RESEARCH METHODS

THE VARIABLE

Definition 3. Moderate variable – a secondary or special type

of independent variable chosen by the researcher
- No two individuals are alike to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships
between the independent and dependent
- A quantity or a characteristic that has variables
two or more mutually exclusive values
of properties 4. Control variable – variable controlled by the
researcher in which the effects can be neutralized
Types by eliminating or removing the variable.
1. Independent variable – the stimulus 5. Intervening variable – variable which interferes
variable which is chosen by the with the independent and dependent variables,
researcher to determine its but its effects can either strengthen o weaken the
relationship to an observed independent and dependent variables
phenomenon
2. Dependent variable – response
variable that is observed and
measured to determine the effect of
the independent variable.
THE VARIABLE

Research Process Component

1. Problem/objectives
2. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
3. Assumptions
4. Hypotheses
5. Review of Related Literature
6. Research Design
7. Data Collection
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
9. Analysis and Interpretation
10. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Quality of researchable problem Good research problem should be SMART

1. There is no known solution to the S – Specific – the problem should be specifically
problem stated
2. The solution can be answered by M – Measurable – it is easy to measure by using
using statistical methods and research instruments (i.e., questionnaire, tests,
techniques etc.) in collecting data
3. There are probable solutions but they A – Achievable – the data are achievable using
are not yet tested correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise
results
4. The occurrence of phenomena
require scientific investigation to R – Realistic – real results are not manipulated
arrive at precise solution
T – Time-bound – time frame is required in every
activity because the shorter completion of the
activity the better
- Whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or
case study
 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Criteria of a good research problem 4. Cost effective – 4Ms – man, money, materials and
machinery are needed in conducting research. A
1. Interesting – an interesting research research problem should be economical and
problem attracts the attention of the effective in solving the problems of the society; it
investigator to study the problem should also augment social, economical and health
further. It also makes him determined conditions of the people and many others.
to work on until its completion
5. Measurable and time-bound – a good research
2. Relevant to the needs of the people – problem is measurable by using research
researchers must keep in mind that instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating scales,
they work not for themselves but for observation schedules or interviews, and statistical
the people treatment to arrive at scientific and meaningful
results. A good research can be completed within a
3. Innovative – a good research problem time frame stated. The shorter completion of the
may not be necessarily new. It may be project, the better.
reinstatement and a restructuring of an
old problem to make it new. In this
manner, results will be more relevant
and useful to a greater number of
people
 THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

- The statement of purpose for which the Statement of Research Problem/Objectives

investigation is to be conducted.
- Problem and Objectives have the same
- Also have the same characteristics, characteristics but they differ in form
SMART, with research problem
- Problem – interrogative
- Stated specifically in simple language in
order that the researcher finds them - Objective - declarative
easy to measure by using research
instruments in collecting data and these
data are achieved when correct
statistical techniques are used to arrive
at real results, but every activity to be
done, time frame is required because
the shorter completion of the activity,
the better
 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
- They provide clear explanations - A symbolic construction which uses abstract
regarding the relationships of variables. concepts, facts or laws, variables and their
“The fact that variables can be shown relations that explains and predicts how an
to be associated but does not observed phenomenon exists and operates. And
guarantee that the relationship of investigator is required to formulate existing
variables has significance”. Theoretical theories which link his study because theories
framework- legal basis to describe are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and
properly that process of the study unifying established scientific laws or facts that
guide in discovering new generalizations
Theoretical Framework – shapes the
justification of the research Conceptual Framework – presents specific and
problem/research objectives in order to well defined concepts which are called constructs.
provide the legal basis for defining its Its function is similar with theoretical framework
parameters. It is desirable for an because the constructs used are derived from
investigator to identify key concepts that abstract concepts of the theoretical framework.
are used in the study for better
understanding of the role of theory in
research
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

- Should be presented comprehensively in - The researcher should prove that the study has
order to convince the screening important contributions in relation to:
committee of the importance of the study
a. Solving the problem and need
- Presented in either inductive or deductive
perspective. b. Bridging a knowledge gap
- Inductive – the researcher moves from c. Improving social, economic and health
particular to the general, and presents the conditions
importance of the study from the target
beneficiaries to the researcher himself, to d. Enriching research instruments and methods
the people in the community, to the e. Supporting government thrusts
people of the province, region and nation
- Deductive – general to particular,
discussion of the importance of the study
starts first from the national level down to
the researcher himself to the target
beneficiaries.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE
STUDY
- Includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects, the research
instruments, the research issues or concerns, the duration of the study, and
the constraints that have direct bearing on the result of the study
DEFINITION OF TERMS

