Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Inverse Functions and Logarithms

Inverse Functions

Definition 1
A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same
value twice; that is,

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 1 / 79

 ▲ In the language of inputs and outputs,
Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions 1 Definition
this definition says that f is one-to- one if the same val
each output corresponds to only one
If a horizontal line intersects the graph of f in more than one point, then
input.
we see from Figure that there are numbers x1 and x2 such that
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). This means that f is not one-to-one.

y If a horizont
from Figure 2 t
that f is not one
y=ƒ mining whether
fl ‡
Horizontal Line
intersects its
0 ⁄ ¤ x

FIGURE 2 EXAMPLE 1 Is th
This function is not one-to-one
MAT 1001 Calculus I
SOLUTION 1 If2 / x791
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Therefore, we have the following geometric method for determining

whether a function is one-to-one.

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its
graph more than once.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 3 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Example 2
Is the function f (x) = x3 one-to-one?

Solution 1.
If x1 6= x2 , then x31 6= x32 (two diferent numbers can’t have the same
cube). Therefore, by definition, f (x) = x3 is one-to-one.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 4 / 79

 0
Inverse Functions and Logarithms ⁄ ¤ x
Inverse Functions

Solution 2. FIGURE 2 EXAMPLE 1

Thisno
From Figure we see that function is not
horizontal line one-to-one
intersects the graph of
3 SOLUTION 1
f (x) = x more thanbecause
once. Therefore,
f(⁄)=f(¤).by the Horizontal Line Test, f is
one-to-one. cube). Th
y SOLUTION 2
y=˛ f 共x兲 苷 x

0 x EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION 1

FIGURE 3 and so 1
MAT 1001 ƒ=˛ is one-to-one.
Calculus I 5 / 79
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Example 3
Is the function g(x) = x2 one-to-one?

Solution 1.
This function is not one-to-one because, for instance,

g(1) = 1 = g(−1)

and so 1 and −1 have the same output.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 6 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Solution 2.
FIGURE 3
From Figure we see that there are horizontal lines that intersect the and
graphso
ƒ=˛ is one-to-one.
of g more than once. Therefore, by the Horizontal Line Test, g is not
one-to-one. SOLUTION
y
graph o
y=≈ one.
One
possess

0 x 2
The
FIGURE 4
MAT 1001 Calculus I 7 / 79
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Definition 4
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.
Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined
by
f −1 (y) = x ⇔ f (x) = y
for any y in B.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 8 / 79

Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

66 ■
domain CHAPTER
of 1 FUNCTIONS
f −1 = range of f AND M
−1
range of f = domain of f .

x
A
f f –!

B
y

FIGURE 5
MAT 1001 Calculus I 9 / 79
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

For example, the inverse function of f (x) = x3 is f −1 (x) = x1/3 because

if y = x3 , then
f −1 (y) = f −1 (x3 ) = (x3 )1/3 = x

CAUTION:
Do not mistake the −1 in f −1 for an exponent. Thus f −1 does not mean
1/f .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 10 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

The letter x is traditionally used as the independent variable, so when we

concentrate on f −1 rather than on f , we usually reverse the roles of x and
y and write
f −1 (x) = y ⇔ f (y) = x. (1)
By substituting for y in Definition and substituting for x in (1), we get the
following cancellation equations:

f −1 (f (x)) = x x∈A
f (f −1 (x)) = x x ∈ B.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 11 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

How to Find the Inverse Function of a One-to-One Function

1 Write y = f (x).
2 Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible).
3 To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y. The resulting
equation is y = f −1 (x).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 12 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Example 5
Find the inverse function of f (x) = x3 + 2.

Solution.
According to steps in previous slide, we first write

y = x3 + 2

Then we solve this equation for x:

x3 = y − 2
p
x= 3 y−2

Finally, we interchange x and y:

√
3
y= x − 2.
√
Therefore, the inverse function is f −1 (x) = 3
x − 2.
MAT 1001 Calculus I 13 / 79
8 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS
Inverse Functions and Logarithms AND MODELS Inverse Functions

if f ⫺1共b兲 苷 a, the point 共a, b兲 is on the

⫺1
The principle of interchanging x andthe graph
y to find of
thef inverse
. Butfunction
we get also
the point
y 苷 x . (See Figure
−1 8.)
gives us the method for obtaining the graph of f from the graph of f .
y
(b, a)
Since f (a) = b if and only if
f −1 (b) = a, the point (a, b) is
on the graph of f if and only if
the point (b, a) is on the graph (a, b)
of f −1 . But we get the point 0
(b, a) from by reflecting about x
the line y = x.
y=x

FIGURE 8

MAT 1001 Therefore, as illustrated by Figure

Calculus I 14 / 799:
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line

y = x.

