Advanced Geographic Information

Systems
Module-4
Syllabus
UNIT IV
Spatial Data Analysis and Integration: Vector Data Analysis, Raster
Data Analysis, Network Analysis, Terrain analysis, spatial analysis of 3-
Dimensional data, Data integration and map overlay.
Data Visualization: GIS and Maps, Visualization process, mapping
qualitative and quantitative data, map / information dissemination.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
• Vector data analysis in GIS involves the exploration, manipulation, and
interpretation of geometric and attribute information associated with
vector-based spatial data.

• Vector data analysis allows users to derive meaningful insights, identify

patterns, make informed decisions, and answer spatial questions.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
1. Buffering 7. Spatial Query and Attribute Query
2. Overlay 8. Spatial Join
3. Distance Measurement 9. Spatial Statistics
4. Pattern Analysis 10. Geocoding
5. Map Manipulation 11. Density Analysis
6. Network Analysis
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
1. Buffering
• Creating an area around a feature, such as a river or a road. Buffers can be used to identify areas
that are within a certain distance of another feature, or to calculate the area of a buffer zone.

• The area that is within the specified distance is called the buffer zone

Applications of Buffering

• Buffering creates a buffer zone data set, which sets the buffering operation apart from the use
of proximity measures for spatial data query

• A city ordinance may stipulate that no liquor stores or pornographic shops shall be within 1000
feet of a school or a church
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
1. Buffering
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
1. Buffering: Single Buffer, Multiple Ring Buffer
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay
An overlay operation combines the geometries and attributes of two feature layers to
create the output.
The geometry of the output represents the geometric intersection of features from the
input layers, or a new layer that contains the features from both layers.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay Methods
• Overlay methods are based on the Boolean connectors AND, OR, and XOR
• An overlay operation is called intersect if it uses the AND connector
• An overlay operation is called union if it uses the OR connector
• An overlay operation that uses the XOR connector is called symmetrical difference or
difference.

A. Intersect overlay
Geometry: preserve the overlap areas. Features or portions of features
which overlap in all layers and/or feature classes will be written to the
Output Feature Class
Attributes: include standard attributes, plus attributes of both input layers.
Each resulting record will have values on all attribute.
INTERSECT
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay Methods

B. Union overlay
Geometry: keep both overlapping and non-overlapping areas.
Attributes: include standard attributes, plus attributes of both
input layers. Not every resulting record will have values on all
attribute.
UNION

C. Symmetrical Difference
Symmetrical Difference is opposite to Intersect in terms of the
output's area extent. Symmetrical Difference requires that both
input layers be polygon layers.

SYMMETRICAL DIFFERENCE
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay Methods
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
Overlay of vector data combine point, line, and polygon features.
In this data model operations rely on geometry and topology of surface.
Vector based overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive.
For example taking the ordering network layer of Ganga Watershed and laying over it
with the layer of village. The result would be which orders of stream of Ganga flow in
which village.
There are four overlay operators in common use:
A. Point-in-area (also known as point in polygon)
B. Line-in-area (also known as line in polygon)
C. Area-on-area (also known as polygon on polygon)
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
A. Point-in-polygon
Point in Polygon Overlay operation will also generate combinative properties of point attributes of
one layer and the polygon attribute of the analysis layer.
It is a spatial operation in which one point coverage is overlaid with polygon coverage to
determine which points falls within the polygon boundaries.
After overlay operation, points assume the attributes of the polygons within which they fall. It
helps in formulating hypothesis about the spatial relationships between the occurrence of points
and the attributes of the polygons.
This kind of overlay operation can also be used to calculate number of points located in each of
the polygon.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
A. Point-in-polygon
In the case of many points and many polygons the task is to assign points to polygons
What to do:
Use spatial Join to add polygon attributes to the points layers.
Good for:
You need point-in-polygon operation to tag the attributes of the point map layer with characteristics of the
polygons they are 'in'
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
B. Line in area Overlay operations
Line in area overlay operations need to check linear object or attribute which will combine or meagre with
area layer. It should be also topological correct. Suppose I have to know about which road is going in forest
are or non- forest. Simply I need to overlay the line layer on polygon remaining extracted layer will be
result.

Find out lines that are partially within polygons.

The task is to have a clear and precise separation
of what's inside and outside.
What to do:
Use Intersect operation.
Good for:
Finding out precisely what parts of the linear
features are falling within each areas.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
C. Polygon on polygon overlay operations
In the polygon overlay it is essential to add new intersections and create polygon for new topology.
The overlay of 2 layers of polygon will produce large number of polygons and increase the number of
intersections zone and arcs.
If the new polygon, arcs and set of nodes have been shaped then meaningful set of layer can be extracted.
It is necessary to keep in mind that area should be common to both input features. Polygon on polygon overlay
operations
For example, a farmer wants to know which part of field has loam soil for the cultivation of crops. The farmer will
overlay the map of loam soil polygons on field polygon to extract a feature that meets both criteria ‘loam soil and
in-field’ for the cultivation of crops. The variables is processed by the farmer, both are categorical or nominal data
type.
Mathematicians have developed set of algorithms, termed as Boolean operators for handling with this type of
data and GIS analysts exploit in area on area overlay analysis.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
C. Polygon on polygon overlay operations
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay operators
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
3. Distance Measurement
Distance measurement
refers to measuring
straight line (Euclidean)
distances between
features.
Measurements can be
made from points in a
layer to points in another
layer, or from each point
in a layer to its nearest
point or line in another
layer.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
4. Pattern analysis
Pattern analysis refers to the use of quantitative methods for describing and analysing the distribution
pattern of spatial features.
At the general level, a pattern analysis can reveal if a distribution pattern is random, dispersed, clustered or
uniform.
The three main ways to describe the spatial pattern of objects are:
Clustered: when objects exist in close proximity to one another
Dispersed: when objects are spread out from one another
Random: when objects exist in neither a clustered or dispersed pattern
Uniform: when objects are uniformly distributed (Equal distant)
At the local level, a pattern analysis can detect if a distribution pattern contains local clusters of high or low
values. Because pattern analysis can be a precursor to more formal and structured data analysis, some
researchers have included pattern analysis as a data exploration activity.
Clustered Dispersed Random Uniform
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
• Tools are available in a GIS package for manipulating and managing data/maps in a database.
• Like buffering and overlay, these tools are considered basic GIS tools often needed for data pre-
processing and data analysis.

