CHAPTER SOLUTION

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SOLUTIONS
Introduction
A Solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more components. It is defined by
using the terms solute and solvent.
Solvent: The component that is present in largest quantity is called solvent. It
determines the physical state of solution.
Solute: One or more components present in solution other than solvent is called
solute.
Binary solutions: Solution consisting of two components only.
Types of Solutions
According to the phase of solvent, a binary solution can be classified in following
types:
Types of Solutions Solute Solvent Examples
Gaseous solutions Gas Gas Mixture of O2 and N2
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with N2 Gas

Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas

Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water

Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water

solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water

Solid Solutions Gas solid Solution of H2 and Pd

Liquid solid Amalgam of Hg with Na

Solid solid Alloy

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In this chapter we are mainly focusing on binary solutions (solution made up of

two components) of liquid known as liquid solutions.

Different Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

The composition of solution is defined in terms of concentration. There are several
ways to define concentration of solution as follows:

Solubility
Solubility of a substance is the maximum amount that can be dissolved in given
amount of solvent at specific temperature. Factors affecting the solubility:
- Nature of solute
- Nature of solvent
- Temperature
- Pressure

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Solubility of Solid in a Liquid

Nature of solute and solvent:
According to the nature of solute and solvent the solubility of solid in a liquid
follow the principle “ Like dissolves like”
If the nature of solute and solvent is same, the intermolecular force of interaction
would be same. That helps in solubility of solute in solvent.
Polar solute dissolves in polar solvent. For example: NaCl and sugar dissolves in
water. Non-polar solute dissolves in non-polar solvent. For example: Naphthalene
and anthracene dissolves in benzene not in water.
Saturated solution: If the concentration of solute in solution remain constant at
given set of temperature and pressure is called saturated solution. If we add more
solute in it, it would precipitate out.
Un-Saturated solution: If the concentration of solute in solution can increase at
given set of temperature and pressure is called un-saturated solution. If we add
more solute in it, it would get dissolve and increase the concentration of solution.
Effect of temperature:
The solubility of solute in solvent always follows the dynamic equilibrium.
Solute + Solvent Solution.
It follows the Le Chateliers principle for the change in temperature at dynamic
equilibrium.
If the solution is formed by giving heat means dissolution is endothermic. By
increasing the temperature, the reaction will proceed in forward direction and
solubility of solute increases.
If the heat is released in formation of solute means dissolution is exothermic. By
increasing the temperature, the reaction will proceed in backward direction and
solubility of solute decreases.
Effect of pressure:
Pressure has no significant effect on solubility of solid in liquid.
Solubility of Gas in a Liquid
Nature of solute and solvent:
Solubility of gas in liquid is also somewhat affected by nature of solute and
solvent. Oxygen dissolves only a small extent in water but HCl is highly
soluble in water because of polar nature of solute and solvent.
Effect of pressure:
Solubility of gas in liquid is highly affected by temperature and pressure. As
the pressure of the gas above the surface of the liquid increases, it increases
the solubility of gas in liquid. The quantitative relation of this equation is
given by Henry’s Law.
Henry’s Law:

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It states that, “At constant temperature, the solubility of gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas present above the surface of the
liquid or solution.”
If we consider mole fraction of gas in a solution to measure its solubility then it
can be said that, “Mole fraction of gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial
pressure of gas above the liquid or solution.”
Now the Henry’s Law can be stated as , “ The partial pressure of a gas in vapour
phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of gas(x) in solution.”
Expression for Henry’s Law:
p= KH. x
KH is Henry’s Law constant
Important point regarding Henry’s Law:
 Different gases have different KH values at the same temperature. That is
KH depends on the nature of gas.
 Higher the value of KH at given pressure, lower is the solubility of gas in given
liquid.
 KH value of particular gas increases with increasing temperature. It indicates that
solubility of gas decreases with increasing temperature.
Dissolution of gas in a liquid is an exothermic process. As dissolution process
involves dynamic equilibrium, it follows Le Chaterlier’s principle. Hence the
solubility of gas in liquid, decreases with increase in temperature.
Effect of temperature:
Dissolution of gas in a liquid is an exothermic process. As dissolution process
involves dynamic equilibrium, it follows Le Chaterlier’s principle. Hence the
solubility of gas in liquid, decreases with increase in temperature.
Vapour Pressure of a Liquid Solution
Liquid solution are formed when solvent is in liquid phase. Solute may be solid,
liquid or gas. On the basis of solute, the liquid solution is classified in 3 types as:
(i) Solid in liquid
(ii) Liquid in liquid
(iii) Gas in liquid
We will discuss the various properties of liquid in liquid solution and solid in
liquid solutions.
Vapour Pressure of a Liquid-Liquid Solution
Let us take a binary solution made up of two volatile liquids 1 and 2. As the liquid
start evaporating; a stage will come when the vapour pressure of liquid will be in
equilibrium with the corresponding liquid. As we know that vapour pressure of
liquid is proportional to its mole fraction. The quantitative relationship between
the vapour pressure and mole fraction in binary solution is given by Roult’s Law.
Roult’s Law:
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It states that for the solutions of volatile liquid, the partial vapour pressure of each
component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in
solution.