0
x

MAT 1001 Calculus I 15 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line

y = x.

0
x

MAT 1001 Calculus I 15 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line

y = x.

0
x

MAT 1001 Calculus I 15 / 79

 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Example 6
√ 0
Sketch the graphs of f (x) = −1 − x and its inverse function using the
same coordinate axes.
y=x
Solution.
√
First we sketch the curve y = −1 − x (the top half of the parabola
FIGURE 8
y 2 = −1 − x, , or x = −y 2 − 1) and then we reflect about the line y = x
−1
to get the graph of f . Therefore, as illustrate

y
y=ƒ The graph of f ⫺1 is ob
y=x

0 EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the gra

(_1, 0) x same coordinate axes.
(0, _1)
SOLUTION First we sketch th
y=f –!(x) y 2 苷 ⫺1 ⫺ x, or x 苷 ⫺y
graph of f ⫺1. (See Figure
for f ⫺1 is f ⫺1共x兲 苷 ⫺x 2 ⫺
MAT 1001 FIGURE 10 Calculus I parabola y 苷 ⫺x 2 ⫺ 16 /179an
 Inverse Functions and Logarithms Inverse Functions

Solution (cont.)
As a check on our graph, notice that the expression for f −1 isFIGURE 8
f −1 (x) = −x2 − 1, x > 0. So the graph of f −1 is the right half of the
Therefore
parabola y = −x2 − 1 and this seems reasonable from Figure.
y
y=ƒ The graph
y=x

0 EXAMPLE 5 S
(_1, 0) x same coordin
(0, _1)
SOLUTION First
y=f –!(x) y 2 苷 ⫺1 ⫺
graph of f ⫺1
for f ⫺1 is f ⫺
MAT 1001 FIGURE 10 Calculus I parabola17y/ 79苷
 Trigonometry Angles

Trigonometry
Angles

Angles can be measured in degrees or in radians (abbreviated as rad). The

angle given by a complete revolution contains 360◦ , which is the same as
2π rad. Therefore
π rad = 180◦ (2)
and  ◦
180 π
1 rad = ≈ 57.3◦ 1◦ = rad ≈ 0.017 rad (3)
π 180

MAT 1001 Calculus I 18 / 79

 Trigonometry Angles

Example 7
(a) Find the radian measure of 60◦ .
(b) Express 5π/4 rad in degrees.

Solution.
(a) From Equation (2) or (3) we see that to convert from degrees to
radians we multiply by π/180. Therefore
 π  π
60◦ = 60 = rad
180 3
(b) To convert from radians to degrees we multiply by 180/π. Thus
 
5π 5π 180
rad = = 225◦
4 4 π

MAT 1001 Calculus I 19 / 79

 Trigonometry Angles

In calculus we use radians to measure angles except when otherwise

indicated. The following table gives the correspondence between degree
and radian measures of some common angles.

Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦

π π π π 2π 3π
Radians 0 6 4 3 2 3 4

Degrees 150◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦

5π 3π
Radians 6 π 2 2π

MAT 1001 Calculus I 20 / 79

angle of(b)3With
兾8 rad?
3 cm and 
3兾8 rad, the arc length is
r Trigonometry Angles

SOLUTION
The standard
(a) Using
origin of aEquation
position ofa
anrangle
a
6 and
3 withsystem
coordinate and rits
冉 冊
3

3 occurs

9when we place its vertex at the

initial
8
cm
5, we8see
sidethat
onthe theangle is
positive x−axis as
in FigureThe1.standard position of an angle occurs when we place its vertex at the origin of


1.2 rad 6
5 the positive x-axis as in Figure 3.
a coordinate system and its initial side on
Figure 1: θ > 0
(b) With r
3 cm yand 
3兾8 rad, the arc
A length
y is
positive angle is obtained

冉 冊
initial side
3by rotating
9 the initial side
a
r
3
0 cm
counterclockwise x
8 terminal sideuntil it coin-
¨
terminal 8
side
¨ initial side cides with the terminal side.
The standard position
0 of an angle
x occurs when we place its vertex at the origin of
a coordinate system and its initial side on the positive x-axis as in Figure 3.
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 Figure 2: θ < 0
¨ ˘0 ¨<0
y y
Likewise, negative angles are ob- initial side
byA clockwise
positive angle is obtained by rotating the initial side counterclockwise until it
tainedcoincides rotation as in Fig-
with the terminal side. Likewise, negative angles are obtained by clockwise
ure 2. rotation as in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows several examples of 0angles x
¨ in standard posi-
terminal
tion. Notice that different angles can have the same terminal side.terminal
For instance,
side the
side angles 3兾4, 5¨ 兾4initial 兾4 have the same initial and terminal sides because
side
, and 11

