PD Increase damping, Amplify high

U(s) reduce overshoot frequency signals,

 K p 1 Td s (effect of D), tends give impulsive
E (s)
to increase output for step
 K p  Kd s stability input.
PID
U(s)  1 
 K p 1  Td s
E(s)  TI s 
2% Criterionv If the controller only I (instead of PI), the system will always be unstable
due to RHP poles.
Lower order approximation
5% Criterion Poles in the expanded form of C(s) (= G(s) R(s)) i.e. after partial fraction
expansion which have very small residue , contribute little to transient
response thus can be neglected.
The dominant closed loop poles: the closed loop poles nearest to jw-axis
(dominate the transient response) & become the most important among
other poles.

lim
e ss  e(t)  lim sE (s)
t 

DC gain = g(  ) in response to input

i.e. DC gain = , for unit step input.
lim 1
sG(s) 
s0 s
Error, e(t)= r(t) – c(t) TO FIND POLES AND ZEROS on RL
Steady State Error, lim lim CE: 1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0
e ss  e(t)  sE(s) remarks: two 2nd order system having same ? but different ? n will exhibit
t  s0
CE: 1 + K( N(s)/D(s) ) = 0
same overshoot and oscillatory pattern but different speed of response
Characteristic eqn, D(s) = 0 or 1+G(s)H(s)=0 ? = 1 (critically damped) has the fastest response.
let TF given by Performance characteristics of control system are given in terms of: (1) D(s) = 0: OL Poles where K = 0
K ( s  z1 )(s  z 2 )...( s  z m ) N ( s) N(s) = 0: OL Zeros where K = Infinity
G (s)   unit step response of 2 nd order, underdamped (2) transient response
( s  p1)( s  p 2)...( s  p n ) D ( s) Open Loop Poles (Start)
parameters
characteristic equation: D(s) = 0 these parameters are: If got complex = Have Angle of
The poles/zeros have to be in pair of they are complex poles/zeros. 1. delay time (td); time to reach half of steady state Departure
The poles  determine the stability of a system, the general nature of 2. rise time (tr) time to ‘cross’ 100% tr = (? -?)/ ? d Open Loop Zeros (End)
transient response and the shape of the dynamic response. 3. peak time (tp) time to reach 1 st peak of overshoot If got complex = Have Angle of
The zeros  determine the magnitude and sign of each transient mode, nd 4. max. overshoot (Mp) Arrival
2 order system
establish the shape of the transient and the steady statevalue of the output. most of the system modelled by Newton’s 2nd law belong to 2nd order 5. settling time (ts) = 4T (for 2%criterion) = 3T (5%criterion)
(1) stable system  TF with poles only in the LHP system 6. time constant T = 1/ ? – time constant of an underdamped 2 nd order
(2) unstable  TF with min. 1 pole in RHP and/or more than 1 pair TF is given: system. Angle of Departure
n
2
of poles on imaginary axis C ( s) Note: Mp and tr can’t be made small simultaneously ∑ 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 − ∑ 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 − 𝜶 = −𝝅