For component 1,

p1 ∝ x1
p1 = p1° x1...(1)
p1 = Vapour pressure of component 1 in solution.
p1° = Vapour pressure of pure liquid component 1at the same temperature
x1 = Mole fraction of component 1 in solution.
Similarly for component 2 :
P2 = p2° x2 ...(2)
According to Dalton’s Law of partial pressure, The total pressure (ptotal ) over the
solution phase in the container will be the sum of partial pressure of the
components in solution. If the solution is made up of two volatile liquids then total
pressure above the solution is:
ptotal = p1 + p2 ...(3)
ptotal = Total pressure over the solution phase
p1 = Vapour pressure of component 1 in solution
p2 = Vapour pressure of component 1 in solution
Substituting the values of p1 and p2 in eq...(3) we get:
ptotal = p1° x1 + p2° x2 ...(4)
As, total mole fraction of components in any solution is 1. Therefore,

x1 + x2 = 1
x1 =(1 - x2)...(5)
Putting the value of x1 in eq (4) we get:
ptotal = p1°(1- x2) + p2° x2
ptotal = p1° - p1° x2 + p2° x2
ptotal = p1° +( p2°- p1°) x2 ...(6)
The equation ...(6) is known as the mathematical
expression for Roult’s Law for the solution made
up of two volatile liquids.

From this equation ...(6) we can conclude the

following points :

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• ptotal can be related to mole fraction of any of the one component.

• ptotal varies linearly with x2
• ptotal increases or decreases with increase of x1
This can be represents on graph as follows assuming p1° < p2°:
Conclusion from graph:
 Plot of p1° vs x1 is linear
 Plot of p2° vs x2 is linear
 Maximum value of ptotal = p2°
 Minimum value of ptotal = p1°
Composition of vapour phase at equilibrium is determined by using Dalton’s Law.
Let y1 and y2 be the mole fraction of liquid 1 and 2 in solution then partial vapour
pressure of each component is written as:
p1 = y1 ptotal... (7)
Equation ...(7) gives you the value of partial vapour pressure of each component in
vapour phase.
Vapour Pressure of a Solid-Liquid Solution
When a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent to form a solution, then the
vapour pressure of solution is found lower than vapour pressure of the pure solvent
at same temperature. The decrease in the vapour pressure of the solution is solely
depends on the quantity of non-volatile solute present in solution.
The vapour pressure of such solution is given by using general equation of Roult’s
Law.
Assume that water is component 1 and non-volatile component is component 2,
then vapour pressure of the solution will be equal to the vapour pressure of solvent
in solution. Vapour pressure of solvent p1 is proportional to its mole fraction in
solution and given as :
p1 ∝ x1
p1 = p1° x1...(1)
p1 = Vapour pressure of component 1 in solution.
p1° = Vapour pressure of pure liquid component 1at the same temperature
x1 = Mole fraction of component 1 in solution.
Ideal and Non Ideal Solutions
Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified as ideal and non-ideal on the basis of
certain properties.
Ideal Solution
 Obeys the Roult’s Law over the entire range of concentration.
 ΔHmixing = 0
 ΔVmixing = 0

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 Example : solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, solution of bromoethane or

chloroethane.
It can be summarised as: If a Solution formed by mixing the two components A
and B, in which intermolecular force of attraction between A and B (A‒B) is
nearly equal tointermolecular force of attraction between pure components (A‒A
and B‒B) then no heat would be evolved or absorbed in forming the solution. Also
volume of the solution will be equal to the total volume of the individual
component taken to form the solution.

