IP addressing

 An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP

addresses are expressed as a set of four numbers. for example
an address might be 192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can
range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from
0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
HOW TO GET IP ADDRESS????
 IP addresses are not random. They are mathematically
produced and allocated by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA), a division of the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Each time anyone
registers a domain on the internet, they go through a domain
name registrar, who pays a small fee to ICANN to register the
domain.
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 Internet service provider(ISP)
 In order to obtain a block of IP addresses for use within an
organization’s subnet, a network administrator might
first contact its ISP, which would provide addresses from a
larger block of addresses that had already been allocated to the
ISP.
 For example, the ISP may itself have been allocated the address
block 200.23.16.0/20. The ISP, in turn, could divide its
address block into eight equal-sized contiguous address blocks
and give one of these address blocks out to each of up to eight
organizations that are supported by this ISP.
  If you are configuring a host (computer):
 Manual configuration by system admin.
 Windows: Control panel  network configuration
TCP/IP  properties.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
 Dynamically get address from server (plug-and-play).
 Once an organization has obtained a block of addresses, it can
assign individual IP addresses to the host and router
interfaces in its organization.
 Host addresses can also be configured manually, but more
often this task is now done using the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
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 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Allow a host to obtain its IP address automatically.
 Other information such as subnet mask and DNS server will
also be obtained automatically.
 Each subnet must have a DHCP server.
 Alternatively, the router must be configured so that it can
relay a DHCP request to a DHCP server on a different
subnet.
 A DHCP server maintains a list of available IP
addresses.
 A host that joins the network will be given an available IP
address from the list.
 When the host leaves the network, the IP address will be
returned to the list and again becomes available.

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 Internet Protocol Versions(IPv4 & IPv6)
 Internet Protocol (IP) Version (IPv4) is currently the most
widely-used version of IP.
 It is the only IP protocol that is used to carry user data over
the Internet.
 IP version 6(IPv6) is developed and being
implemented in some areas.
 IPv6 will operate alongside IPv4 and may replace it in the
future.
 IPv4 basic characteristics:
 Connectionless -No connection is established before
sending data packets. 5

 Best Effort (unreliable) - No overhead is used to guarantee

 IPv4 addressing
 IP address is a 32 bit Internet address.
 Unique 32 bit IP address is assigned to each host in the Internet.
 Each device connected to the Internet must have a physical
(MAC) address and also a logical or Internet address.
 It is divided into two parts:
o First part identifies network (prefix).
o Second part identifies host (suffix).
 Global authority assigns unique prefix to network and
 Local administrator assigns unique suffix to host.

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 Internet address designers (IPV4) decided to divide the IP
address space into five classes varying in their size.
 These are:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
 Each class fixes the boundary between the network prefix and
the host number at a different point within the 32 bit
address.
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Contd
Finding the class in binary notation
Finding the address class
Finding the class in decimal notation
Netid and Hostid
 Class A networks ( /8 )
 Have 8 bit network prefix starting with 0 and 7 bit network
number, followed by 24 bit host number.
 A maximum of 126 (2^7-2) /8 networks can be defined.
 All zeros (00000000) is reserved for default route, & 127 is
reserved for the “loopback” (01111111).
 Each network supports a maximum of 16,777,214(2^24-2)
hosts.
 All zeros “for this network” and all ones for broadcast number in
each network.

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 Class B networks ( /16 )
 Has 16 bit network prefix starting with 10.
 14 bit network number & 16 bit host number.
 A maximum of 2^14= 16,384 networks can be
defined.
 2^16-2= 65,534 hosts per network.

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 Class C networks ( /24 )

 Each network address has a 24 bit network prefix.

 Starts with 110 and 21 bit network number.
 A maximum of 2^21= 2,097,152 networks can be
defined with up to 2 ^8-2 = 254 hosts per network.
 Class C’s individual addresses is 2^29 = 536,870,912.

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 Dotted decimal notation
 Was devised to make Internet addresses easier for
people to read and write.
 Shorthand for IP addresses.
 Allows humans to avoid binary.
 Represents each byte in decimal separating by dots.
 Four decimal values per 32 bit addresses.