- Last section of chapter 1 of thesis, dissertation and research paper. Thesis

and dissertations do not include this section of the study if there are more
than 15 terms defined because tis portion is for the glossary. In this section,
the key terms are clearly defined
2 ways to define key terms:
1. Conceptual definition – the definition of terms are based on concepts or
hypothetic ones which are usually taken from the dictionary
2. Operational definition – the definitions are based on observable
characteristics and how it is used in the study.
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
- To determine the similarities and differences Three parts of literature
of the findings between the past and present
studies. 1. Related readings – these are laws and department directives such as
circulars, orders, memoranda, and others which are related to the
- Aim to gain insight into the aspects of the present study. These will serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the
problem that are critical and controversial, study. It also presents the study as having direct or indirect implications
to the government thrusts.
- Provides the investigator a background
regarding the aspects which have been 2. Related literature – written works collectively, especially, those of
studied and not yet studied. enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill
which are written in a particular period, language, and subject. These
- Assists him/her to do on the components of are written materials such as book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry,
the research process. etc.. Its presentation is in chronological order either from the past to
present or vice versa
- Gives ideas to proceed with his study until its
completion 3. Related studies – published and unpublished research studies are the
sources. It has direct bearing to the present study and are segregated
- The investigator is required to read all into foreign and local studies. Similar to related readings and related
literature and studies partially and closely literature, arranged in chronological order
related to his study
Justification of the Present Study – the researcher should identify the bearing
of the related studies upon the present study.
- The investigator should also justify the differences of the present study
with the past studies
 RESEARCH DESIGN
Four kinds of Research Designs Uses of Historical Research
1. Historical Design – study focused in the past a. Historical research is useful in searching through the past
solutions to the contemporary problems and needs
– from HISTORY – branch of knowledge concerned with past
events, especially those involving human affairs; search for b. It is to throw light in the present
knowledge and the truth; any integrated narrative or descriptive
past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the c. It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present
whole truth.
d. It enables communities to grasp their relationship with the past
- A systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past to the current issues
events using critical method in the understanding and the
interpretation of facts which are applicable to current issues e. By chronicling events of enduring worth which confers upon the
and problems individual consciousness of unity and a feeling of the
importance of human achievement
- Research in history is both science and art.
Major steps in Historical Research
- Historical design is scientific and the narration thereof is an art.
History differs from the natural sciences because it is based a. Collection of data with consideration of documents and remains
upon the reports of observations which cannot be repeated, or relics of primary and secondary sources, of bibliographical
although similar events may occur unlike in natural sciences procedure, and organization of materials
where it is based upon experimentation
b. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of
external criticism and internal criticism
c. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving problems of
organization, composition, exposition, and interpretation.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
Sources of Historical research B. Secondary sources – materials as histories of
education, bibliographies, encyclopedias, and may
A. Primary sources others. In some historical studies, it is necessary to start
with secondary sources if primary sources are not yet
a. Documents – includes school directives available.
such as orders, circulars, constitution,
laws, charters, court decisions, executive 2. Descriptive Design – the focus is present condition.
and other official records such as The purpose is to find new truth. The truth may have
proceedings of administrative officers and different forms such as increased quantity of knowledge,
bodies, reports of school surveys, annual a new organization or a new “law”, an increased insight
reports, courses of study, catalogues and into factors which are operating, the discovery of a new
prospectuses, newspapers and casual relationship, a more accurate formulation of the
periodicals; personal materials such as problem to be solved and may others.
autobiographies, legal instruments
executed by individuals such as contracts, Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts on
wills, and deed. which scientific judgements may be based. They provide
essential knowledge about the nature of objects and
b. Remains – include the physical plant; persons. Descriptive studies also play a large part in the
equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and development of instruments for the measurement of
devices, picture of buildings or furnishing, many things, instruments that are employed in all types
forms of diplomas and certificates, of quantitative research as data gathering instruments,
textbooks and reference books for instance, tests, questionnaires, interviews,
observation schedules, check lists, score cards, and
rating scales.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
Types of Descriptive Research 3. Descriptive status – seeks to answer questions to real facts
relating to existing conditions. A technique in quantitative
1. Descriptive survey – this approach is description which determines the prevailing conditions in a
appropriate whenever the object of any class group of case chose for study. Stress current conditions with the
vary among themselves and one is interested in assumption that things will change. They cover many traits or
knowing the extent to which different conditions characteristics of the group
obtain among these objects. The word survey
signifies the gathering of data regarding present 4. Descriptive- analysis – determines or describes the nature of
conditions. Survey – useful in proving the value an object be separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover
facts, focusing attention on the most important the nature of things
things to be reported. Descriptive survey
necessary to determine the psychological and 5. Descriptive- classification – employed in natural sciences
social aspects of research by way of application
or implementation of evidence to recognize 6. Descriptive-evaluative – appraise carefully the worthiness of
between facts and influence. It may be used in the current study
solving practical problems
7. Descriptive-comparative – comparative survey where the
2. Descriptive-normative survey – normative- researcher considers at least two entities (not manipulated) and
sometimes used because surveys are frequently establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on
made to ascertain the normal or typical the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the
condition, or to compare local test results with a two is better.
state or national norm
8. Correlational survey – designed to determine the relationship
of two variables
RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental Design – a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future on “what
will be” when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
Types of Experimental Designs
1. Single-group design
2. Two-group design
3. Two-pair group design
4. Parallel-group design
5. Pretest-group design
6. Counter balanced or Latin square design
7. Complete randomized design
8. Randomized complete block design
9. Correlational Design
 SAMPLING DESIGN
Sampling is necessary especially fi the Advantages of Sampling
population is to large where the 4 M’s
resources of the investigator are limited. 1. It saves time, money and effort
Sampling – may be defined as the method 2. It is more effective.
of getting a representative portion of the
population. 3. It is faster and cheaper
Population – the aggregate or total of 4. It is more accurate
objects, persons, families, species, etc.
5. It gives more comprehensive information
Statistic – a value calculated from a sample
distribution Limitation of Sampling
Parameter – corresponding value from a 1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed subclassifications
population distribution because of a small number of subjects
Sampling statistics – the body of statistical 2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results
methods concerned with the making of may be misleading
statements about population parameters for
sample statistics 3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is
lacking, the results could be erroneous
4. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare
 SAMPLING DESIGN
Determination of Sample Size Percentage of interested tourist = 90/171 = 52.6%
- researcher’s decision 9000 tourist per month x 52.6% = 4,734 tourist
Slovens Formula 10 hotels that offer accommodation x 20 rooms = 200
n = N / 1 + N (e)^2 S = NV + [Se^2 (1-p)] / NSe + [V^2 x p(1-p)]
n = sample size S = Sample size
N = Number of population N = Total number of population
e = margin of error V= standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 0.99
reliability
Example 300 tourist arrival per day
Se = Sampling error (0.01)
95% = level of confidence / 5% margin of error
p = the largest possible proportion (0.50)
n = 300/[1+N(e)^2 = 171 respondents
90 = interested
75 = not interested
6 = undecided
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data collection - a methodical process of Primary Data Collection Methods
gathering and analyzing specific information to
proffer solutions to relevant questions and Two Categories
evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter. Data is 1. Quantitative Methods - dealing with something that
collected to be further subjected to hypothesis can be counted, they area presented in numbers and
testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon. require a mathematical calculation to deduce. -
questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records.
Two Categories These methods of primary data collection are
generally used to make long-term forecasts.
1. Primary Data Collection Methods - the
gathering of raw data collected at the source. 2. Qualitative Methods - consider factors other than
It is a process of collecting the original data numerical values, it is based on the non-quantifiable
collected by a researcher for a specific elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher.
research purpose. - useful in situations when historical data is not
available. These techniques are based on
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods - experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture, emotion,
referred to as the gathering of second-hand etc.
data collected by an individual who is not the
original user. It is the process of collecting
data that is already existing, be it already
published books, journals, and/or online
portals. In terms of ease, it is much less
expensive and easier to collect.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data collection - a methodical process of Primary Data Collection Methods
gathering and analyzing specific information to
proffer solutions to relevant questions and Two Categories
evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter. Data is 1. Quantitative Methods - dealing with something that
collected to be further subjected to hypothesis can be counted, they area presented in numbers and
testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon. require a mathematical calculation to deduce. -
questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records.
Two Categories These methods of primary data collection are
generally used to make long-term forecasts.
1. Primary Data Collection Methods - the
gathering of raw data collected at the source. 2. Qualitative Methods - consider factors other than
It is a process of collecting the original data numerical values, it is based on the non-quantifiable
collected by a researcher for a specific elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher.
research purpose. - useful in situations when historical data is not
available. These techniques are based on
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods - experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture, emotion,
referred to as the gathering of second-hand etc.
data collected by an individual who is not the
original user. It is the process of collecting
data that is already existing, be it already
published books, journals, and/or online
portals. In terms of ease, it is much less
expensive and easier to collect.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Quantitative Data Collection Tools Correlational research seeks to collect data that shows
relationships between different occurrences. A positive correlation
Online is one in which two variables either increase or decrease at the
same time. A negative correlation is when an increase in one
Mail variable means a decrease in another.
Face-to-face There is also a zero correlation result, in which the relationship
between two variables is insignificant. Correlation helps make
Phone predictions based on historical relationships and in determining
the validity and reliability of a study.
Four different primary quantitative research designs:
Experimental research, also known as “true experimentation,”
1. Descriptive uses the scientific method to determine the cause-and-effect
relationship between variables. This method uses controls for all
2. Correlational of the crucial factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of
interest. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly
assign participants in an experiment to either the control or
3. Experimental treatment groups.
4. Quasi-experimental Quasi-experimental research, also known as “causal-
comparative,” is similar to experimental research. Since it’s often
Descriptive research explains the current status of a impossible or impractical to control for all factors involved, quasi-
variable using observational data collection. Often, the experimental methods don’t control for some factors but otherwise
researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data follow the scientific method to establish a cause-and-effect
steer the direction of the study. relationship.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of
Qualitative Methods: depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed and
efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
Surveys are used to collect data from the target Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist several key questions which
audience and gather insights into their preferences, cover the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the
opinions, choices, and feedback related to their researcher to explore the subject matter.
products and services. Most survey software often a
wide range of question types to select.
Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a
Polls comprise of one single or multiple choice wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom it
question. When it is required to have a quick pulse gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-
of the audience’s sentiments, you can go for polls. consuming.
Because they are short in length, it is easier to get
responses from the people. Pros In-depth information, Freedom of flexibility, Accurate data.