(3) marginally stable  the oscillation of the output continues forever R( s) s 2  2 n s   n 2 For rapid transient response, ? n must be large
subjected to I.C.  TF with only 1 pair of poles on imaginary axis The dynamic behavior of the 2nd order system described in terms of Angle of Arrival
To limit Mp and to make ts small, ? shouldn’t be too small.
(point O is marginally stable). ∑ 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 + 𝜶 − ∑ 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝝅
damping ratio (ζ) and undamped natural frequency (ωn) The steady state error component due to D(s)
The char. Equation’ roots are given by s     j
1.2 d n: Poles (X)
q = n-m where q = 0,1,2,3…
Cos θ = ζ ; where θ = angle of the roots of C.E. m: Zeros (O)
2nd order with step response (R(s) = 1/s)
1. undamped (ζ = 0) G1-controller, G2 – plant 1. Make K the subject from CE
marginally stable
- the response would be oscillatory and continue indefinitely Classification of control system  based on OPEN LOOP TF!! 2. Equate dk/ds = 0 to find
- system has complex conjugate poles that lie on Im-axis sN, type 0 if N=0, etc. max/min
abc formula s 1.2 =  b  b  4ac
2
- c(t) = 1- cos ωn t As the type number is increased, accuracy improve d yet stability worse. 3. Reject those “s” that are not in
2. underdamped (0<ζ<1) Type of controllers the Root Locus
2a
Methods of determining stability: 1. Routh Hurwitz (algebraic) 2. Root - the transient response is exponential decay oscillation P improve the output Too high will lead
- the system poles are complex and lie in LHP U(s) response (reduce to instability 4. < 0 (Max) & > 0 (Min)
Locus plot (graphical) 3. Nyquist diagram (gr aphical)  Kp
- E(s) rise time, reduce
e nt  1   2 
c (t )  1  sin   d t  tan 1 improve sensibility
steady state error)
1 2    5. Max = Break Out / Min = Break
  I Increase system More oscillatory,
3. critically damped, ζ = 1 In
U(s) K I type by 1. always unstable
- the system has 2 real poles at the same location on Re-axis (either  eliminate ess. due RHP poles.
LHP or RHP) E(s) s
- c(t) = 1 – e-ωn t (1+ ωn t)
Phase D reduce the
4. overdamped, ζ >1
Magnitude U(s) overshoot &
- the system has 2 real and unequal (distinct) poles  Kd s damping the
For Rotational - can be approximated by neglecting the furthest poles from Im-axis E(s)
ocillatory effect
- c(t ) 1  exp(  2  1   ) n t ) (approx.)
PI ess can be large u(t) causes
U(s)  1  eliminated overshoot (effect
 K p 1  of I)
E (s)  TI s 
Ra = armature resistance; La = armature inductance PD
Ia = armature current; If = field current
ea = applied armature volt; eb = back emf
7. find Kc = (substitute s= so) First Order Pole [a/(s+a)] && Zero [(s+a)/a] Step 2a: Lag compensator (dynamic)
1 1 Why? We want to keep transient response (achieve desired γ and wpm) 5. find Gc dB at фm, given by Gc dB =  20 log  dB
G ( s ) ( s  zc) Corner Freq = 0.1a, a, 10a Format: Gc(s) = 1 s  zc where zc > pc 6. find for the compensated system G1, G1 dB = - Gc dB  look for
Lead compensator design corresponding w (w= ωm), the frequency where фm occurs.
By equal angle contribution from zero&pole
 s  pc
1. listed all the design & initial specifications 7. find zc & pc from: zc = α(pc) and  m  zc  pc
1.form: Gc(s) = Kc (s + zc)/ (s+pc) with zc<pc and desired s 0 0
2. assume Gc = -5 till –12 degree (typical –6o)
2.put open loop poles of G(s) a nd s0 at s-plane.
3. calculate the the phase of compensated system (G1)
3. find angle contribution of Gc(s) (which is zc - pc)
1st Order Pole G1 = γ2 –180 + Gc
4. could simply choose zc (near origin) or Ogata’s way
4. choose appropriate γ2, (from required design)
5. connect so to origin  make line parallel to Re-axis crossing so 
bisect the angle of origin -so-infinity 5. with G1, find from graph, w = new phase margin freq, wpm
10a 6. with w= wpm, look G dB on graph  δG(w) = 20 log β
6. find zc & pc by draw ½ Gc(s) to the left and right of bisecting line. 1st Order Zeros = Opposite (dB & Phase) 7. let zc = 0.1 w, find pc and β
(use trigonometry)
Step 2b: Lead compensator (dynamic)
Why? We want to speed up the transient response (also get desired γ and
wpm)
Format: Gc(s) = 1 s  zc where zc < pc
 s  pc
1. listed all the design & initial specifications
2. assume Gc = +5 till +12 degree (typical 10o)
3. calculate the max phase
фm = γ2- γ1 + Gc (γ2 and γ1 are given/specified)
4. calculate α, 1  sin  m or 1
2nd Order Pole (Form)  sin  m 
1  sin  m 1
2nd Order Zeros =
Opposite (dB & Phase
& G(s)) PD Controller

How to draw! (dB)

1.s=j𝜔 & 𝜔 very small
2.G(s)= x/𝜔
3.20log| x/𝜔 |(starting
straight line towards ‘a’)
dB Scale 4. s=j𝜔 & 𝜔 very big Desired Pole
5. G(s)= x/𝜔 S = -8 (+/-)11j
6.20log| x/𝜔 |= X - 40log 𝜔
(depends on pole or zeros =
slope after ‘a’)
16. U(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≥ 0 ->
7.2nd Order Form
( ( ))
8. 𝑒 17. 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≥ 0 -> 𝑒
( ) ( )
9.When 𝜔 = 𝜔
Phase Scale 10.Sub-in to 2 and find 18. 𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) -> (−1) 𝐹 𝑠
magnitude (= X)
11.20log|X| (peak due to 19. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑡) -> 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑎
damping ratio zeta)
20. 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) -> 𝑒 𝐹 𝑠

21. (f(t)) -> s𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0

22. (f(t)) -> 𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑓 0 − 𝑓 0

Use CE to determine K & Pc Sub in Gc & desired pole value

Integrator [start at 20lg(w)]
Find K and Pc (Real & Im part)

Lag Compensator

2nd Order Pole (-40dB/dec)

2nd Order Zero (+40dB/dec)