0 3 x 5 3 11
MAT 1001  2
 Calculus I  2
21 / 79
gles
an have
can the
havesame
the same
terminal
Trigonometry terminal
side. For
side.instance,
For instance,
the
Angles the
兾4 the
ave havesame
the same
initialinitial
and terminal
and terminal
sides sides
because
because
and
and
Figure shows several 22
2rad
andexamples rad
radrepresents
represents
ofrepresents aaacomplete
complete
complete
angles in standard revolution.
position.revolution.
revolution.
Notice that
different angles can have the same terminal side.
5 5yyy 3 3 11yyy 11

  2
2
yyy
4 4 4 4 4 4 3π
3π
3π
¨=
¨=
¨=444
¨=1
¨=1
¨=1
evolution.000
lete revolution. xxx 000 xxx 000 xxx
πππ
¨=_
¨=_
¨=_222
on
ion
tion
y y y y y
¨= 4 ¨=
3π 3π ¨=11π
4
¨=11π
4
4
0 0
0 x x x x 0 0 x x
5π 5π
¨=_ ¨=_
4 4

MAT 1001 Calculus I 22 / 79

 Trigonometry Angles

For instance, the angles 3π/4, −5π/4, and 11π/4 have the same initial
and terminal sides because
3π 5π 3π 11π
− 2π = − + 2π =
4 4 4 4
and 2π rad represents a complete revolution.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 23 / 79

 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

The Trigonometric Functions

A20 ■ APPENDIX C TRIGONOMETRY

For an acute angle θ the six trigonometric functions are defined as ratios
of lengths of sides of a right triangle as follows
The Trigonometric Functions
opposite hypotenuse
csc θ =the six trigonometric
sin θ = For an acute angle
hypotenuse hypotenuse opposite
opposite sides of
adjacent a right triangle as follows (see Fi
hypotenuse
cos θ = sec θ = (4)
¨ hypotenuse adjacent
opposite adjacent opp
adjacent
tan θ = 4 cot θ = sin 

adjacent opposite hyp
FIGURE 6
adj
cos 

hyp

opp
MAT 1001 Calculus I
tan 
24 / 79
 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

This defi
 ain standar
This definition does not apply to obtuse or negative angles, so for
general angle θ in standard position we let P (x, y) be any point ronbethe
the dis
terminal side of θ and we let r be the distance |OP | as in Figure.

y 5
P (x, y)

r
¨

O x

FIGURE 7

Since div
csc  and c
MAT 1001 Calculus I 25 / 79
 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

Then we define
y
y x y P (x, y)
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
r r x
(5) r
r r x ¨
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
y x y
O x

Since division by 0 is not defined, tan θ and sec θFIGURE

are undefined
7 when
x = 0 and csc θ and cot θ are undefined when y = 0. Notice that the
definitions in (4) and (5) are consistent when θ is an acute angle.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 26 / 79

 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

SOLUTION F
Example 8 tan ¨>0 cos ¨>0 P(1, s3
Find the exact trigonometric ratios for θ = 2π/3.
FIGURE 9
Solution.
y in the defi
P {_1, œ„
3}

2
3
œ„
2π
π 3
3
1 0 x

The fo
FIGURE 10
MAT 1001 Calculus I Example
27 / 79
 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

Solution (cont.)
From Figure
√ we see that a point on the terminal line for θ = 2π/3 is
P (−1, 3). Therefore, taking
√
x = −1 y = 3 r = 2

in the definitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have

√
2π 3 2π 1 2π √
sin = cos =− tan =− 3
3 2 3 2 3
2π 2 2π 2π 1
csc =√ sec = −2 cot = −√
3 3 3 3 3

MAT 1001 Calculus I 28 / 79

 Trigonometry The Trigonometric Functions

Note
If θ is a number, the convention is that sin θ means the sine of the angle
whose radian measure is θ.
For example, the expression sin 3 implies that we are dealing with an angle
of 3 rad. When finding a calculator approximation to this number we must
remember to set our calculator in radian mode, and then we obtain

sin 3 ≈ 0.14112

If we want to know the sine of the angle 3◦ we would write sin 3◦ and,
with our calculator in degree mode, we find that

sin 3◦ ≈ 0.05234

MAT 1001 Calculus I 29 / 79

 sin
cos
 tan
s3
3
Trigonometry 2 3 2 3
The Trigonometric Functions

2 2 2 2 1
csc
sec
2 cot

3 s3 3 3 s3
x

The following table gives some values of sin  and cos  found by the method of
The following
Example 3.
table gives some values of sin θ and cos θ.