Map manipulation tools in GIS

A. Dissolve
B. Clip
C. Append
D. Select
E. Eliminate
F. Update
G. Erase
H. Split
 VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
1. Dissolve aggregates features that have the same attribute
value or values.
• For example, we can aggregate roads by highway number or
counties by state.
• An important application of Dissolve is to simplify a classified
polygon layer. Classification groups values of a selected
attribute into classes and makes obsolete boundaries of
adjacent polygons, which have different values initially but are
now grouped into the same class.
• Dissolve can remove these unnecessary boundaries and creates
a new, simpler layer with the classification results as its
attribute values.
• Another application is to aggregate both spatial and attribute
data of the input layer. For instance, to dissolve a county layer,
we can choose state name as the attribute to dissolve and
county population to aggregate. The output is a state layer with
an attribute showing the state population (i.e., the sum of
county populations).
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
B. Clip creates a new layer that includes only those
features of the input layer that fall within the area
extent of the clip layer.
Clip is a useful tool. for example, for cutting a map
acquired elsewhere to fit a study area. The input may
be a point. line, or polygon layer. but the clip layer
must be a polygon layer.
 VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
C. Append creates a new layer by piecing together
two or more layers.
For example, Append can put together a layer from four
input layers, each corresponding to the area extent. The
output can then be used as a single layer for data query
or display. But the boundaries separating the inputs still
remain on the output and divide a feature into separate
features if the feature crosses the boundary. Append is
therefore different from edge-matching, which can
create a seamless layer.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation

D. Select creates a new layer that contains features

selected from a user-defined query expression.
For example, we can create a layer showing high-canopy
closure by selecting stands that have 60 to 80 percent
closure from a stand layer.
 VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
E. Eliminate creates a new layer by removing features that

meet a user-defined query expression.

For example, Eliminate can implement the minimum mapping unit
concept by removing polygons that are smaller than the defined unit
in a layer.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation

F. Update uses a "cut and paste" operation to replace

the input layer by the update layer and its features.

As the name suggests, Update is useful for updating an
existing layer with new features in limited areas. It is a
better option than re-digitizing the entire map.
 VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
G. Erase removes from the input layer those features that fall within the area extent of the

erase layer. Suppose a suitability analysis stipulates potential sites cannot be within 300 meters of
any stream. A stream buffer layer can be used in this case as the erase layer to remove itself from
further consideration.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
5. Map Manipulation
H. Split divides the input layer into two or more layers (Figure 12.28). A split layer, which

shows area subunits, is used as the template for dividing the input layer.
For example, a national forest can split a stand layer by district so that each district office can
have its own layer.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
6. Network Analysis
Network analysis focuses on analyzing the connectivity and relationships between
network elements, such as roads, pipelines, or transportation routes. It involves
finding the shortest path, calculating travel distances or times, identifying optimal
routes, and solving routing problems.
7. Spatial Query and Attribute Query
Spatial query is used to select features from a vector dataset based on their spatial
relationships with other features. Spatial queries can be performed to find features
within a specific area (e.g., points within a polygon), features that intersect or
overlap with other features, or features located within a certain distance from a
reference feature.
Attribute query involves selecting features based on their attribute values. It
allows users to filter and extract specific features or subsets of features that meet
certain criteria. For example, selecting all roads with a certain road class or all
buildings with a specific land use code.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
8. Spatial Join
Spatial join combines attribute information from two or more vector
datasets based on their spatial relationships. It allows users to transfer
attributes from one dataset to another based on their spatial coincidence.
For example, joining a population dataset to a set of administrative
boundaries to obtain population information for each administrative unit.
9. Spatial Statistics
Spatial statistics methods provide quantitative measures and analysis of
spatial patterns, distributions, and relationships within vector datasets.
Examples include clustering analysis, hot spot analysis, spatial
autocorrelation, and interpolation techniques.
VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS
10. Geocoding
Geocoding is the process of assigning geographic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) to addresses or place names.
It allows for the conversion of non-spatial data, such as a list of addresses,
into spatial data that can be mapped and analyzed.
11. Density Analysis
Density analysis calculates the concentration or density of features within a
specific area.
It is useful for identifying areas of high or low feature density, such as
population density, crime density, or vegetation density.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
Raster data analysis in GIS involves the manipulation, processing, and
interpretation of raster-based spatial data.
Raster data analysis enables users to extract information, derive insights, and
perform various analytical tasks.
Some common methods and techniques used in raster data analysis

