human
forces. There are, however, limits
to how rapidly the biological
communities within ecosystems can
adapt
to the stress of change without being
degraded or destroyed
The world’s ecosystems are dynamic. They respond to change, whether by natural or human forces. There
are limits to how rapidly the biological communities can adapt to stress of change without being damaged.

The many ecosystems that exist can be broadly divided into two groups:

- Aquatic
Major ecosystems in the hydrosphere are called aquatic ecosystems and include life forms of marine
environments and freshwater environments.

- Terrestrial
The major land ecosystems are called terrestrial ecosystems and comprise the communities of plants and
animals spread across the surface of the continents.
Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the outer shell of the

earth, consisting of soil and geological
formations.

The earth is made up of different sections:

The two types of crusts are oceanic and

continental.

The pedosphere is part of the lithosphere,

made of soil and dirt.

Shaped by two forces:

- Tectonic forces – raise the earth

- Gradational forces – flatten the earth

o Weathering
o Erosion
o Transportation
o Deposition

Vocab:
Humus – the dark organic material in soils, produced by the decomposition of vegetable or animal matter
and essential to the fertility of the earth

Leaching – loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation

Parent material – underlying rock material above which soil horizons form

Soils – loose material comprised of organic and inorganic matter

Fluvial – refers to the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created
by them

Soil

Characteristics:

- Texture
o size of soil particles.
- Structure
o how the particles clump together.
- Colour
o presence of identifiable substances in the soil
o e.g., dark soils = high humus content. Red = high iron content.
- Acidity and Alkalinity
o the pH of a soil affects plant growth.

Profile:

1. Surface litter
- Freshly fallen leaves, organic debris and partially
decomposed litter

2. Topsoil
- Partially decomposed organic matter, plant roots,
living organisms and some inorganic materials

3. Zone of leaching
- Area through which dissolved or suspended
materials move downwards

4. Subsoil
- Unique colours and often an accumulation of iron,
aluminium and humic compounds and clay leached
down from layers above

5. Parent material
- Partially broken-down inorganic material

6. Bedrock
- Impenetrable layer apart from fractures

Development:
Soil forming factors:
- Parent material
o Some soils form directly from weathering bedrock in situ, but most are formed from
materials that have been transported and deposited
- Climate
o The ratio of precipitation to evaporation influences the amount of water available for
weathering, new mineral formation, leaching and the translocation of materials
- Topography
o The shape of the land also influences the amount of water available for weathering, new
mineral formation, leaching, the translocation of colloids and downward movement of clay
particles
- Time
o Soil type is influenced by the amount of time that soil- forming processes have been
occurring
- Organisms
o Biotic activity can affect the type of soil occurring at a particular location, most notably in
surface soil layers

Soil forming processes:

- Soil drainage
- Continual weathering and new material information
- Solution, precipitation and accumulation of soil components
- Wetting and drying
- Biological activity
- Movement of water through the soil profile
Atmosphere

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, retained by Earth's gravity,
surrounding the planet Earth and forming its planetary atmosphere

Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent other gases.

These gases are found in layers:

- troposphere
- stratosphere
- mesosphere
- thermosphere
- exosphere

Vocab:

Trade winds – in both hemispheres, they tend to blow from the east to the west and towards the equator.
Sometimes the trade winds are just called "easterly" to avoid having to specify the hemisphere.

Transpiration – the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the
underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere

Evapotranspiration – the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by
evaporation from the soil, other surfaces and by transpiration from plants
Energy in the Atmosphere

The sun is the earths main source of energy.

the amount of incoming radiation is determined by the following:

- distance from the sun

- latitude
o temperatures are lower at
higher latitudes

- length of day and night

o the shorter the day the less
insolation there is

Insolation – solar radiation

Major factors affecting the world pattern of

climate:

- Variations in the amount of incoming solar radiation (insolation)

- The revolution of the earth around the sun and its daily rotation on its axis
- The composition of the atmosphere
- The distribution of the continents and oceans
- Topography
Natural greenhouse effect

- Some solar radiation is absorbed by the earth, but a lot of solar energy is reflected back out
- Oceans and dark sources absorb the heat whereas light surfaces and snow reflect the heat
- The albedo increases when human activity as taken place through degradation and land clearing
and increases the risk of desertification

Albedo = the ratio between incoming radiation and the amount reflected back into space as a percentage

Global Heat Budget

Generally speaking, the temperature of the earth remains relatively constant from year to year. This means
that there is a balance between incoming insolation and outgoing terrestrial radiation.