    2 3 5 3
 0  2
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2

1 1 s3 s3 1 1
sin  0 1 0 1 0
2 s2 2 2 s2 2

s3 1 1 1 1 s3
cos  1 0    1 0 1
2 s2 2 2 s2 2

EXAMPLE 4 If cos 
and 0

兾2, find the other five trigonometric func-
2
5
tions of .
SOLUTION Since cos 
5 , we can label the hypotenuse as having length 5 and the
2

adjacent side as having length 2 in Figure 11. If the opposite side has length x, then
the Pythagorean Theorem gives x 2  4
25 and so x 2
21, or x
s21. We can
now use the diagram to write the other five trigonometric functions:
MAT 1001 Calculus I 30 / 79
 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity is a relationship among the trigonometric

functions. The most elementary are the following, which are immediate
consequences of the definitions of the trigonometric functions.
1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

MAT 1001 Calculus I 31 / 79

 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

sin(−θ) = − sin θ

cos(−θ) = cos θ

sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ

MAT 1001 Calculus I 32 / 79

 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

The remaining trigonometric identities are all consequences of two basic

identities called the addition formulas:

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 33 / 79

 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β

MAT 1001 Calculus I 34 / 79

 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α

cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1

cos2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α

1 + cos 2α
cos2 α =
2
1 − cos 2α
sin2 α =
2

MAT 1001 Calculus I 35 / 79

 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities

Example 9
Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] such that sin x = sin 2x

Solution.
Using the double-angle formula, we rewrite the given equation as

sin x = 2 sin x cos x or sin x(1 − 2 cos x) = 0

Therefore, there are two possibilities:

sin x = 0 or 1 − 2 cos x = 0
1 π 5π
x = 0, π, 2π or cos x = ⇒x= ,
2 3 3
The given equation has five solutions: x = 0, π, 2π, π3 , 5π
3 .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 36 / 79

 Trigonometry Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

The graph of the function f (x) = sin x is obtained by plotting points for
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π and then using the periodic nature of the function to complete
the graph. Notice that the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer
multiples of π, that is,

sin x = 0 whenever x = nπ, n an integer

Because of the identity

 π
cos x = sin x +
2
the graph of cosine is obtained by shifting the graph of sine by an amount
π/2 to the left. Note that for both the sine and cosine functions the
domain is −∞, ∞ and the range is the closed interval [−1, 1] . Thus, for
all values of x, we have

−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1.
MAT 1001 Calculus I 37 / 79
 the domain is 共, 兲 andGraphs
ine functions Trigonometry theof therange is the closed
Trigonometric Functions

s, for all values of x, we y have

π 1 3π
_
2 2
1  sin x  1 0
1π  cos x  1 x
_π π 2π 5π 3π
_1 2 2

y
1 (a) ƒ=sin x
_π π 3π
FIGURE 13
π 0 π 3π 2π 5π x
_
2 _1 2 2 2
The graphs of the re
and their domains are i
(b) ©=cos x 共, 兲are
The graphs of the remaining four trigonometric functions , whereas
shown in cosec
following figures: tions are periodic: tange
MAT 1001 Calculus I have period 2. 38 / 79
 Trigonometry Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

1
_π 0
π π π 3π x _π
_ _
2 _1 2 2

(a) y=tan x
Figure 3: y = tan x
y

MAT 1001 Calculus I 39 / 79

 Trigonometry Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

3π x _π π 0 π π 3π x
_
2 2 2 2

(b) y=cot x
Figure 4: y = cot x
y

MAT 1001 Calculus I 40 / 79

 Trigonometry Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
(a) y=tan x
y

y=sin x

_
π 1 3π
2 0 2 _π _
π π x
_1 2

FIGURE 14 (c) y=csc x

Figure 5: y = csc x

MAT 1001 Inverse Trigonometric

Calculus I Functions 41 / 79
 Trigonometry Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
(b) y=cot x
y

sin x y=cos x
1
π π 3π
2 _π _
2 0 2
x π π x
_1 2

(d) y=sec x
Figure 6: y = sec x

tric Functions
MAT 1001 Calculus I 42 / 79
 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we have a slight

difficulty.
Because the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they don’t have
inverse functions.
The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains of these functions so
that they become one-to-one.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 43 / 79

 Trigonometry they become one-to-one.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

You can see from Figure 15 th

the Horizontal Line Test). But
Figure 16), is one-to-one. The inv
You can see from Figure that the sine function
and isy denoted
= sin(x)by sin 1 or arcsin.
is not
one-to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test).function.
y
y=sin x

_π 0 π π x
2

FIGURE 15

Since the definition of an inve

f 1共x
MAT 1001 Calculus I 44 / 79
1 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions
or arcsin. It is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine
But the function f (x) = sin(x), −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, is one-to-one.

_ π2

x 0 π x
2

FIGURE 16 Figure 7:

n of an inverse function says that

The inverse function of this restricted sine function f exists and is denoted
by sin−1 1or arcsin.
f 共x兲
y &? f 共y兲
x
It is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine function.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 45 / 79

 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Since the definition of an inverse function says that

f −1 (x) = y ⇔ f (y) = x

we have

sin−1 (x) = y ⇔ sin(y) = x and − π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2

Thus, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, sin−1 x is the number between −π/2 and π/2 whose

sine is x.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 46 / 79

 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions
A26 ■ APPENDIX C TRIGONOMETRY

Example 10 we have

Evaluate (a) sin−1 (1/2) and (b) tan(arcsin(1/3)).  

sin1x
y &? sin y
x and  y
2 2

Solution. | sin 1x 

1
Thus, if 1  x  1, sin 1x is the number between 兾2 and 兾2 whose
sin x
(a) Since sin(π/6) = 1/2, and EXAMPLE
π/6 is7 Evaluate
in between −π/2 and π/2, we have
(a) sin ( ) and (b) tan(arcsin ).
1 1 1
2 3

SOLUTION
−1have π
sin
(a) We (1/2) = .
6 
sin1( 12)

6
Let θsin共
because =兾6兲
arcsin(1/3). Thenwe

12 and 兾6 lies between can
兾2 and 兾2.draw
3
a right
(b) triangle
Let 
arcsin 3 . Then with
1
angle
we can draw a rightθtriangle
as in withFig-
angle  as in
and deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem that the third side has length
(b) 1
ure and deduce from the Pythagorean
s9  1
2s2. This enables us to read from the triangle that
¨
2 œ„
2
Theorem
√ that
√ the third side has1 length
tan(arcsin )
tan 
1

FIGURE 17
9 − 1 = 2 2. 2 s2 3

This enables us to read fromThe

thecancellation
triangle that
equations for inverse functions [see (1.6.4)] become, i

1 1
 
tan(arcsin(1/3)) = tan θsin= 共sin√x兲
. x for 
2
x
2
2 2
sin共sin1x兲
x for 1  x  1
MAT 1001 Calculus I 47 / 79
 The inverse sine function,
Trigonometry
sin , has domain 关
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
graph, shown in Figure 18, is obtained from tha
The inverse sine function, sin−1 , has domain [−1, 1] and range
ure 16)
[−π/2, π/2], and its graph, by in
shown reflection
Figure 8, about
is obtainedthe line
fromythat
xof. the
restricted sine function (Figure 7) by reflection about the line y = x.

π
2

_1 0 1 x _ π2

_ π2

Figure 8:

MAT 1001 FIGURE 18 Calculus

y=sin–! I x FIGURE 4819
/ 79 y
 1
, has domain 关1, 1兴 and range
ine function, sinTrigonometry 关
Inverse 兾2, Functions
Trigonometric 兾2兴, and its
inThe
Figure 18, is
tangent obtained
function canfrom that one-to-one
be made of the restricted sine function
by restricting (Fig-
it to the
flection about
interval line y
x.
the π/2).
(−π/2,
y

0 1 x _ π2 0 π x
2

_ π2

=sin–! x y=tan9:x, _ π2 <x<π2

FIGURE 19 Figure
MAT 1001 Calculus I 49 / 79
 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Thus, the inverse tangent function is defined as the inverse of the

function f (x) = tan(x), π/2 < x < π/2. (See Figure 9) It is denoted by
tan−1 or arctan.

tan−1 (x) = y ⇔ tan(y) = x and − π/2 < y < π/2

MAT 1001 Calculus I 50 / 79

 Trigonometry y Inverse Trigonometric Functions
SOLUTION 2 Ins
1 easier to use
The inverse tangent function, tan−1 = arctan, has domain R ure
and 20
its (whic
FIGURE 20
range is (−π/2, π/2). Its graph is shown in Figure.

y
π
2

0 The inver
x 共兾2, 兾2兲
vertical asym
ing the graph
_ π2 lines y
兾
Of the six
FIGURE 21 most useful f
y=tan–! x=arctan x Exercise 46.
MAT 1001 Calculus I 51 / 79
 Trigonometry Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 11
Simplify the expression cos(tan−1 x).

Solution.
Let y = tan−1 x. Then tan y = x and −π/2 < y < π/2. We want to find
cos y but, since tan y is known, it is easier to find sec y first:

sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y = 1 + x2
p
sec y = 1 + x2 (Since sec y > 0 for − π/2 < y < π/2)

Thus
1 1
cos(tan−1 x) = cos y = =√ .
sec y 1 + x2

MAT 1001 Calculus I 52 / 79

 Exponential Functions

Exponential Functions

The function f (x) = 2x is called an exponential function because the

variable, x, is the exponent.

It should not be confused with the power function g(x) = x2 , in which the
variable is the base.

In general, an exponential function is a function of the form

f (x) = ax

where a is a positive constant.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 53 / 79

 Exponential Functions
Exponential Functions

e are the functions of the form f 共x兲 苷 a x, where the base a is a positive cons
of y 苷 of
The graphs
graphs = 2yx 苷
2 xyand 共0.5兲
and y =x are x are shown in Figure below. In both
(0.5)shown in Figure 20. In both cases the do
⫺⬁,cases
⬁兲 and
thethe
domain 共0, ⬁兲
rangeisis(−∞, ∞)
. and the range is (0, ∞).
y y

1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x

(a) y=2® (b) y=(0.5)®

xponential functions will be studied in detail in Section 1.5 and we will see
are useful for modeling many natural phenomena, such as population grow
1) and radioactive
MAT 1001
decay (if a ⬍ 1兲.Calculus I 54 / 79
 Exponential Functions

x
1
1

x
MAT 1001 Calculus I 55 / 79
 Exponential Functions

x
1
1

x
MAT 1001 Calculus I 55 / 79
 Exponential Functions

1 x y
( ) x
3 3
1 x
( ) 2
x
2

x
1.5

x
1
1

x
MAT 1001 Calculus I 55 / 79
 Exponential Functions

Laws of Exponent
If a and b are positive numbers and x and y are any real numbers, then
1 ax+y = ax ay .
ax
2 ax−y = y .
a
3 (ax )y = axy .
4 (ab)x = ax bx .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 56 / 79

 Exponential Functions

Example 12
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 − 2x .

Solution.
First we reflect the graph of y = 2x about the x−axis to get the graph of
y = −2x . Then we shift the graph of y = −2x upward three units to
obtain the graph of y = 3 − 2x .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 57 / 79

 Exponential Functions

Solution (cont.)
y

x
2

0 x

MAT 1001 Calculus I 58 / 79

 Exponential Functions

Solution (cont.)
y

x
2

0 x

MAT 1001 Calculus I 58 / 79

 Exponential Functions

Solution (cont.)
y

3
x
-2 +3
2

0 x

x
-2

MAT 1001 Calculus I 58 / 79

 Exponential Functions The Number e

The The Number

The eNumber
Number e e

Of
Theallchoice
Of
possible
allofpossible
abases
base for
bases
a isaninfluenced
for
exponential
an exponential
function,
by the wayfunction,
thethere isthere
graph one
of yis
that
=one
ais
x that
mostiscon
m
for thefor
crosses purposes
thethey−axis.
purposes
of calculus.
of calculus.
Following The choice
The
Figure choice
of a the
shows base
oftangent
aa base
is influenced
alines
is influenced
by the
to the by
way
graphs theth
of y 苷 of
a x
xy 苷
crosses
a x
crosses
the
x y-axis.
the y-axis.
Figures
of y = 2 and y = 3 at the point (0, 1). Figures
11 and 11
12 and
show 12 the
show tangent
the tangent
lines to
lines
the
y y y y
y=2® y=2® y=3® y=3®

mÅ1.1mÅ1.1
mÅ0.7mÅ0.7
1 1 1 1

0 0 x x 0 0 x x

FIGUREFIGURE
11
If we measure 11
the slopes of these tangentFIGURE
lines,FIGURE
12 find12that m ≈ 0.7 for
we
y = 2x and m ≈ 1.1 for y = 3x .
MAT 1001 Calculus I 59 / 79
 Exponential Functions The Number e graph at
the slope
y苷3
Some of the formulas of calculus will be greatly simplified if we choose thex.
base a so that the slope of the tangent line to y = ax at (0, 1) is exactly 1.
It turn
y be greatl
y=´
y 苷 ax a
m=1 denoted b
hard Eule
1 view of F
and 3 and
ure 14). I
0 x