1. Map Algebra 6. Classification and Reclassification

2. Overlay Analysis 7. Image Processing and Analysis
3. Neighbourhood Analysis 8. Statistical Analysis
4. Distance and Proximity Analysis 9. Time Series Analysis
5. Terrain Analysis
 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
1. Map Algebra
• Map algebra is a fundamental technique in raster data analysis that involves performing
mathematical operations on raster datasets.
• It allows users to combine, manipulate, and analyze multiple raster layers using
arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Map algebra can be used to create new derived layers, perform raster calculations, and
generate raster outputs based on user-defined expressions.
1. Operators:
• Boolean: AND, OR, XOR
• Relational: ET (=), LT (<), GT (>), LE (<=), GE (>=)
• Arithmetic: Addition (+), Subtraction (-), Multiplication (x),
Division (/)
2. Functions:
Mathematical, Logarithmic, Arithmetic, Trigonometric, Power
 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
2. Overlay Analysis
• Overlay analysis involves combining multiple
raster layers to create new outputs that
represent the intersection, union, difference, or
other combinations of the input layers.
• Overlay operations can be used to identify areas
of overlap, calculate land cover changes, perform
suitability analysis, or derive new raster layers
based on specific conditions.
• The values of these cells can be added,
subtracted, divided or multiplied, the maximum
value can be extracted, mean value calculated, a
logical expression computed and so on. The
output cell simply takes on a value equal to the
result of the calculation.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
3. Neighborhood Analysis
• Neighborhood analysis involves examining the characteristics of raster cells in relation
to their neighboring cells.
• It includes operations such as filtering, smoothing, focal statistics, and moving window
analysis.
• Neighborhood analysis is useful for tasks such as calculating average values, identifying
patterns, detecting anomalies, or performing edge detection.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
4. Distance and Proximity Analysis
• Distance and proximity analysis focus on measuring distances, creating buffers, and
determining proximity relationships between raster cells or features.
• It includes operations such as distance calculations, Euclidean distance, cost-distance
analysis, and proximity analysis using different distance metrics.
• Distance and proximity analysis are used for tasks such as finding the nearest features,
delineating catchment areas, or modeling accessibility.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
4. Distance and Proximity Analysis
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
5. Terrain Analysis
• Terrain analysis involves analyzing elevation and slope characteristics of raster data to
derive information about the topography and terrain features.
• It includes operations such as slope calculation, aspect calculation, hillshade generation,
viewshed analysis, and watershed delineation.
• Terrain analysis is valuable for tasks such as terrain visualization, site suitability analysis,
hydrological modeling, and viewshed analysis.
 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
5. Terrain Analysis
Derivatives:
• Contour: Contours are lines that connect locations
of equal value in a raster dataset that represents
continuous phenomena such as elevation,
temperature, precipitation, pollution, or
atmospheric pressure
• Slope: The Slope tool identifies the steepness at
each cell of a raster surface. The lower the slope
value, the flatter the terrain; the higher the slope
value, the steeper the terrain.
• Aspect: The compass direction that a topographic
slope faces, usually measured in degrees from
north.
 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS Hillshade

5. Terrain Analysis
Derivatives:
• Hillshade: The hillshade is a grayscale 3D
representation of the terrain surface, with the
sun's relative position considered for shading
the image. Hillshading is a technique for
visualizing terrain determined by a light source
and the slope and aspect of the elevation Viewshed
surface.
• Viewshed: Viewshed identifies the areas of a
surface that can be seen from one or more
observation points.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
6. Classification and Reclassification
• Classification and reclassification involve assigning categorical or thematic values to
raster cells based on certain criteria.
• It includes operations such as supervised or unsupervised classification, where a set of
training samples or statistical algorithms is used to assign class labels to raster cells.
 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
6. Classification and Reclassification
• Reclassification allows users to reassign or
reclassify the values of raster cells based on specific
thresholds or criteria.
Reason:
• Set specific values to exclude no data from analysis.
• Change values in response to new information or
classification schemes.
• To replace one set of values with an associated set
Example:
• To replace values representing soil types with pH
values.
• Assign values of preference, priority, sensitivity, or
similar criteria to a raster.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
7. Image Processing and Analysis
• Raster data analysis includes various techniques for image processing and
analysis, such as image enhancement, image differencing, image fusion,
image segmentation, and object-based image analysis.
• These techniques are used to extract information from remotely sensed
images, analyze changes over time, detect features, and perform image
interpretation tasks.
RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
8. Statistical Analysis
• Raster data analysis often involves statistical operations to derive meaningful insights
from raster datasets.
• Statistical analysis includes operations such as zonal statistics, point pattern analysis,
spatial autocorrelation, and interpolation techniques.
• These operations help quantify spatial patterns, calculate summary statistics, model
spatial relationships, and estimate values at unobserved locations.