Non-Ideal Solution
 Does not obey the Roult’s Law over the entire range of concentration.
 ΔHmixing ≠ 0
 ΔVmixing ≠ 0
 Example: Solution of chloroform and acetone
It can be summarised as: If a Solution formed by mixing the two components A
and B , in which intermolecular force of attraction between A and B (A‒B) is not
equal to intermolecular force of attraction between pure components (A‒A and B‒
B). This new interaction (A‒B) is either less than or more than the interaction of
the pure components (A‒A and B‒B). This leads to the positive or negative
deviations from Roult’s Law.
Positive Deviation from Roult’s Law
 The vapour pressure of solution formed by mixing two components is higher than
predicted from Roult’s Law
 The new intermolecular interactions formed by mixing the component A and B
(A‒B) are weaker than the intermolecular interactions of pure component (A‒A
and A‒B)
 Example: mixture of ethanol and acetone, solution of carbon disulphide and
acetone.
Graph representing the positive deviation:

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Negative Deviation from Roult’s Law

 The vapour pressure of solution formed by mixing
two components is lower than predicted from
Roult’s Law
 The new intermolecular interactions formed by
mixing the component A and B (A-B) are stronger
than the intermolecular interactions of pure
component (A-A and A-B)
 Example: solution of phenol and aniline,
chloroform and acetone.
Azeotropes
These are mixture of two liquids having same composition in liquid as well as
vapour phase and boil at the constant temperature. This liquid mixture cannot be
separated into pure component even on fractional distillation.
Types of Azeotropes
Minimum boiling azeotrope:
The solution which show large positive deviation from Raoult’s Law. Example:
solution of 95% ethanol in water.
Maximum boiling azeotropes:
The solution which show large negative deviation from Raoult’s Law. Example:
solution of 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass.

Colligative Properties
Colligative properties are those properties which depends only upon the number of
solute particles in a solution irrespective of their nature.
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
It is the ratio of lowering in vapour pressure to vapour pressure of pure solvent.
The relative lowering in vapour pressure of solution containing a nonvolatile solute
is equal to the mole fraction of solute in the solution.

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Above expression is used to find the molecular weight of an unknown solute

dissolved in a given solvent. Where, WB and WA = mass of Solute and solvent
respectively. MB and MA = molecular weight of solute and solvent respectively.
Ostwald and Walker method is used to determine the relative lowering of vapour
pressure.
Elevation in Boiling Point (ΔTb)
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure. As the vapour pressure of a solution containing
a nonvolatile solute is lower than that of the pure solvent, it boiling point will be
higher than that of the pure solvent as shown in figure. The increase in boiling
point is known as elevation in boiling point, ΔTb

ΔTb = Tb – T°b ΔTb = Kb m (where; m = molality)

Kb is molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant. Molecular mass of solute
can be calculated as

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where, WB and WA = mass of solute and solvent respectively.

Kb has units of K / m or K kg mol-1, for water, Kb = 0.52 K kg mol-1
The boiling point elevation of a solution is determined by
(i) Landsberger‟s method
(ii) Cottrell‟s method
Depression in Freezing Point (ΔTf)
Freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour pressure of the
solvent in its liquid and solid phase become equal. As we know that vapour
pressure of solution containing non-volatile solute is lower than that of pure
solvent, solid form gets separated out at a lower temperature as shown in the
figure.

This decrease in freezing point of a liquid is known as depression in freezing point.

Depression in freezing point (ΔTf) = T°f – Tf

To find molecular mass of solute,

where, Kf is molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

Kf has units of K / m or K kg mol-1.
Ethylene glycol is usually added to water in the radiator to lower its freezing point.
It is called antifreeze solution.