Features of this global heat budget include:

- a net gain in radiation everywhere on the earth’s surface except at the poles, which have a high
surface albedo
- a net loss in radiation throughout the atmosphere.

Overall, there is a positive heat balance within the tropics and a negative heat balance in the polar regions
and at high altitudes. One outcome of this imbalance is the transfer of heat from the tropics towards the
poles and to higher altitudes. If this transfer did not take place, the tropics would ‘overheat’.

Two types of transfer take place:

- Horizontal transfers: Wind and ocean currents transfer heat from the tropics towards the poles.
Winds account for 80 per cent of the heat transfer, and ocean currents for the remaining 20
 - Vertical transfers: Heat is transferred to the atmosphere from the earth’s surface by terrestrial
radiation, conduction, convection currents and the transfer of latent heat via condensation. If this
transfer did not occur, the earth’s surface would get hotter and the atmosphere colder.

Lapse Rates

As altitude increases throughout the troposphere there is a decline in temperature.

- This temperature decline is called the lapse rate

Movement of Air

The air within the troposphere is never at rest. The sun heats the equatorial regions more quickly than the
polar regions, causing movements of air within the troposphere at a global scale

- At the Equator, heated air rises. When it reaches the tropopause, it moves towards the poles.
- At 30˚ north and south of the Equator, a body of descending air creates the subtropical high-
pressure belt, with its clear skies and dry, stable conditions.
- On the surface of the earth, some of the descending air moves back towards the Equator.
- The cells created by this pattern of circulation are known as Hadley cells.

- On the polar side of the Hadley cells the remaining air moves towards the poles.
- When this relatively warm air meets the cold polar air at the polar front, it pushes under and uplifts
the warmer air. This forms an area of low pressure known as a polar cell

Surface winds are caused by the movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the part of the Earth that is made up of water.

This includes water in all its forms:

- solid e.g., glaciers
- liquid e.g., rivers
- gas e.g., water vapour

Global Water Budget

The total amount of water available in an area; its inflows (precipitation) & outflows (evaporation, run off)

- Total amount of water in the water cycle is fixed globally.

- BUT water is unevenly distributed in terms of place and seasonal pattern.
- Continental water budgets vary as a result.
- The location, quantity and quality of water resources are largely determined by the relationship
between climate (precipitation and evaporation) and biophysical features, such as geology.
- In equatorial areas, for example, where there is high rainfall, there is also high runoff. This accounts
for the vast river systems and plentiful water supplies found on the East Coast of South America
where the mighty Amazon Basin is found.

Vocab:

River basin – an area of land drained by a river

and its tributaries.
 Infiltration – the process by which water on the
Watershed – the place that divides two river ground surface enters the spoil. The speed
basins (edge of the river basin) depends on saturation and soil type
Percolation – downward movement of water into
Source – the original point from which the river ROCK below the soil layer. The speed depends on
flows e.g., a spring or a glacier. It’s usually the the type of rock e.g., how permeable it is.
furthest point from the mouth.
Stem flow – water running down a plant’s stem
Tributary – smaller streams or rivers that join a or trunk.
larger channel
Throughfall – water dripping from one leaf onto
Confluence – the point where two channels meet another
e.g., a tributary and main river channel
Saturated – holding as much water or moisture as
Delta / mouth – a landform that forms from can be absorbed; thoroughly soaked. When the
deposition of sediment carried by a river as the soil is saturated due to heavy rain it can cause
flow leaves its mouth and enters slower- moving flooding.
or standing water
Ground water – water that has seeped into the
Mouth – part of a river that flows into a lake, ground and is held within the soil or rock.
reservoir, sea or ocean.
Surface run off – water that flows over the
Stores – where water is held for a period of time. surface of the land e.g., streams, rivers, roads etc.
Major stores of water include the ocean, ice caps, This is common in areas where the soil is
land and the atmosphere. saturated or there are lots of impermeable layers
such as concrete.
Transfers/flows – process by which water moves
from store or one place to another in the water Soil moisture – quantity / amount of water
cycle e.g., surface run off. contained in the soil.

Evaporation – when water, from the surface of Aquifer – any underground geological formation
soil, plants and oceans etc. changes from liquid to containing or conducting ground water. Usually,
water vapor. water is held between a layer of permeable (top)
and impermeable rock.
Condensation – when water changes from gas to
liquid e.g., when water vapour is turned back into Precipitation – Any form of water that falls from
water droplets as it cools down. Clouds are clouds and reaches Earth's surface as rain, snow,
formed. sleet, or hail.

Transpiration – loss of water vapor from the Intercepted – to interrupt the movement of water
stomata (holes) in plant leaves as it travels up e.g., precipitation is intercepted by the leaves of
from the roots. This slows down or prevents some plants before reaching the ground. This slows
water flowing back to the river. down or even prevents water reaching the
ground.
Evapotranspiration – combined process of
evaporation and transpiration. Impermeable – a substance through which water
is unable to pass through e.g., tarmacked road
Throughflow – when water moves slowly, and concrete surfaces. An increase in
horizontally/downhill through the SOIL. impermeable surfaces increase the chance of
flooding.
River discharge – amount of water flowing in the Baseflow – groundwater that feeds into rivers.
river / stream.

The Amazon

The Amazon is one of the most biodiverse regions on Earth:

Tropical rainforests have dense, multi-layered, vegetation. Light is lost through each layer. Light is converted
by plants into energy matter through a process TR perform at a rate unrivalled by any other ecosystem:
photosynthesis.

• Emergents
- the tops of the tallest trees,
- able to get more light than the average trees in the
forest canopy
- form the habitat for birds and insects.
• Canopy
- where the upper parts of most trees are found
- It forms an almost continuous cover which absorbs
over 70% of the light and intercepts 80% of the
rainfall, protecting soil from erosion and leaching.
- It’s home to many: insects, arachnids, birds and
some mammals.
- Most diversity is found here.
- Most sunlight and productivity found here.
• Under canopy
- limited sunlight
 - saplings wait here for larger plants and trees to die, leaving a gap in the canopy which they can grow
into.
• Shrub layer
- dark and gloomy with very little vegetation between the trees.
- during heavy rainfalls this area can flood.
- less than 5% of insolation reaches the forest floor, with the result that undergrowth is thin.
- thick leaf litter layer and lots of competition for roots to absorb nutrients.

Nutrients Cycle

Rainforest nutrient cycle

The rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid. The hot, damp conditions on the
forest floor allow for the rapid decomposition of dead plant material.
There is a thick layer of leaf litter and decomposing organic matter on
the surface. This provides plentiful nutrients that are easily absorbed by
plant roots. However, as these nutrients are in high demand from the
rainforest's many fast- growing plants, they do not remain in the soil for
long and stay close to the surface of the soil

Efficient recycling of dead matter

Fungi and bacteria, small but vital actors of the rainforest food web -
convert dead organic matter into compounds that become available to
the roots of plants. In this task they are assisted by a range of other
organisms that obligingly perform key functions in processing organic
matter.
Climate

Temperature:

- Temperatures are high and constant throughout the year because the sun is always high in the sky
due to position (low latitudes near the equator).
- Annual temperature range is very small
- Minimal mean monthly temperatures reflect the lack of seasonal change.
- Slightly higher temperatures may occur during any ‘drier’ season.
- Insolation evenly distributed throughout the year – approx. 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
darkness every day.
- The diurnal temperature range is small, approx. 10C.
- Evening temperatures rarely fall below 22C due to afternoon cloud cover.
- Daytime temperatures rarely rise above 32C
- High humidity

Because of where the Amazon is located in the world it is impacted by the Intertropical Convergence Zone,
or ITCZ, this is the region that circles the Earth, near the equator, where the trade winds of the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres come together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in
the ITCZ, raising its humidity and making it buoyant. Then with the blending or convergence of the trade
winds, the buoyant air rises. As the air rises it expands and cools, releasing the accumulated moisture in an
almost perpetual series of thunderstorms.

Precipitation:
 - Every year, the Amazon rainforest receives torrential rainfall - between 1,500 mm and 3,000 mm
- Eastern trade winds that blow from the Atlantic Ocean account for about half of the rainfall, with
the other half due to evapotranspiration - the loss of water from the soil by evaporation and
through transpiration from plants- in the Amazon River Basin.
- Evapotranspiration is rapid from rivers, swamps and trees.
- Most afternoon have a heavy showers/ storms due to convectional rainfall
- Most storms are violent, with the heavy rainfall, accompanied by thunder and lightning, falling from
cumulonimbus clouds.
- The high daytime humidity needs only small night radiation to give condensation as dew
- In the Amazon River Basin, rainfall follows a seasonal pattern, and there is a great difference in
precipitation from one place to the other, even within the centre of the basin

Convectional rainfall
- occurs when the heated air from the earth's surface rises upwards along with the water vapour and
gets condensed when it reaches a higher altitude. Here the clouds carrying the water vapour are
not carried away by the wind and hence, it rains in the same place

The Amazon Basin

- The Amazon River Basin is the largest in the world- covering 40% of South America.
- The border of the drainage basin differs to that of the biome.
- Any 1/3 rainwater falling within the watershed, eventually, drains into the Amazon River.
- The source of the river is high up in the Andes.
- The river itself flows west to east and is divided into the upper and lower Amazon. Many tributaries
and rivers flow into the Amazon itself. It flows for more than 6000km

The Water Cycle

The rainforest taps into the water cycle by making use of the large amount of rainfall and humidity.
- Plants absorb water as it rains. The rain trickles down leaves, branches and trunks, allowing the
roots of plants to take up the water that has infiltrated into the soil.
- Eventually 2/3 of the water that falls as rain is released back into the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration and 1/3 runs off into the Atlantic Ocean

Deforestation

Removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non- forest use

The five main effects of deforestation:

1. Altering of the earth’s climate

2. The areas cleared of rainforests make poor farming land – soils are low in nutrients
3. Water quality within catchments declines as the turbidity of water increases
4. Increased run-off and river channel siltation  increase in the frequency and severity of flooding
5. People who live within the forest are displaced

Siltation – water pollution caused by the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the
increased accumulation of fine sediment in waterways. Often caused by soil erosion.

- In the last 50 years 17% of the Amazon has been deforested

- Reasons:
 o Logging
o Mining
o Agricultural expansion
o Cattle grazing

Cattle grazing impacts:

- Atmosphere
o Carbon and methane greenhouse gases emitted

- Biosphere & Lithosphere

o Nutrients cycle disruption
 Diminishes biodiversity
 Resulting in a lack of fertility in soil
 Increased soil erosion and surface run-off
 Sediment and pesticides dumped in river systems

- Hydrosphere
o Reducing rate of evapotranspiration
o Increase chance of drought
o Polluted waterways
Development Geography

The Nature of Development

Development is the process by which the political, social and economic structures of a country are
improved for the purpose of providing for the wellbeing of its entire population

Development is multidimensional in nature and includes the following components:

1. Economic: creation of wealth and improved conditions of material life

2. Social: refers to factors such as health, education and housing
3. Political: values of human rights, political freedom and democracy
4. Environmental: ecological sustainability
5. Cultural: recognition and appreciation of unique cultures

- Multifaceted – complex, many layers

Absolute poverty – people who don’t have the basic necessities of life
Relative poverty – people that are in poverty, relative to where you live and have access to basic necessities

Classifications:
- Low-income countries
- Middle income countries / emerging countries
- High-income countries

Measuring development

Quantitative Indicators: Qualitative Indicators:

Numerical measures of something that can be Values such as:
counted or quantified - Peace
- GNI - Harmony
- Access to education - Freedom
- Infant mortality rate - Descriptions of living conditions

The Limitations of Quantitative Data

- A key limitation of using economic indicators is that they fail to measure the distribution of income
or other resources within countries.
- The spatial distribution: rural vs urban
- The income provides no understanding of the purchasing power of the dollar
- A nation may have both a formal and informal economy

HDI

The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index that measures key dimensions of human development.
The three key dimensions are:
1. A long and healthy life – measured by life expectancy.
2. Access to education – measured by expected years of schooling of children at school-entry age and
mean years of schooling of the adult population.
 3. A decent standard of living – measured by Gross National Income per capita adjusted for the price
level of the country

The global pattern of economic development

The global pattern of economic development is very much segmented into three areas. Economic
development is concentrated mainly in the high northern and low southern hemispheres in high-income
countries such as Australia, Russia, Canada, the US and Chile all obtaining an average income of $12,736 or
more. Countries situated in the equatorial region in continents such as Asia, Africa and areas of Europe and
South America, are classified as low-middle income countries, excluding Saudi Arabia and a few other small
countries. These countries have a GNI ranging from less than $1,045 to no more than $12,735.

The North-South divide separates the rich North or the developed world, from the poor South. This line of
division is not as straightforward as it sounds and splits the globe into two main parts. It is also known as
the Brandt Line

The Nature of Global Development

There is enormous diversity in the level of development globally. As indicators of development: GNI, life
expectancy and infant mortality rate show a distinct pattern. The most developed countries such as
Australia have a high GNI of 41,000 – 70,000, a high life expectancy of 80+ and low infant mortality rate of
1-2 per 1,000. In contrast, the NIC’s such as India, generally have lower values, GNI of 7,000 – 17,000, a life
expectancy of 68-70, and a medium infant mortality rate of 12-26 per 1,000. The least developed nations of
the world, such as Chad, experience far more dire circumstances, GNI of less than 3,000 a life expectancy of
52+ and a high infant mortality rate of 45-67 per 1,000.

Development geography is a branch of geography which refers to:

The standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants. In this context, development is a process
of change that affects people's lives. It may involve an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by
the people undergoing change.
Factors of Development

Internal:
- Land locked / water resources
o Countries that are landlocked
 less accessible
 LEDCS
 Victim to the decisions of neighbouring countries
o Coastal areas have access to trade via water

- Environmental degradation
o Population pressure  increasing demand for limited resources
o Exploitation leads to devastated land
o A symptom of poverty as well as a factor contributing to ongoing poverty

- Abundance of natural resources

o Countries with a large abundance of natural resources can exploit them
o Allows them to be self sufficient
o Trade surplus generates economic profitability

- Natural disasters
o Obstruct a country’s attempts to develop
o Infrastructure is poor and more susceptible to impacts

- Attitudes to religion and culture

- Political instability
o Internal political instability hampers development
o Allocation of resources is abused and increases inequality

- Population growth
o Usually, countries with larger populations are less developed
o Demand exceeds supply
External:
- Colonisation
o Restrictions were placed on the ability of the colony to produced goods
o suffered from the collapse of their political systems
o Colonialism was linked to the exploitation of resources and exploitation of labour

- Trade Imbalance
o Cash cropping – the farming of produce to export to wealthier countries. Leads to:
 Over exploitation of the land
 Vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters

- Transitional organisations

- Foreign debt

- The selling of military weaponry

 - Foreign aid

Development and Demographic Trends

Despite an overall decline in the rate of population growth, there still a number of countries with high birth
rates and this continues to result in increasing pressure on local resources, infrastructure and government
services. The governments lack the financial ability to spend the necessary funds on education and health
facilities

External Factors of Development

- History
o Colonising powers dictated trade
o Restricted ability to produce goods

- Debt burden
o Developing countries borrowed money at low interest rates in the past
o Interest rates rose deeming repayments unmanageable

- Trade Imbalances
o Poor countries export cheap raw materials and buy more expensive manufactured goods
o Therefore, they are making less than they are spending
o This results in a trade imbalance

- Transnational corporations
o Developing countries are an attractive base because of an abundant supply of cheap labour,
attractive industrial relations and environmental laws, cheaper land and availability of raw
materials.
o Goods are produced by people who cannot afford them and do not see any of the profit.

- Militarisation
o Following the military tradition of colonising powers many developing nations have created
a military for protection.
o This has used many resources ($) that could have been spent on repaying debt or meeting
the basic needs of the population

- Dependency of development assistance

o Aid is a by-product of decolonisation to stimulate economic growth in the poor world
o There are 3 main terms of aid donor:
 Bilateral: government to government
 Multilateral: usually in the form of loans multinational institutions, e.g. World Bank
 Nongovernmental aid: NGO’s give aid received mostly from public donation e.g.
World Vision, Austcare