Zonal statistics Point pattern analysis

RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
8. Statistical Analysis

Spatial autocorrelation Interpolation techniques

RASTER DATA ANALYSIS
9. Time Series Analysis
• Time series analysis focuses on analyzing and modeling changes and trends in raster data
over time.
• It includes techniques such as temporal aggregation, change detection, trend analysis,
and time series interpolation.
• Time series analysis is crucial for tasks such as monitoring environmental changes,
studying vegetation dynamics, or analyzing urban growth patterns.
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
 NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
• Network analysis in GIS involves the study and analysis of network systems, such as
transportation networks, utility networks, social networks, or any interconnected set of
nodes and edges.
• Network analysis enables users to understand network connectivity, assess network
performance, optimize routes, and solve various spatial problems.
Some key components and techniques used in network analysis

1. Network Data Model 6. Network Analysis for Facility Location

2. Network Creation and Maintenance 7. Network Allocation and Service Areas
3. Network Connectivity Analysis 8. Network Capacity and Flow Analysis
4. Route Optimization 9. Network Routing and Logistics
5. Network Traversal and Path Finding 10. Network Analysis for Emergency Response
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
1. Network Data Model
• Network analysis begins with the representation of the network in a GIS data model.
• The network data model consists of nodes, which represent points or locations in the
network, and edges (also called links or arcs), which represent the connections between
nodes.
• Attributes associated with nodes and edges can include information such as travel
times, distances, capacity, restrictions, or any other relevant network characteristics.
2. Network Creation and Maintenance
• Network data can be created manually by digitizing the network elements or by
importing existing network data from various sources such as GPS data, road databases,
or utility infrastructure records.
• It is important to regularly update and maintain the network data to reflect real-world
changes, such as road closures, new construction, or updates to transportation routes.
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
3. Network Connectivity Analysis
• Network connectivity analysis involves examining the connections between
network elements.
• It focuses on determining whether nodes and edges are connected properly and
whether the network forms a valid and functioning system.
• Connectivity analysis helps identify network gaps, missing connections, or
disconnected components that may hinder efficient network analysis.
4. Route Optimization
• Route optimization is a common application of network analysis, aiming to find
the most efficient or optimal path between two or more locations in the
network.
• This involves considering factors such as distance, travel time, traffic conditions,
or other constraints specified in the network data.
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
5. Network Traversal and Path Finding
• Network traversal refers to the process of moving along the network from
one node to another, following the edges.
• Path finding algorithms are used to determine the possible routes or paths
within the network.
• Traversal and path finding techniques are useful for analyzing connectivity,
identifying accessible areas, or simulating movement in a network.
6. Network Analysis for Facility Location
• Network analysis can be used to determine locations of facilities such as
distribution centers, retail stores, or service centers.
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
7. Network Allocation and Service Areas
• Network analysis can be used to allocate resources or analyze service areas in a
network.
• For example, it can determine the service areas covered by a set of facilities or assess
the accessibility of certain services to the population.
• This analysis helps in decision-making processes, such as optimizing service coverage or
identifying areas with limited access.
8. Network Capacity and Flow Analysis
• Network analysis enables the assessment of network capacity and flow
characteristics.
• It involves analyzing factors such as traffic volume, congestion, bottlenecks, or
flow patterns within the network.
• This information is valuable for transportation planning, infrastructure design, or
identifying areas requiring network improvements.
NETWORK ANALYSIS IN GIS
9. Network Routing and Logistics
• Network analysis plays a significant role in logistics and transportation
planning.
• It helps determine efficient routes for delivery vehicles, plan transportation
schedules, optimize supply chain management, or assess the impact of
new infrastructure projects on the network.
10. Network Analysis for Emergency Response
• During emergency situations, network analysis assists in planning
emergency response routes, optimizing evacuation plans, or identifying
critical facilities and their accessibility.
• It aids in making informed decisions for emergency preparedness and
response efforts.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
What is Network?

Network is “a set of linear features through which resources flow.”

“Nodes (the end points of lines) are used as origins and destinations”,
and “links (lines) traverse from one node to the other”.
What is Network Analysis?
Network analysis enables you to solve problems, such as finding the most efficient
travel route, generating travel directions, finding the closest facility, defining service
areas based on travel time.
Network is basically set of connected lines. These lines represent railways, streams,
roads, water supply pipelines, telecommunication lines etc. that normally need to be
analysed as a network.
Widely they are
» Transportation network
» Utility network
» Stream Network
Network classification based on route,

1. UNDIRECTED NETWORK
• Transportation network is undirected network
• User is free to take decision

2. DIRECTED NETWORK
• Utility network is directed network
• It is not allowed to take different path than selected path
MODELLING A NETWORK
• Data requirement for network analysis
1. Attribute data
2. Spatial data

• Network characteristics
1. Length
2. Direction
3. Connectivity
4. Pattern
MODEL OF ROAD NETWORK
Types of operations in network analysis
– Shortest path analysis
– Best route
– Closest facility
– Resource allocation
– OD-cost matrix
– Network partitioning
1. SHORTEST PATH ANALYSIS
Shortest path analysis finds the path with the minimum cumulative
impedance between nodes on a network. The path may connect just
two nodes an origin and a destination or have specific stops between
the nodes.
2. BEST ROUTE
• Best route can be the quickest, shortest, or most scenic route,
depending on the impedance chosen.

• Impedance includes- time, distance.

We use time as an impedance. The quickest path is shown distance is chosen as the impedance. Consequently, the
in blue and has a total length of 4.5 miles, which takes 8 length of the shortest path is 4.4 miles, which takes 9
minutes to traverse. minutes to traverse.
3. CLOSEST FACILITY

Closest facility finds the closest facility, such as a

hospital, fire station, or ATM, to any location on a
network
 4. ALLOCATION
• Allocation measures the efficiency of public facilities, such as fire
stations, or school resources, in terms of their service areas.