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[Common salt (NaCI) and anhydrous CaC12 are used to clear snow on the roads
because they depress the freezing point of water. The freezing point depression is
determined by Beckmann method or Rast method.]
Calculations of molal elevation constant (Kb) and molal depression constant (Kf)

Osmosis
The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi-preamble membrane
from the pure solvent to the solution is known is osmosis.
If semi-preamble membrane is placed between is placed between the pure solvent
and solution, the solvent molecules will flow of through the membrane from the
pure solvent to the solution.
If the osmosis takes place between the solutions of different concentrations, the
solvent molecules will move from the solution of low solute concentration to that
of higher solute concentration. The flow will continue till the equilibrium is
attained.
Example of osmosis
(i) A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis
and shrived into pickle.
(ii) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water through osmosis.
(iii) A carrot that has become limp because of water lose into the atmosphere
can be placed into the water making it firm once again through osmosis.
(iv) Through osmosis, blood cell collapse due to loss of water when placed in
water containing more than 0.9% ( mass / volume) salt solution.
(v) People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in
tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis. This resulting
puffiness or swelling is called edema.
(vi) Water movement from soil into plant root and subsequently into upper
portion of the plant partly due to osmosis.
(vii) The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects
against bacterial action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on
salted meat or sugared fruits loses water, shrivels and dies.
(viii)

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Osmotic Pressure (π)

Osmosis is the phenomenon of spontaneous flow of the solvent molecules through
a semipermeable membrane from pure solvent to solution or from a dilute solution
to concentrated solution. It was first observed by Abbe Nollet.
Some natural semipermeable membranes are animal bladder, cell membrane etc.
CU2[Fe(CN)6]is an artificial semipermeable membrane which does not work in
non-aqueous solutions as it dissolves in them.
Osmosis may be
(i) Exosmosis
It is outward flow of water or solvent from a cell through semipermeable
membrane.
(ii) Endosmosis
It is inward flow of water or solvent from a cell through a semipermeable
membrane.
The hydrostatic pressure developed on the solution which just prevents the osmosis
of pure solvent into the solution through a semipermeable membrane is
called osmotic pressure.

where, d = density, R = solution constant, T = temperature, MB = molar mass of

solute
Osmotic pressure can be determined by anyone of the method listed below
(i) Pfeffer‟s method
(ii) Berkeley and Hartley‟s method (very good method)
(iii) Morse and Frazer‟s method
On the basis of osmotic pressure, -the solution can be
(i) Hypertonic solution
A solution is called hypertonic if its osmotic pressure is higher than that of the
solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the fluid from the plant cell
comes out and cell shrinks, this phenomenon is called plasmolysis.
(ii) Hypotonic solution
A solution is called hypotonic if its osmotic pressure is lower than that of the
solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.

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(iii) Isotonic solution

Two solutions are called isotonic if they exert the same osmotic pressure. These
solutions have same molar concentration. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is isotonic
with human RBC‟s.
Two solutions are isotonic if they have the same molar concentration, e.g., if x %
solution of X is isotonic with y % solution of Y, this means molar concentration of
X = Molar concentration of Y

Osmotic pressure method is the best method for determining the molecular masses
of polymers since observed value of any other colligative property is too small to
be measured with reasonable accuracy.
Reverse osmosis
When the external pressure applied on the solution is more than osmotic pressure,
the solvent flows from the solution to the pure solvent, I which is called reverse
osmosis. Desalination of sea water is done by reverse Osmosis.
Abnormal Molecular Masses
In some cases, observed colligative properties deviate from their normal calculated
values due to association or dissociation of molecules. As we know,
Colligative property ∝ 1 / MB
lienee, higher and lower values of molar mass is observed in case of association
and dissociation respectively, e.g., in benzene, acetic acid gets associated, so, its
observed
molecular mass is 120. Similarly KCI undergoes dissociation in aqueous solution,
so its observed molecular mass is 37.25.
These observed values are corrected by multiplying with van‟t Hoff factor (i).
Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
It is the ratio of observed value of colligative property to the calculated value of
colligative property.
i = observed value of colligative property / calculated value of colligative property
or i = normal molecular mass / observed molecular mass
or i = number of particles after association or dissociation / number of particles
initially
So to correct the observed value of molar mass, van‟t Hoff factor (i) must be
included in different expressions for colligative properties.