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Dotted decimal notation

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 Reserved IPv4 Address Ranges
 The IPv4 address range is 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255= 2^32
 Not all of these addresses can be used as host addresses.
 Experimental Addresses
 Ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Reserved for
special purposes (research or experimentation).
 Host Addresses
 an address range of 0.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 is used for
IPv4 hosts. However, within this range are many addresses
that are already reserved for special purposes.

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 Special IPv4 Addresses
 Loopback
 is a special address that hosts use to direct
traffic to themselves.
 Although only the single 127.0.0.1 address is used,
addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 are
reserved.
 Link-Local Addresses

 These addresses can be automatically assigned to

the local host by the operating system in
environments where no IP configuration is
available.
 The address block is 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255
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 Contd
 TEST-NET Addresses
 The address block 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0
/24) is set aside for teaching and learning purposes. can be
used in documentation and network examples.
Default gateway
 Each PC is configured with an IP address and a default gateway.
 The default gateway is the IP address of a router port on the
same network as the PC.
 It is the router’s job to handle messages to other networks.
 Each router port is on a different network and has a different IP
address.
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 Problems with IPV4 addressing
 The eventual exhaustion of IPV4 address space.
 The need to route traffic between the increasing number of
networks that comprise the Internet.
 Addresses are assigned to those asked without concerns of
their actual need, but according their request.
 Lack of a network class that support medium size
organizations. (/24 supports 254 hosts, too small, while /16
supports 65,534 hosts, too large).

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 Sub netting
 Sub netting is the process of creating new networks (or
subnets) by stealing/borrowing bits from the host portion of a
subnet mask. stealing bits from hosts creates more networks
but fewer hosts per network.

 Two level class-full hierarchy

 Three level subnet hierarchy

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 Subnet mask
 The subnet mask is created by placing a binary 1 in each bit
position that represents the network portion and placing a
binary 0 in each bit position that represents the host portion.
Identifies how much of the address spaces are used for the
network and for the host.
 Identifies Prefix / suffix boundary.
 1 bits cover prefix and 0 bits cover suffix
• 10000010.00000101.00000101.00011001= 130.5.5.25/24
• 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 = 255.255.255.0
Default subnet mask for class A = 255.0.0.0
Default subnet mask for class B = 255.255.0.0
Default subnet mask for class C = 255.255.255.0
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Comparison of a default mask and
a subnet mask

The number of subnets must be

a power of 2.
 Subnet design
 Four key points taken into consideration:
 How many total subnets does the organization need
today?
 How many total subnets will the organization need in
the future?
 How many hosts are on the organization’s largest subnet
today?
 How many hosts will there be on the organization’s
largest subnet in the future?
 It is to take the maximum number of subnets required and
round up to the nearest power of two.
 To ensure that there are enough host addresses for the
organization’s largest subnet.
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 Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR)
 CIDR is a system of IP addressing and routing that solves
many problems of classful addressing by eliminating fixed
address classes in favor of a flexible, hierarchical
multiple level structure of networks of varying sizes.
 Advantages of CIDR:
 Efficient address space allocation
 Elimination of class imbalances

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 Slash notation

Slash notation is also called

CIDR
notation.
 A block in classes A, B, and C
can easily be represented in slash
notation as
A.B.C.D/ n
where n is
either 8 (class A), 16 (class B), or
24 (class C) or classless
 Classless Inter domain Routing (CIDR)
 Since there are no address classes in CIDR, one can not tell
the size of the network ID of an address from the address
alone.
 IN CIDR the length of the network ID (prefix) is
indicating by placing it following a slash after the
address.
 This is called CIDR notation or slash notation.
 Example: 184.13.152.0/22. “22” means this network has 22
bits for the network ID and 10 bits for host address.
 Its subnet mask is 255.255.252.0 and has a total of 1022(2^10-
2) hosts.