Service areas of two fire stations within a 2-minute

response time
5. OD-COST MATRIX
OD cost matrix is a table that contains the network impedance from
each origin to each destination.
6. NETWORK PARTITIONING-TRACE
Trace analysis is performed when we want to understand which part of
network is ‘conditionally connected’ to a chosen node on the network
,known as trace origin.
APPLICATION OF NETWORK ANALYSIS

• Routing

• Resource allocation

• Isochrones

• Travelling salesperson problem

1. ISOCHRONES
2. RESOURCE ALLOCATION
3. TRAVELLING SALESMAN PROBLEM
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
• Terrain analysis in GIS involves the study and interpretation of the physical
characteristics of the Earth's surface, such as elevation, slope, aspect, and curvature.
• Terrain analysis enables users to understand and analyze landforms, surface drainage
patterns, terrain ruggedness, and other topographic features.
• It plays a crucial role in various fields, including environmental management, hydrology,
urban planning, agriculture, and geology.
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
❖Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
• DEMs are a primary data source for
terrain analysis.
• They represent the elevation values
of the Earth's surface at regularly
spaced intervals and are typically
derived from remote sensing
technologies, such as LiDAR or
photogrammetry.
• DEMs provide the foundational data
for performing terrain analysis
tasks.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
❖Elevation Derivatives
• Elevation derivatives are derived terrain attributes calculated from the
DEM data.
• Some commonly used derivatives include slope, aspect, curvature,
hillshade, and ruggedness.
• These derivatives provide information about the shape, form, and
variability of the terrain.
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
❖Elevation Derivatives
A. Slope Analysis
• Slope analysis calculates the steepness of the terrain surface at each point.
• It is determined by the rate of change in elevation along a given direction.
• Slope analysis is useful for understanding surface drainage, identifying areas
prone to erosion or landslides, and determining the suitability of land for specific
purposes.
B. Aspect Analysis
• Aspect analysis determines the orientation or direction of the steepest slope at
each point on the terrain surface.
• It provides information about the direction in which a slope faces.
• Aspect analysis is relevant for understanding solar radiation patterns, vegetation
distribution, and hydrological processes.
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
Elevation Derivatives
C. Curvature Analysis
• Curvature analysis measures the rate of change in slope along the terrain surface.
• It helps identify areas of concave or convex curvature, which can be indicative of
landforms such as ridges, valleys, or depressions.
• Curvature analysis aids in terrain classification, landform identification, and
geomorphological studies.
D. Hillshade Analysis
• Hillshade analysis simulates the illumination of the terrain surface by a light source.
• It creates a shaded relief representation of the terrain, enhancing the visualization of
landforms and surface features.
• Hillshade analysis improves terrain interpretation and visualization.
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
Viewshed Analysis
• Viewshed analysis identifies areas that are visible or hidden from a specific
location or observer point.
• It considers terrain elevation, line-of-sight, and other factors to determine
visibility.
• Viewshed analysis is valuable for siting purposes, visual impact assessments, and
planning activities with visual considerations.
Watershed Analysis
• Watershed analysis involves delineating the drainage basins or catchment areas
for a given set of streams or river networks.
• It helps identify the flow patterns, drainage hierarchy, and water accumulation
areas within a given terrain.
• Watershed analysis is vital for hydrological modeling, flood management, and
water resource assessments.
TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN GIS
Terrain Classification
• Terrain classification involves categorizing the terrain into different classes or
categories based on specific attributes.
• For example, classifying terrain into flat areas, gentle slopes, steep slopes, or
different landform types.
• Terrain classification aids in land suitability assessments, land cover mapping,
and terrain characterization.
Profile and Cross-Section Analysis
• Profile and cross-section analysis involve examining the elevation profiles and
vertical cuts along specific lines.
• This analysis helps understand the terrain variations, identify geological features,
and assess the suitability of land for infrastructure development or engineering
projects.
 SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF
3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
• Spatial analysis of 3-dimensional data in GIS involves the analysis,
visualization, and interpretation of spatial data that includes a vertical or
elevation component.
• It allows users to explore and understand the relationships, patterns, and
characteristics of features in three-dimensional space.
1. 3D Visualization 6. 3D Geostatistics
2. Surface Analysis 7. 3D Geometric Analysis
3. Volumetric Analysis 8. 3D Point Cloud Analysis
4. 3D Interpolation 9. 3D Spatial Modeling
5. 3D Network Analysis
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
1. 3D Visualization
• The first step in analyzing 3-dimensional data is visualizing it in a three-
dimensional environment.
• GIS software provides tools for rendering and displaying three-dimensional data,
allowing users to view and explore the data from different perspectives.
• This helps in gaining a better understanding of the spatial relationships and the
vertical dimension of the features.
2. Surface Analysis
• Surface analysis involves the study of continuous surfaces derived from 3-
dimensional data, such as digital elevation models (DEMs).
• It includes operations such as slope analysis, aspect analysis, viewshed analysis,
and contour generation.
• Surface analysis helps in understanding the topography, identifying landforms,
and analyzing terrain characteristics.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
3. Volumetric Analysis
• Volumetric analysis is used to estimate and analyze the volume of three-dimensional
objects or features.
• It is particularly useful in applications such as stockpile measurement, cut and fill
analysis, or calculating the volume of water bodies.
• Volumetric analysis involves comparing surfaces or digital terrain models at different
time periods or under different scenarios to determine the change in volume.
4. 3D Interpolation
• 3D interpolation techniques are used to estimate values at unobserved locations within
a 3-dimensional space.
• These techniques, such as kriging, inverse distance weighting, or spline interpolation,
are employed to fill gaps in data or generate continuous surfaces.
• 3D interpolation is valuable for creating smooth surfaces, generating elevation models,
or estimating values in areas with limited data.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
5. 3D Network Analysis
• 3D network analysis involves analyzing networks or transportation systems that
incorporate vertical components, such as road networks, utility networks, or pipelines.
• It includes operations such as finding the shortest 3D route, calculating elevation-based
costs, or optimizing the placement of network elements in three-dimensional space.
• 3D network analysis helps in efficient route planning, infrastructure design, and
analyzing the impact of elevation on network performance.
6. 3D Geostatistics
• Geostatistical techniques can be extended to 3-dimensional data to analyze spatial
patterns, relationships, and variability within a three-dimensional space.
• It involves statistical methods such as variogram analysis, spatial autocorrelation, or
cluster analysis applied to three-dimensional datasets.
• 3D Geostatistics helps in identifying spatial trends, assessing spatial dependence, and
modeling spatial variability in three-dimensional space.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
7. 3D Geometric Analysis
• 3D geometric analysis focuses on analyzing the geometric properties and
relationships of three-dimensional objects or features.
• It includes operations such as buffering, proximity analysis, intersection analysis,
or visibility analysis.
• 3D geometric analysis aids in understanding spatial relationships, detecting
conflicts, and optimizing the placement of objects in three-dimensional space.
8. 3D Point Cloud Analysis
• Point cloud data obtained from technologies such as LiDAR or photogrammetry
can be analyzed in three-dimensional space.
• Point cloud analysis involves tasks such as classification, segmentation, feature
extraction, or change detection.
• It helps in identifying objects, analyzing vegetation structure, assessing building
characteristics, or monitoring changes over time.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF 3-DIMENSIONAL DATA
9. 3D Spatial Modeling
• 3D spatial modeling involves creating and analyzing three-dimensional
representations of objects or phenomena using GIS software.
• It includes techniques such as 3D modeling, solid modeling, or voxel-based
modeling.
• 3D spatial modeling allows for complex representations and simulations of
real-world objects or processes, aiding in visualization, analysis, and
decision-making.
DATA INTEGRATION AND MAP OVERLAY
DATA INTEGRATION AND MAP OVERLAY
Data integration and map overlay are fundamental processes in GIS that
involve combining and analyzing multiple layers of spatial data to derive new
information and insights.
These processes enable users to understand relationships, patterns, and
interactions between different datasets within a geographic context.
DATA INTEGRATION
Data Integration
• Data integration refers to the process of combining multiple datasets or
layers into a single, unified dataset.
• It involves merging or joining attribute data from different sources based
on common identifiers or spatial relationships.
• Data integration allows for the consolidation of various datasets with
complementary information, enabling comprehensive analysis and
decision-making.
• Common techniques used in data integration include attribute joining,
table merging, spatial joining, and database queries.
MAP OVERLAY
Map Overlay
• Map overlay is a technique used to visually combine multiple map layers to create a
composite map that incorporates information from each layer.
• It involves overlaying different map layers with the same spatial extent to identify
spatial relationships and patterns.
• Map overlay allows for the analysis of the coincidence, intersection, or proximity of
features across different datasets.
• The result is a new map layer that represents the combined information, often referred
to as a thematic map.