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Degree of Dissociation (α) and van’t Hoff Factor (i)

(i) If one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into n particles or molecules and
α is the degree of dissociation then

Degree of Association (α) and van’t Hoff Factor (i)

If n molecules of a substance A associate to form An and α is the degree of
association then

van‟t Hoff factor (i) > 1 for solutes undergoing dissociation and it is < 1 for solutes
undergoing association.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following units is useful in relating concentration of solution
with its vapour pressure?
(i) mole fraction
(ii) parts per million
(iii) mass percentage
(iv) molality Answer: mole fraction
2. Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified
amount of a given liquid solvent does not depend upon ____________.
(i) Temperature
(ii) Nature of solute
(iii) Pressure
(iv) Nature of solvent Answer: Pressure
3. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle,
shrivels because _____________.
(i) it gains water due to osmosis.
(ii) it loses water due to reverse osmosis.
(iii) it gains water due to reverse osmosis.
(iv) it loses water due to osmosis. Answer: it loses water due
to osmosis
4. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at
high altitude is due to ____________.
(i) low temperature
(ii) low atmospheric pressure
(iii) high atmospheric pressure
(iv) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure Answer: low
atmospheric pressure
5. The value of Henry’s constant KH is _____________.
(i) greater for gases with higher solubility.
(ii) greater for gases with lower solubility.
(iii) constant for all gases.
(iv) not related to the solubility of gases. Answer: greater for gases with
lower solubility.
6. At a given temperature, osmotic pressure of a concentrated solution of a
substance _____________.
(i) is higher than that at a dilute solution.
(ii) is lower than that of a dilute solution.
(iii) is same as that of a dilute solution.

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(iv) cannot be compared with osmotic pressure of dilute solution.

Answer: is higher than that at a dilute solution
7. Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict
which of the following mixtures will show a positive deviation from
Raoult’s law?
(i) Methanol and acetone.
(ii) Chloroform and acetone.
(iii) Nitric acid and water.
(iv) Phenol and aniline. Answer: Methanol and acetone.
8. Which of the following statements is false?
(i) Units of atmospheric pressure and osmotic pressure are the same.
(ii) In reverse osmosis, solvent molecules move through a semipermeable
membrane from a region of lower concentration of solute to a region of
higher concentration.
(iii) The value of molal depression constant depends on nature of solvent.
(iv) Relative lowering of vapour pressure, is a dimensionless quantity.
Answer: In reverse osmosis, solvent molecules move through a
semipermeable membrane from a region of lower concentration of solute to
a region of higher concentration.
9. On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to
touch. Under which of the following cases dissolution of sugar will be most
rapid?
(i) Sugar crystals in cold water.
(ii) Sugar crystals in hot water.
(iii) Powdered sugar in cold water.
(iv) Powdered sugar in hot water Answer: Powdered sugar in hot water
10.Colligative properties depend on ____________.
(i) the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(ii) the number of solute particles in solution.
(iii) the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(iv) the nature of solvent particles
Answer: the number of solute particles in solution.
11.The unit of ebullioscopic constant is
(a) K kg mol−1∨k ( molalit y )−1
(b) mol kg k −1 ∨k −1 ( molality )
(c) kg ol−1 k−1∨k−1 ( molality )−1
(d) k mol kg−1 ∨k ( molality )
12.

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VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

1. What is Vanít Hoff factor ?
Ans. It is the ratio of normal molecular mass to observed molecular mass. It is
denoted as i.
i = normal molecular mass/observed molecular mass
= no. of particles after association or dissociation/no. of particles before.
2. What is the Vanít Hoff factor in K 4 [Fe(CN)6] and BaC l 2?
Ans: 5 and 3
3. Why the molecular mass becomes abnormal ?
Answer: Due to association or dissociation of solute in given solvent.
4. Dene molarity. How it is related with normality ?
Ans. N = M × Basicity or acidity
5. How molarity is related with percentage and density of solution ?
Ans. M = P × d ×10/M.M2
6. What role does the molecular interaction play in the solution of alcohol and
water ?
Ans. Positive deviation from ideal behaviour.
7. What is vanít Hoff factor ? How is it related with :
degree of dissociation (b) degree of association
Answer: α = i - 1/n - 1 (b) α = i - 1/1/n – 1
8. Why NaCl is used to clear snow from roads ?
Ans. It lowers freezing point of water.
9. Why the boiling point of solution is higher than pure liquid ?
Ans. Due to lowering in vapour pressure.
10.Out of 1 M and 1 m aqueous solution which is more concentrated ?
Ans. 1 M as density of water is 1 gm/ml.
11.Henry law constant for two gases are 21.5 and 49.5 atm, which gas is more
soluble ?
Ans. KH is inversely proportional to solubility.
12.Define azeotrope. Give an example of maximum boiling azeotrope.
13.Why water cannot be completely separated from aqueous solution of ethyl
alcohol ?
Answer: Due to formation of azeotrope at (95.4%).
14.What is the molarity of pure water ?
Ans. 55.5
15.What is the effect on boiling and freezing point of a solution on addition of
NaCl ?
Hint : Boiling point increases and freezing point decreases.

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16.Why osmotic pressure is considered as colligative property ?

Hint : It depends upon number of moles of solute present in solution.

17.Liquid A and B on mixing produce a warm solution. Which type of

deviation does this solution show ?
Hint : Negetivedeviations
18.Give an example of a compound in which hydrogen bonding results in the
formation of a dimer.
Hint : Carboxylic acids or other example
19.What role does the molecular interaction play in solution containing
chloroform and acetone ?
Hint : H-bonding formed, results in negative deviation from Raoultís law.
20.What is an antifreeze?
Answer: A substance such as ethyl glycol which is added to water to lower
its freezing point is called antifreeze. It is named so as it delay freezing.
21.What is de-icing agent? How does it work?
Answer: Common salt is called de-icing agent as it lower the freezing point
of water to such an extent that it does not freeze to form ice. Thus ,it is used
to clear the snow from the road.
22.Why is the vapour presur of solution of glucose in water lower than that of
water?
Answer: This is due to decrease in the escaping tendency of water molecule
from the surface of solution as some of the surface area is occupied by non
volatile solute glucose paricles.
23.A person suffering high blood pressure should take less common salt, why?
Answer: Common salt contains Na+¿¿ and Cl−¿¿ which increase osmotic
pressure blood, therefore increase blood pressure.
24.Why doctor advice gargles by saline water in case of sore throat?
Answer: Saline water is hypotonic solution, therefore fluid causing irritation
in throat will come out.

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS (PASSAGE)

1. Sauba divers when come towards the surface, pressure gradually decreases
resulting in release of dissolved gases leading to formation of bubbles of N2
gas in the blood which block the capillaries and thus bends are created. To
avoid bends and toxic effect of high concentration of N2 gas, the air is
diluted with helium.
After the above passage, answer the following:

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(a) Why is the harmful condition of bends overcome by the use of helium?
(b) Which law is used to calculate the concentration of gases in solution?

(c) Mention the value associated with providing divers air diluted with
helum.
(d) Which gas has less value of KH , O2 or He, and why ?

2. Ram takes an open pan to cook vegetables at a hill station while Shyam
cooked the same in a pressure cooker at the same place.

(a) Dene normal boiling point of a liquid.

(b) Explain the reason who will cook vegetables faster.

(c) Mention the reason for delay in cooking.

(d) Which value is learnt by the student in the process of cooking food in pressure
cooker?
3. Snehaís grandmother lives in Manali. In winter, there is a lot of snow in front of
the house. She asked Sneha to clear the snow. Sneha added NaCl to snow to clear
it.
(a) Why Sneha does so ?
(b) Is the addition of Ca(NO3)2 a better choice than NaCl ? If yes, why ?

(c) What is the value in Snehaís thinking ?

(d) Define molal freezing point, depression constant, Kf

4. Ira Singh, a student of class XII Chemistry stated that normal saline solution

having 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl is isotonic with the fluid inside the cell.

Therefore, it is safe to inject normal saline solution intravenously.

(a) Define isotonic solutions. What would happen if the concentration of saline

solution is (a) more, (b) less than 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl ?

(b) What values are associated with the statement of Ira Singh ?

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