Interviews the interviewer asks questions either Cons Time-consuming, Expensive to collect.
face-to-face or through telephone to the
respondents. In face-to-face interviews, the Tools you can use to easily collect data.
interviewer asks a series of questions to the
interviewee in person and notes down responses. In Audio Recorder - used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can
case it is not feasible to meet the person, the meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data
interviewer can go for a telephonic interview. This collection tools.
form of data collection is suitable when there are
only a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and Digital Camera - can be used for transmitting those images to a monitor screen when the
tedious to repeat the same process if there are many need arises.
participants.
Camcorder - used for collecting data through interviews. It provides a combination of
both an audio recorder and a video camera. The data provided is qualitative in nature
and allows the respondents to answer questions asked exhaustively. If you need to
collect sensitive information during an interview, a camcorder might not work for you as
you would need to maintain your subject’s privacy.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Delphi Technique - market experts are provided Three commonly used qualitative data collection methods:
with the estimates and assumptions of forecasts
made by other experts in the industry. Experts 1. Ethnographic - comes from anthropology, the study of
may reconsider and revise their estimates and human societies and cultures.
assumptions based on the information provided by
other experts. The consensus of all experts on 2. Grounded Theory - arose when sociological
demand forecasts constitutes the final demand researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy to
forecast. qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather
than assumptions
Focus Groups - a small group of people, around
8-10 members, discuss the common areas of the 3. Phenomenological - escribes how people experience
problem. Each individual provides his insights on certain events or unique encounters. This method
the issue concerned. A moderator regulates the measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of
discussion among the group members. At the end the norm, so it’s essential to understand the whole
of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus. picture, not just facts and figures.
Questionnaire is a printed set of questions, either
open-ended or closed-ended. The respondents
are required to answer based on their knowledge
and experience with the issue concerned. The
questionnaire is a part of the survey, whereas the
questionnaire’s end-goal may or may not be a
survey.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Secondary data is the data that has been used in the External sources of secondary data:
past. The researcher can obtain data from the sources,
both internal and external, to the organization. Government reports
- can involve both quantitative and qualitative Press releases
techniques. Secondary data is easily available and
hence, less time-consuming and expensive as Business journals
compared to the primary data. However, with the
secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of Libraries
the data gathered cannot be verified.
Internet
Internal sources of secondary data:
Organization’s health and safety records
Mission and vision statements
Financial Statements
Magazines
Sales Report
CRM Software
Executive summaries
 DATA PROCESSING AND TABULATION
Data Processing – converting information either 3. Tabulation of Data – tallying and counting the raw data
manually or by machine into quantitative and to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in
qualitative forms for use in research analysis organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several
tables. It can be done either manual or by machine, such
3 Basic steps of Data Processing as electric computer or a mechanical counter-sorter.
1. Categorization of Data – refers to the Manual tabulation – data are manually tallied by hand This
grouping of subjects under study according to is applicable if the total number of cases is small.
the objectives and purposes of the study.
Data Matrix – presentation of data is usually in tabular
2. Coding of Data – information from form. The data processing output is either quantitative or
questionnaires, interview schedules, rating qualitative.
scale, etc., must be transformed into coded
items to facilitate tabulation of data. The - Useful in analysis and interpretation because they give a
codes may be either numerical or clear picture of the results of the study.
alphabetical. The former is commonly used
because of sufficient number coverage and
its fitted for computer processing. – option to
used own codes, provided, however, that the
number of digits to be used in codes is
ascertained by the number of categories and
total number of cases
STATISTICAL TREATMENT

▪
DATA ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
Data Analysis – an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer
research questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures.
The basis in analyzing research data are specific problems/objectives,
hypotheses, measuring instruments and statistical tools.