1. Point Overlay 4. Topological Overlay

2. Line Overlay 5. Attribute Overlay
3. Polygon Overlay 6. Raster Overlay
MAP OVERLAY
1. Point Overlay
• Point overlay involves combining point datasets to identify overlapping or
coincident points.
• It helps in identifying common features, spatial clusters, or density
patterns.
2. Line Overlay
• Line overlay combines line datasets to identify coincident or intersecting
line segments.
• It is useful for analyzing transportation networks, utility infrastructure, or
corridor analysis.
MAP OVERLAY
3. Polygon Overlay
• Polygon overlay combines polygon datasets to identify spatial relationships
such as containment, overlap, or intersection between polygons.
• It helps in analyzing land use, zoning, or administrative boundaries.
4. Topological Overlay
• Topological overlay involves maintaining the spatial integrity and
relationships between features during the overlay process.
• It ensures that the resulting map layers retain topological consistency, such
as preserving shared boundaries or avoiding gaps and overlaps.
MAP OVERLAY
5. Attribute Overlay
• Attribute overlay involves combining datasets based on common attribute
fields.
• It allows for the analysis of attribute relationships and can be used for
querying, filtering, or classifying data based on specific attribute criteria.
6. Raster Overlay
• Raster overlay combines raster datasets to create a composite raster layer.
• It involves performing mathematical operations (e.g., addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc.) on the pixel values of overlapping raster cells.
• Raster overlay is used for analyzing terrain characteristics, land cover
change, or suitability analysis.
DATA INTEGRATION AND MAP OVERLAY
Benefits and Applications
• Spatial analysis: Overlaying datasets helps identify spatial relationships, patterns, and hotspots,
enabling spatial analysis and modeling.
• Decision-making: Combined datasets provide comprehensive information for informed decision-making
in various fields such as urban planning, environmental management, and resource allocation.
• Data exploration: Overlaying datasets allows for exploration and visualization of complex spatial
relationships and interactions.
• Risk assessment: Overlaying datasets helps assess potential risks and vulnerabilities by analyzing the
coincidence of multiple risk factors.
• Suitability analysis: Overlaying different thematic layers allows for evaluating the suitability of areas for
specific activities or projects.
• Environmental impact assessment: Overlaying environmental data with project or development plans
helps assess the potential impact on natural resources, habitats, or sensitive areas.
DATA VISUALIZATION
DATA VISUALIZATION
• Data visualization plays a crucial role in GIS by transforming complex spatial
data into visually understandable and meaningful representations.
• Maps, as a primary form of data visualization in GIS, provide an intuitive
way to explore, analyze, and communicate geospatial information.

1. Map Creation 6. Animated and Temporal

2. Thematic Mapping Visualization
3. Cartographic Design 7. Geovisualization Techniques
4. Interactive Visualization 8. Data Dashboards
5. 3D Visualization
DATA VISUALIZATION
1. Map Creation
• GIS software allows users to create maps by combining various layers of spatial
data.
• Maps can be created for specific purposes such as thematic mapping, reference
mapping, or exploratory analysis.
• Users can customize map elements like symbols, colors, labels, and scales to
effectively represent the spatial information they want to convey.
2. Thematic Mapping
• Thematic maps are designed to represent specific attributes or themes
associated with spatial data.
• They use different visual variables such as colors, patterns, or sizes to depict the
distribution, variation, or intensity of a particular attribute.
• Thematic maps help reveal spatial patterns, trends, and relationships, making it
easier to interpret and analyze data.
DATA VISUALIZATION
3. Cartographic Design
• Cartographic design focuses on the aesthetic and effective representation of
spatial data on maps.
• It involves principles such as color theory, typography, visual hierarchy, and map
composition to create visually appealing and informative maps.
• Proper cartographic design ensures that maps are clear, legible, and convey the
intended message to the audience.
4. Interactive Visualization
• GIS software allows for interactive visualization, enabling users to dynamically
explore and interact with spatial data.
• Interactive maps offer features like zooming, panning, querying, and filtering,
empowering users to analyze data at different scales, extract specific
information, and gain insights through exploration and interaction.
DATA VISUALIZATION
5. 3D Visualization
• In addition to traditional 2D maps, GIS software supports 3D visualization, allowing
users to represent and analyze spatial data in three dimensions.
• 3D visualization enhances the understanding of terrain, buildings, and other vertical
components of the environment.
• It provides a more immersive and realistic representation of the geographic features
and their relationships.
6. Animated and Temporal Visualization
• GIS tools enable the creation of animated and temporal visualizations, which depict
changes in spatial data over time.
• Animated maps can show dynamic processes, such as the movement of objects or the
spread of phenomena, while temporal maps display temporal trends and patterns.
• These types of visualizations help in understanding temporal dynamics and analyzing
spatial-temporal relationships.
DATA VISUALIZATION
7. Geovisualization Techniques
• Geovisualization techniques leverage advanced visualization methods to
explore and analyze complex spatial patterns and relationships.
• Techniques like choropleth maps, heatmaps, scatter plots, flow maps, and
geospatial networks offer specialized ways to represent and analyze spatial
data, enabling deeper insights and discovery of hidden patterns.
8. Data Dashboards
• GIS platforms often provide capabilities to create interactive data
dashboards, which combine maps, charts, and other visual elements to
provide a comprehensive view of geospatial data.
• Dashboards allow for dynamic exploration, analysis, and presentation of
data in a visually appealing and user-friendly manner.
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
• Map and information dissemination refers to the process of sharing maps
and related spatial information with the intended audience or
stakeholders.
• It involves presenting geospatial data, analysis results, and other relevant
information in a way that is accessible, understandable, and meaningful to
the target users.
1. Audience Analysis 6. Metadata and Documentation
2. Clear Communication 7. Interactivity and Engagement
3. Appropriate Visualization Techniques 8. Targeted Dissemination Channels
4. Format and Medium 9. Feedback and Evaluation
5. Spatial Context 10. Regular Updates
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
1. Audience Analysis
• Understand the characteristics, needs, and preferences of the target audience. Consider
their level of expertise in GIS, their familiarity with maps, and their specific information
requirements.
• This analysis helps tailor the dissemination approach and choose suitable
communication methods.
2. Clear Communication
• Present the information in a clear and concise manner. Avoid technical jargon and use
plain language that is easily understood by the intended audience.
• Use appropriate visualizations, annotations, and legends to aid comprehension and
provide context.
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
3. Appropriate Visualization Techniques
• Select appropriate visualization techniques to effectively communicate the
information.
• This could include thematic maps, charts, infographics, or interactive
visualizations.
• Choose colors, symbols, and graphical elements that enhance understanding and
convey the desired message.
4. Format and Medium
• Determine the most suitable format and medium for disseminating the maps and
information.
• This can include printed maps, digital maps, online platforms, reports,
presentations, or interactive web applications.
• Consider the accessibility and preferences of the target audience when choosing
the medium.
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
5. Spatial Context
• Provide spatial context and reference points to help the audience understand the
geographic location and significance of the information being presented.
• Include a basemap, geographic boundaries, landmarks, or other spatial features
that aid in orientation and interpretation.
6. Metadata and Documentation
• Include metadata and documentation that provide additional information about
the maps and data being disseminated.
• This helps users understand the data sources, methodologies, limitations, and
any other relevant details.
• Clear documentation ensures transparency and helps users make informed
decisions based on the information provided.
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
7. Interactivity and Engagement
• Utilize interactive elements to engage the audience and allow them to
explore the maps and information more deeply.
• This can include zooming, panning, filtering, and querying capabilities.
Interactive maps and tools encourage active user engagement and facilitate
a better understanding of the spatial information.
8. Targeted Dissemination Channels
• Identify the most effective channels for reaching the target audience.
• This can include online platforms, social media, email newsletters,
community meetings, workshops, or conferences.
• Tailor the dissemination strategy to the specific needs and preferences of
the intended users.
MAP / INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
9. Feedback and Evaluation
• Encourage feedback and evaluation from the audience to assess the
effectiveness of the map and information dissemination.
• Gather user feedback, conduct surveys, or hold focus group discussions to
understand how well the information is received and how it can be improved.
10. Regular Updates
• Keep the maps and information up to date by regularly updating the data and
analysis results.
• This ensures that the audience receives the most current and relevant
information.
• Communicate any updates or changes to the audience to maintain their trust and
engagement.
MAPPING QUALITATIVE DATA
MAPPING QUALITATIVE DATA
• Mapping qualitative data involves representing non-numerical or subjective
information in a visual format, typically on a map.
• It allows for the exploration and analysis of qualitative information, such as
opinions, perceptions, narratives, and observations, in a spatial context.

Mapping qualitative data in GIS can be used to:

• Identify patterns and trends in the data
• Explore relationships between different data elements
• Understand the spatial distribution of phenomena
• Communicate the findings of qualitative research to a wider audience
MAPPING QUALITATIVE DATA
• Point mapping: Point mapping is used to represent qualitative data that is
associated with specific locations. For example, to represent the locations where
interviews were conducted, or the locations where participants observed
particular phenomena.
• Line mapping: Line mapping is used to represent qualitative data that is
associated with line features. For example, to represent the available routes or
efficient routes.
• Polygon mapping: Polygon mapping is used to represent qualitative data that is
associated with areas. For example, to represent the neighborhoods where
participants live, or the areas where particular phenomena are common.
• Symbol mapping: Symbol mapping is used to represent qualitative data using
different symbols. For example, to represent different types of interviews (e.g.,
individual interviews, focus group interviews), or different types of phenomena
(e.g., positive experiences, negative experiences).
MAPPING QUALITATIVE DATA
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
Mapping quantitative data in GIS involves various techniques to effectively
represent numerical values or quantitative attributes on a map.

1. Choropleth Maps 7. Flow Maps

2. Graduated Symbol Maps 8. Raster Maps
3. Dot Density Maps 9. 3D Maps and Visualizations
4. Isarithmic Maps (Contour Maps) 10.Time Series Maps
5. Heat Maps (Density Maps) 11.Spider Maps (Network Maps)
6. Cartograms 12.Bubble Maps
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
1. Choropleth Maps
• Choropleth maps use color
shading to represent different
levels of a quantitative attribute
within predefined geographic
areas, such as countries, states, or
administrative boundaries.
• Color gradients ranging from light
to dark are commonly used to
convey low to high values.
2. Graduated Symbol Maps
• Graduated symbol maps use
varying sizes of symbols, such as
circles or squares, to represent
different levels of a quantitative
attribute.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
3. Dot Density Maps
• Dot density maps use dots to represent a certain quantity of occurrences
or events within a given area.
• Dots are randomly placed within polygons, with each dot representing a
specific number of instances.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
4. Isarithmic Maps (Contour Maps)
• Isarithmic maps display lines
connecting points of equal value, such
as contour lines on a topographic map.
• They are useful for representing
continuous data like elevation or
temperature.
5. Heat Maps (Density Maps)
• Heat maps use colors to represent the
density or concentration of points or
events within an area.
• Warmer colors (e.g., red) indicate
higher densities, while cooler colors
(e.g., blue) indicate lower densities.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
6. Cartograms
• Cartograms distort the size or shape of
geographic areas to represent a
quantitative attribute.
• They can be used to emphasize data
values while maintaining a recognizable
geographic context.
7. Flow Maps
• Flow maps show the movement of
people, goods, or information between
locations.
• Line thickness or color intensity can
represent the volume or magnitude of
the flow.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
8. Raster Maps
• Raster maps use a grid of cells, where
each cell holds a value representing a
quantitative attribute.
• They are suitable for continuous data
and can be used for terrain analysis,
satellite imagery, and more.
9. 3D Maps and Visualizations
• 3D maps represent quantitative data in
three dimensions, allowing for
elevation-based visualization and
analysis.
• Techniques include extruded polygons,
elevation maps, and 3D visualization
tools.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
10. Time Series Maps
• Time series maps show changes in a
quantitative attribute over time.
• Animations or multiple map views
can be used to display temporal
trends.
11. Spider Maps (Network Maps)
• Spider maps display quantitative
data along network pathways, such
as transportation routes.
• Thickness or color of lines can
represent traffic volume or flow.
MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA
13. Bubble Maps
• Bubble maps use circular
symbols (bubbles) to represent
data values at specific
locations.
• The size of the bubble
corresponds to the data value.
THANK YOU