FIGURE 13
MAT 1001
The natural exponential
Calculus I
function 60 / 79
 Exponential Functions graph at
The Number e

In fact, there is such a number and it is denoted by the letter the

it slope
comes e.1
y 苷 3 x.
as no surprise that the number e lies between 2 and 3 and the graph of
y = ex lies between the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x .
It turn
y be greatl
y=´
y 苷 ax a
m=1 denoted b
hard Eule
1 view of F
and 3 and
ure 14). I
0 x

1
FIGURE
This notation was chosen by the13Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1727,
probably because it is the first letter of the word exponential.
MAT 1001
The natural exponential
Calculus I
function 61 / 79
 Exponential Functions The Number e

Example 13
1
Graph the function y = e−x − 1 and state the domain and range.
2

Solution.
We start with the graph of y = ex and reflect about the y−axis to get the
graph of y = e−x . Then we compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2
1
to obtain the graph of y = e−x . Finally, we shift the graph downward one
2
unit to get the desired graph. The domain is R and the range is (−1, ∞).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 62 / 79

 Exponential Functions The Number e

Solution (cont.)
y

x
e

x
0

MAT 1001 Calculus I 63 / 79

 Exponential Functions The Number e

Solution (cont.)
y

x
e

x
0

MAT 1001 Calculus I 63 / 79

 Exponential Functions The Number e

Solution (cont.)
y

1
-
2

1
-x
e -1
2
0 x

-1

MAT 1001 Calculus I 63 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

Logarithmic Functions

If a > 0 and a 6= 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is either increasing

or decreasing and so it is one-to-one by the Horizontal Line Test.

It therefore has an inverse function f −1 , which is called the logarithmic

function with base a and is denoted by loga .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 64 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

If we use the formulation of an inverse function

f −1 (x) = y ⇐⇒ f (y) = x

then we have
loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x.

Thus, if 0 < x, then loga x, a is the exponent to which the base must be
raised to give x.
For example, log10 0.001 = −3 because 10−3 = 0, 001.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 65 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

The cancellation equations, when applied to f (x) = ax and

f −1 (x) = loga x become

loga (ax ) = x , x∈R

aloga x = x , x > 0.

In particular, if we set x = 1, we get

loga (a) = 1.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 66 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic function loga x has domain (0, ∞) and range R. Its graph
is the reflection of the graph of y = ax about the line y = x.

y The loga
y=x
reflection o
Figure 1
have base a
is reflected
y=a®, a>1
Figure 1
log a 1 苷 0,
0 x
The foll
y=log a x, a>1 properties o

Laws of L
Figure shows the case where 1 < a. (The most important logarithmic
FIGURE 11
functions have base a > 1.) 1. log 共x a
MAT 1001 Calculus I 67 / 79
 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

The fact that y = ax is

a very rapidly increasing
function for 0 < x is re-
flected in the fact that y =
x
loga x is a very slowly in-
creasing function for 1 <
x.

Figure shows the graphs of y = loga x with various values of the base a.
Since loga 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the
point (1, 0).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 68 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

The fact that y = ax is

a very rapidly increasing
function for 0 < x is re-
flected in the fact that y =
x
loga x is a very slowly in-
creasing function for 1 <
x.

Figure shows the graphs of y = loga x with various values of the base a.
Since loga 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the
point (1, 0).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 68 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

y
log2 x
log5 x The fact that y = ax is
a very rapidly increasing
log10 x function for 0 < x is re-
flected in the fact that y =
1 x
loga x is a very slowly in-
creasing function for 1 <
x.

Figure shows the graphs of y = loga x with various values of the base a.
Since loga 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the
point (1, 0).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 68 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

Laws of Logarithms
If x and y are positive numbers, then
1 loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
 
x
2 loga = loga x − loga y
y
3 loga (xr ) = r loga x (where r is any real number.)

MAT 1001 Calculus I 69 / 79

 Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions

Example 14
Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate log2 80 − log2 5.

Solution.
Using Law 2, we have
 
80
log2 80 − log2 5 = log2 = log2 16 = 4
5

because 24 = 16.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 70 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Natural Logarithm

The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and has a
special notation:
loge x = ln x

The defining properties of the natural logarithm function are

ln x = y ⇐⇒ ey = x (6)

ln(ex ) = x x∈R
eln x = x x > 0. (7)

MAT 1001 Calculus I 71 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

In particular, if we set x = 1, we get

ln e = 1.

For any positive number a, we have

ln x
loga x = , a > 0, a 6= 1.
ln a

MAT 1001 Calculus I 72 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 15
Find x if ln x = 5.

Solution 1.
From equation (6) we see that

ln x = 5 means e5 = x

Therefore, x = e5 .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 73 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Solution 2.
Start with the equation
ln x = 5
and apply the exponential function to both sides of the equation:

eln x = e5

But the second cancellation in equation (7) says that eln x = x. Therefore,
x = e5 .

MAT 1001 Calculus I 74 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 16
Solve the equation e5−3x = 10.

Solution.
We take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation and use equation
(7):

ln(e5−3x ) = ln 10
5 − 3x = ln 10
3x = 5 − ln 10
1
x = (5 − ln 10)
3
Since the natural logarithm is found on scientific calculators, we can
approximate the solution to four decimal places: x ≈ 0.8991.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 75 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 17
1
Express ln a + ln b as a single logarithm.
2

Solution.
Using Laws 3 and 1 of logarithms, we have
1
ln a + ln b = ln a + ln b1/2
2 √
= ln a + ln b
√
= ln(a b).

MAT 1001 Calculus I 76 / 79

 Exponential Functions
So the inverse fu
Natural Logarithm

The graphs of the exponential function y = ex

and its inverse function, the
natural logarithm function, are shown in Figure 10. Because the curve
y = ex crosses the y−axis with a slope of 1, it follows that the reflected
curve y = ln x crosses the x-axis with a slope of 1.
y This function giv
y=´ ticular, the time r
y=x

1 y=ln x This answer agre

0 tion 1.5.
1 x

The graphs of
logarithm functio
y-axis with a slop
FIGURE 13 Figure 10: with a slope of 1
MAT 1001 Calculus I 77 / 79
 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 18
Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x − 2) − 1.

Solution.
y
lnx
We start with the graph of
y = ln x as given in Fig-
ure 10. Using the trans-
formations, we shift it two
units to the right to get
0 x the graph of y = ln(x − 2)
and then we shift it one
unit downward to get the
graph of y = ln(x − 2) −
1.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 78 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 18
Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x − 2) − 1.

Solution.
y
lnx
We start with the graph of
y = ln x as given in Fig-
ure 10. Using the trans-
formations, we shift it two
units to the right to get
0 x the graph of y = ln(x − 2)
and then we shift it one
unit downward to get the
graph of y = ln(x − 2) −
1.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 78 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Example 18
Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x − 2) − 1.

Solution.
y
lnx
ln(x-2) We start with the graph of
y = ln x as given in Fig-
ure 10. Using the trans-
ln(x-2)-1 formations, we shift it two
units to the right to get
0 2 3 x the graph of y = ln(x − 2)
and then we shift it one
unit downward to get the
-1 graph of y = ln(x − 2) −
1.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 78 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly when 1 < x.

In fact, ln x grows more slowly than any positive power of x. To illustrate
this fact, we compare the graphs of the functions y = ln x and
√
y = x1/2 = x in Figure. You can see that initially the graphs of and
grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function far surpasses
the logarithm.

2.0

1.5
x
1.0 ln x

0.5

0.0 x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-0.5

MAT 1001 Calculus I 79 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly when 1 < x.

In fact, ln x grows more slowly than any positive power of x. To illustrate
this fact, we compare the graphs of the functions y = ln x and
√
y = x1/2 = x in Figure. You can see that initially the graphs of and
grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function far surpasses
the logarithm.

2.0

1.5
x
1.0 ln x

0.5

0.0 x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-0.5

MAT 1001 Calculus I 79 / 79

 Exponential Functions Natural Logarithm

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly when 1 < x.

In fact, ln x grows more slowly than any positive power of x. To illustrate
this fact, we compare the graphs of the functions y = ln x and
√
y = x1/2 = x in Figure. You can see that initially the graphs of and
grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function far surpasses
the logarithm.

25

20
x
15 ln x

10

x
200 400 600 800

MAT 1001 Calculus I 79 / 79