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 Classless Inter domain Routing (CIDR)
 Example:
 A middle size ISP has assigned an address 71.94.0.0/15,
means 15 bits network ID and 17 bits host address.
 It was assigned from a large size ISP
 71.94.0.0/15 has 131,070 possible host addresses (2^17-2).
 It is possible to create 2 subnets using 1 bite from the host
part = 71.94.0.0/16 and 71.95.0.0/16, each with 2^16-2
(65534) host addresses.

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 Data Link Layer
 It is the responsible of node to node delivery of messages.
Functions of DLL
 Framing: The layer which divides the stream of packets
received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
 Physical Addressing it adds physical address of sender and
receiver in the head of each frame.
 Error control and Flow control
 33

Error control and Flow control

 The most important responsibilities of the data link layer are

flow control and error control.

 Error Control involves both error detection and error
correction.
 It is necessary because errors are inevitable in data
communication, in spite of the use of better equipment and
reliable transmission media based on the current technology.
 Error
Single-bit error

Multiple-Bit Error:

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 Error detection
 Error Detection techniques allow to the destination to detect
errors.
 Sometimes undetected errors will still remain but the goal is to
minimize these errors.
 Error Detection mechanisms

 Parity Check

 CRC

 Check sum

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 Parity check- method
 A parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of

1’s in the unit becomes even or odd.

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 Example

The sender wants to send the data: 1110111 1101111

The actual bits sent are: 11101110 11011110

Without error: 11101110 11011110 are transmitted.

The receiver counts 1’s in each character and comes up with: (6, 6)
Accepted!

With error: 11111110 11011110 are transmitted

The receiver counts 1’s each character and comes up with: (7, 6)
The data are corrupted! discards them, and asks for
retransmission.
 CRC
Steps: First, a string of n 0’s is appended to the data unit.

 The number n is 1 less if-number of bits in the

predetermined divisor which is n + 1 bits.

 Second, the newly elongated data unit is divided by the

divisor, using binary division.

 The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.

 Third, the CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the

appended 0’s at the data unit.

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 Cont.’
 The data unit arrives at the receiver data first, followed by

the CRC.

 We assume that:

 There is no error, the remainder is therefore all 0’s, and the

data are accepted.

 There is error, the remainder is therefore non-zero, and the

data are discarded.

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Error correction
 Flow control
 Flow Control: refers to a set of procedures used to restrict
the amount of data that the sender can send before waiting for
acknowledgment.
 Is the process of rate of data transmission between two nodes to

prevent a faster sender from overwhelming a slow receiver and

it prevents receiver becoming overloaded.
 There are three methods developed for flow control
1 Stop-and-wait
2. Go-Back N ARQ
3. Selective Repeat ARQ.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 A transmitter sends a frame then stops and waits for an

acknowledgment.

 The sending device keeps a copy of the sent frame

transmitted until it receives an acknowledgment( ACK).

 The sender starts a timer when it sends a frame. If an ACK is

not received within an allocated time, the sender resends it.

 Both frames and acknowledgment (ACK) are numbered

alternately 0 and 1( two sequence number only).

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Stop and wait protocols

RTT = Round Trip Time

 Go Back N ARQ
 Go back –N retransmit all packets

 Based on sliding window

 Sliding window is a method for controlling transmitted

data packets b/n two network computers.
 Assume GB4:

 sender window size=4

 We need at least sequence number=4

 What happen during transmission of the frames?

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 Explanation- GB4
 ...
3 2 1 0 Sender Receiver
0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
1

If ACK s are lost

0
1
Retransmission 2
Frame duplication!
3
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 Selective Repeat ARQ
• Go-back-n ARQ is inefficient of a noisy link.

 In a noisy link frames have higher probability of damage ,

which means the resending of multiple frames.
 This resending consumes the bandwidth and slow down
the transmission .
solution:
 Selective repeat ARQ protocol : resent only the damage
frame
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 Explanation

Sender Receiver

Data-0

Data-1

Data-2

NACK-2 Frame-2 discarded

Retransmit Data-2 Data-2

.
. Data-3

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 Physical Layer
Physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry
a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission medium.
Functions of Physical layer
 Representation of bits
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode