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DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH PAPER

What is Case Study

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every
aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case
studies can be used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology,
political science, and social work.

The purpose of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that
the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly
subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other
types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, it is important to follow the rules of
APA format.

Benefits and Limitations

A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and
cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

Pros

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things
that are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:1

 Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information

 Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual cases
 Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

Cons

On the negative side, a case study:

 Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population

 Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
 May not be scientifically rigorous
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 Can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they are interested in exploring a unique or
recently discovered phenomenon. The insights gained from such research can help the
researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

However, it is important to remember that the insights gained from case studies cannot be used
to determine cause and effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be
used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's
work and theories were developed through the use of individual case studies. Some great
examples of case studies in psychology include:

 Anna O: Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of

a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and
Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a
condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems
helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of
talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
 Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible
accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important
portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes
in both personality and behavior.
 Genie: Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study
of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language could be taught even after
critical periods for language development had been missed. Her case also served as an
example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse
of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not
replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse had denied her the
opportunity to learn language at critical points in her development.
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This is clearly not something that researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case
study on Genie allowed researchers the chance to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible
to reproduce.

Types of Case Studies

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might
utilize:

 Collective case studies: These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers

might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For
example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has
affected the collective mental well-being of those living there.
 Descriptive case studies: These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects
are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
 Explanatory case studies: These are often used to do causal investigations. In other
words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things
to occur.
 Exploratory case studies: These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-
depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing
their research questions and hypotheses.
 Instrumental case studies: These occur when the individual or group allows researchers
to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
 Intrinsic case studies: This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal
interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of
how an intrinsic cast study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic
case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an
individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking
at several cases simultaneously.
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How to Write a Case Study

There are also different methods that can be used to conduct a case study, including prospective
and retrospective case study methods.

Prospective case study methods are those in which an individual or group of people is observed
in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an
extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective case study methods involve looking at historical information. For example,
researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then work their way backward to
look at information about the individual's life to determine risk factors that may have contributed
to the onset of the illness.

Where to Find Data

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather
information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by
researchers are:

 Archival records: Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of
archival records.
 Direct observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural
setting. While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a
group of observers.
 Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of
documents often used as sources.
 Interviews: Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information
in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended
questions.
 Participant observation: When the researcher serves as a participant in events and
observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
 Physical artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed
during a direct observation of the subject.
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Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information: The first section of your paper will present your client's background.
Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and
social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and
weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem: In the next section of your case study, you will
describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or
diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis: Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the
diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also
include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to
support why this approach was chosen.

 Cognitive behavioral approach: Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would

approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and
describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment.
Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
 Humanistic approach: Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your
client, such as client-centered therapy. Provide information on the type of treatment you
chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain
why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
 Psychoanalytic approach: Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the
client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite
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relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client,
how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
 Pharmacological approach: If treatment primarily involves the use of medications,
explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness
of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that
combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process,
and outcomes.

Discussion

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case
study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the
findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study.
What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about
exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

More Tips

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

 Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, their name or a
pseudonym.
 Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
 Remember to use APA format when citing references.

A Word From Verywell

Case studies can be a useful research tool, but they need to be used wisely. In many cases, they
are best utilized in situations where conducting an experiment would be difficult or impossible.
They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a great deal of
information about a specific individual or group of people.
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What is the purpose of a term paper?

 A term paper is a piece of academic writing where students must provide an

interpretation of data that has been collected through part of the course or a certain time
period. The main purpose is to show how the subject has been understood and what
lessons have been learned. This is precisely where a term paper helps achieve all of that.
Regarding the concept’s definition, term papers can focus on a particular event, a
scientific concept, or a point that must be argued. It will depend on the prompt that you
are given by an academic advisor that must be followed. Writing a term paper, the length
can be up to five or seven pages in length. The final term paper document is usually
submitted at the end of a college or university semester, thus constituting an important
assignment for you to write!

As you might already see, writing a term paper can be quite challenging and time-consuming,
even if the topic is already available. If you wish to succeed with this type of academic writing,
you have to plan ahead before you write and show good composition skills with proper analysis,
structure, and editing.

How to start a term paper correctly?

Preparation is one of the most important points to consider because you should already have
materials to work with, even before you start with an introduction for a term paper. The trick is
providing custom term paper writing by analyzing your learning and using an author’s voice.
Since the proposal subject chosen can be basically anything, this guide will focus on the general
points that will help!

Summing things up in terms of how to start, an average term paper format must ensure that these
seven steps have been followed:

 Choose your topic by focusing on what inspires you unless you are already given a topic.
 Take time to research and analyze your subject.
 Start with a term paper outline (see our templates in the next sections).
 Come up with a strong thesis statement before writing anything for body paragraphs.
 Provide topic sentences and practical examples.
 Provide a strong lesson in the conclusion if it suits the subject you write about.
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 Edit and proofread available information for trustworthiness.

Helpful tip: If you have been given a topic you are uncomfortable with and need assistance
with, here is the safe way to order term paper and let professionals handle the task.

Term paper structure and outline

Since there may be different college courses and types of academic writing work, a custom term
paper may differ from case to case! Still, it will have an introduction paragraph with a thesis
statement, three to five body paragraphs with your arguments and analytical writing, and a strong
conclusion. A bibliography is always necessary, even if you have only been using course
materials to write down some objectives or cited parts of the textbooks you have been consulting
through your work. Since a term paper is important for the final grade in a relevant course,
everything must be done according to the highest writing and editing standards.

Helpful tip: If you cannot submit your term paper on time or some paragraph makes you feel
confused, send your do my term paper for me message to our experts right away!

Now, let’s proceed with the typical term paper outline to help you determine how to work with
the writing process and reach the final parts. Remember that the most important thing is to keep
everything organized! While most students refuse to work with an outline and write an
introduction right away, it is only for your good and will help you to narrow things down and
always stay on track. Moreover, your professor may ask you to submit a term paper outline as
you start, so it is good to already have one for convenience and time-saving purposes.

Here is what a basic term paper outline will look like:

 Introduction. This is where you talk about the subject and a problem you are
researching. It helps to introduce your thesis statement and explain the objectives that
have been set.
 Body Paragraphs. As a rule, in writing college term papers, one must write down
several subheadings and headings to divide ideas and arguments into several (at least
four) paragraphs. As done below, each body paragraph should contain one idea and a
strong topic sentence.
 Heading 1: History of the argument and background.
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 Heading 2: Extent of the problem that you write about.

 Heading 3: Effects of the problem and possible causes.
 Heading 4: Possible solutions and outcomes.
 Conclusion. The final part should represent a strong summary and a response to your
thesis statement.

Helpful tip: In certain cases, your term paper for college may represent a type of reporting, so
learning how to write a research report may be necessary and quite helpful!

Step-by-step writing guide

Here are the basic college term paper writing steps that you have to take to compose an excellent
term paper regardless of your course and learning objectives:

STEP 1: DATA COLLECTION

Collect information about your topic and use notes from your learning course as you write.

STEP 2: EXPLAINING RESEARCH RELEVANCE

Explain why your research topic matters and develop a strong thesis statement.

STEP 3: INTRODUCING YOUR SUBJECT

Provide relevant introductory information. The main purpose is to introduce your thesis
statement and the main argument.

STEP 4: LITERATURE REVIEW PREPARATION

Offer a literature review with statistics and citations. It may include both course and external
sources approved by your academic advisor.

STEP 5: OFFERING RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

To start a term paper correctly, always focus on your results and offer strong arguments.

STEP 6: STRUCTURAL TERM PAPER EVALUATION

Check the structure and logic of your term paper as you write. It is recommended to check with
your grading rubric to ensure that everything has been completed correctly!
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STEP 7: CHECK YOUR CITATIONS AND REFERENCES

Double-check your references and writing style format. The same is true for editing and
proofreading upon completion!

Standard term paper format

Now that we have learned all the basics, reviewing and analyzing the term paper format is high
time. As has already been mentioned, what you write will largely depend on your course and the
specifics of your university. If you need help starting with a research term paper, check your
course notes to determine the learning objectives. If you are dealing with Economics or Business
Management, your term paper may relate to a case study.

Likewise, a paper related to social studies or education will focus on statistical data or works that
address the subject. As a way to provide you with a helpful term paper layout example, this term
paper writing guide focuses on the general points worth checking. It will be suitable for
university-level term paper writing. You can safely use this example before you write down your
own.

I. Title or cover page.

Start with creating a complete title page by including the title of your paper (centered), your full
name, the name of the college or university course, the name of your instructor or an academic
assistant, and the due submission date.

II. Acknowledgements page

a) Stating your topic and describing the subject.

b) Determining rationale and explaining why a particular topic has been chosen for research
purposes.

c) Additional information about anything necessary for an introduction and gratitude aspects if
you have to write these.

III. Table of Contents

Introduction for an essay term paper must conclude with a purpose statement where you present
the questions that your term paper will address with a brief overview of the subject.
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IV. Literature review

This is where you must explain the methods and procedures used to collect and process
information. Speak about details and offer practical examples as you write.

V. Results

In a certain sense, it is your conclusion of a term paper where you must describe your outcomes
and show whether your assumptions have been true or false.

VI. Recommendations

While it’s not an obligatory section like a term paper introduction, you may offer a moral lesson
at the end with suggestions for additional research.

VII. References

You must list all the references that have been used for in-text citations. Format them according
to the writing style and double-check the required citation format.

Helpful tip: We have checked and tested several academic assistance writing services aimed at
college students. Here is the list of reliable and legit paper writing services that have fully met
the expectations of our trained experts:

Helpful term paper examples

Undoubtedly, one of the best methods to get help writing a term paper is to see helpful examples
of something already done and checked by an expert. Keeping this fact in mind, our team has
taken the time and found several examples of a term paper for you that will make it easier to
check the structure and formatting:

 Term paper examples that earned an A grade from the University of Delaware
 Sample term paper offered by the Justus-Liebig Universitat Giessen
 Purdue Owl Lab Citation Formats Database
 Simon Fraser University Sample Term Paper

Following these successful academic examples and checking with the structure and basic rules
outlined in this guide, you should be able to deliver an excellent term paper that will impress all
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your friends and university professors! Just take your time to check the formatting and how each
point has been researched.

Term paper writing tips

Instead of a typical conclusion, let’s focus on the writing tips and recommendations that will help
you achieve success with your term paper and avoid the most common mistakes.

 Choose a topic that inspires you if you have an opportunity. If you have been given an
already existing prompt to write, research your subject online and ask about the use of
course materials. It will help you to narrow things down and already have source
materials for referencing purposes.
 If you can choose a subject to write a final paper for your course, think about something
you can support with statistical data and some practical evidence.
 Most importantly, keep your term paper relevant to the main objectives of your study
course.
 Keep your tone reflective and natural as you write.
 Double-check your grading rubric regarding limitations and obligatory requirements that
must be met.
 Always proofread your term paper aloud!
 If you have an opportunity, consider editing your term paper with the help of a friend or a
fellow college student.

What is an Academic Journal or a Research Paper?

 The terms "academic journal" and "scholarly journal" can be use synonymously.
Published academic or scholarly journals contain research papers that have been written
by experts or scholars from the field of study that the article is based in or about, making
them distinct from your regular essays.
 Thus, academic journals provide quality and reliable research papers. The papers and
articles that are included in academic journals would usually have been peer-reviewed as
well. This refers to the articles having been vetted and reviewed by other experts, and
made sure to have met standards for publication. If not, they are revised. This peer-
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review process makes sure that all the articles that are published are of the best quality
possible.
 Academic journals and the papers in it are intended to be read or referred to by other
experts and individuals pursuing a specific field of study, given that they are usually
more technically nuanced and advanced compared to articles you find elsewhere like in
magazines or on websites. The quality also makes articles from academic journals apt to
be used as secondary research and supporting evidence in student essays or assignments.
 The Purpose of Academic Journals or Research Papers
 Academic journals are produced to consolidate, communicate, and explain the results
gathered from recent research conducted in the field of study that the journal is based on
and about. They forward and accelerate the dissemination of legitimate knowledge
through the publication of high quality research papers and articles.
 The scholarly articles that are found in journals present systematic and thorough findings
from studies on a single topic. Apart from research papers, academic journals can also
include review articles that offer a robust summary of the current findings and knowledge
on a topic.
 Elements of Research Papers
 Upon first glance, the name or title of the journal would be clear, and academic and
professional in nature. The journal would also be published through a professional
organization or university press. Papers that are published in these academic journals
include the following:
 Abstract
 Papers from scholarly journals are to include abstracts; a summary of what the paper will
be addressing and discussing. This short summary should cover the more important
points of the paper, without the need to include background information. It could also
briefly describe the results of the studies conducted for the paper's research, and a 2 to 3
lines on the importance of the results collected.
 Author's Credentials
 Articles in academic journals are put together by experts and researchers from the
article's field of study. In this section, these authors' names would be found with
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academic credentials attached, such as Ph.D, M.D., etc, and their affiliations to particular
or esteemed institutions.
 Technical or Academic Language
 Articles are written by professionals in the field of study, for other professionals and for
individuals in academia. Technical jargon and academic language is the norm, and it is
used with the expectation that it would be familiar to readers.
 Introductions
 Unlike abstracts, the introductory sections in scholarly articles includes background
information. This section would also introduce the paper's research question, and what
and how the article would contribute to existing knowledge within the field accordingly.
The introduction should successfully introduce and explicate the purpose, problems and
limits of the topic of study.
 References
 Academic articles would require to systematically cite or state their sources of
information. These resources can be presented in multiple ways; as references at the end
of the paper, as endnotes or footnotes, or bibliography.
 Methods and Results - Charts, Graphs, Statistics
 In this section of an academic or research article, the results of the studies conducted and
the means through which they were arrived at are accounted for. Charts, tables, graphs,
diagrams, and other kinds of statistics are to be presented here if necessary. This section
any descriptions and explanations should be as nuanced and thorough as possible, to
ensure reliability and credibility.
 DOI Number
 A DOI number, or Digital Object Identifier number, is a very specific string or
combination of numbers and letters that are used as identifiers for academic articles. This
number is used to identify academic journal articles and research reports and link them on
the web.
 Literature Review
 Academic papers can also include literature reviews, or a survey and summary of the
current state of knowledge and scholarly sources on the very topic that the article is
addressing. Literature reviews need to successfully allow readers to identify the topic's
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relevant theories, other methodologies that have been employed in other studies, and gaps
that have not been addressed in existing research.
 Academic or scholarly journals are out together with the primary purpose of distribute
legitimate knowledge on the latest studies, research, and breakthroughs. They provide,
and validate, specific and in-depth knowledge about multiple areas of study and interest
for students and experts.
 With such publications, newer and more current knowledge and information will
continue to be discovered and consumed everywhere.

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as
the final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation, it is one of the longest
pieces of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from
start to finish: choosing a relevant topic, crafting a proposal, designing your
research, collecting data, developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions,
and writing concisely.

Thesis vs. thesis statement

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic
writing called a thesis statement. Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It

usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay, and should clearly and
concisely summarize the central points of your academic essay.

A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to
complete. It is generally a degree requirement for Master’s programs, and is also sometimes
required to complete a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts colleges.

Note:

Relatedly, you may sometimes hear the terms “thesis” and “dissertation” used interchangeably.
It’s important to note that their definitions differ significantly depending on your country.
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 In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.
 In other countries (particularly the UK), a dissertation is generally written at the
bachelor’s or master’s level.

How to structure a thesis?

The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

 Your discipline
 Your topic
 Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay. Just like in an essay, you
build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction, literature
review, methodology section, results section, discussion section, and conclusion section.
These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might
want to add an appendix.

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a list of thesis examples to help you get started.

 Example thesis #1: “Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the
‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807” by Suchait
Kahlon.
 Example thesis #2: “’A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man’: UNRRA,
India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947″ by Julian Saint Reiman.
 Example thesis #3: “An Introduction to Higher-Order Frames in Communication:
How Controversial Organizations Maintain Legitimacy Over Time” by Kees Smeets

Title page

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

 Your full title

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 Your full name

 Your department
 Your institution and degree program
 Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the
university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

Acknowledgements or preface

The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank
everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can
also choose to write a preface, but it’s typically one or the other, not both.

Abstract

An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should
include brief descriptions of your research objectives, methods, results, and conclusions. Though
it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your
thesis.

Tip

Write your abstract at the very end, when you’ve completed the rest of your thesis.

Table of contents

A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers
and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.

Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget
the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft
Word.

List of figures and tables

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While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them
to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the “Insert
Caption” feature.

List of abbreviations

If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should
include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations. This way, your readers can easily look up
any meanings they aren’t familiar with.

Glossary

Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialized or field-specific terms that may not
be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary. Alphabetize the terms you want to
include with a brief definition.

Introduction

An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations
for your reader. This should:

 Ground your research topic, sharing any background information your reader may need
 Define the scope of your work
 Introduce any existing research on your topic, situating your work within a
broader problem or debate
 State your research question(s)
 Outline (briefly) how the remainder of your work will proceed

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why,
and how” of your research.

Literature review

A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your
topic, encompassing:

 Selecting relevant sources

 Determining the credibility of your sources
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 Critically evaluating each of your sources

 Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review
should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:

 Addressing a gap in the literature

 Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
 Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
 Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
 Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not
the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyzes the concepts and theories that your
research hinges on.

Methodology

Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be
written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of
your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your
method was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

 Your overall approach (quantitative vs. qualitative)

 Your research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study)
 Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment
 Any tools or materials you used (e.g., computer software)
 The data analysis methods you chose (e.g., statistical analysis, discourse analysis)
 A strong, but not defensive justification of your methods

Results
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Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections
work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can
include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.

Your results section should:

 State each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, standard
deviation) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics, p values)
 Explain how each result relates to the research question
 Determine whether the hypothesis was supported

Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts) can be included as an appendix. You
can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.

Discussion

Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your
expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to
any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that
analysis in your literature review.

For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.

Conclusion

Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave
your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasize what your
research specifically has contributed to your field.

Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly,
wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.

Reference list

In order to avoid plagiarism, don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your
thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently
throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.
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Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles
include MLA, Chicago, and APA.

Tip

To make sure your citations are correctly and consistently formatted, use the Scribbr Citation
Generators!

Appendices

In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information
needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing
documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions. These can be added as appendices, to
save space in the main body.

Proofreading and editing

Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for
proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or
sloppy spelling errors!

Consider using a professional thesis editing service or grammar checker to make sure your final
project is perfect.

Defending your thesis

Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral
component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually
entails a presentation and Q&A session.

After your defense, your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental
honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there
are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a
defense.
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What Is a Dissertation?

A dissertation is a long-form piece of academic writing based on original research conducted by

you. It is usually submitted as the final step in order to finish a PhD program.

Your dissertation is probably the longest piece of writing you’ve ever completed. It requires
solid research, writing, and analysis skills, and it can be intimidating to know where to begin.

Your department likely has guidelines related to how your dissertation should be structured.
When in doubt, consult with your supervisor.

You can also download our full dissertation template in the format of your choice below. The
template includes a ready-made table of contents with notes on what to include in each chapter,
easily adaptable to your department’s requirements.

Note

“Thesis” and “dissertation” are sometimes used interchangeably, but their definitions differ per
country.

 In the US, a dissertation generally refers to the collection of research you conducted to
obtain a PhD.
 In other countries (such as the UK), a dissertation often refers to the research you conduct
to obtain your bachelor’s or master’s degree.

Dissertation committee and prospectus process

When you’ve finished your coursework, as well as any comprehensive exams or other
requirements, you advance to “ABD” (All But Dissertation) status. This means you’ve
completed everything except your dissertation.

Prior to starting to write, you must form your committee and write your prospectus or proposal.
Your committee comprises your adviser and a few other faculty members. They can be from
your own department, or, if your work is more interdisciplinary, from other departments. Your
committee will guide you through the dissertation process, and ultimately decide whether you
pass your dissertation defense and receive your PhD.
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Your prospectus is a formal document presented to your committee, usually orally in a defense,
outlining your research aims and objectives and showing why your topic is relevant. After
passing your prospectus defense, you’re ready to start your research and writing.

How to write and structure a dissertation

The structure of your dissertation depends on a variety of factors, such as your discipline, topic,
and approach. Dissertations in the humanities are often structured more like a long essay,
building an overall argument to support a central thesis, with chapters organized around different
themes or case studies.

However, hard science and social science dissertations typically include a review of existing
works, a methodology section, an analysis of your original research, and a presentation of
your results, presented in different chapters.

Dissertation examples

We’ve compiled a list of dissertation examples to help you get started.

 Example dissertation #1: Heat, Wildfire and Energy Demand: An Examination of

Residential Buildings and Community Equity (a dissertation by C. A. Antonopoulos about
the impact of extreme heat and wildfire on residential buildings and occupant exposure
risks).
 Example dissertation #2: Exploring Income Volatility and Financial Health Among
Middle-Income Households (a dissertation by M. Addo about income volatility and
declining economic security among middle-income households).
 Example dissertation #3: The Use of Mindfulness Meditation to Increase the Efficacy of
Mirror Visual Feedback for Reducing Phantom Limb Pain in Amputees (a dissertation by
N. S. Mills about the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on the relationship
between mirror visual feedback and the pain level in amputees with phantom limb pain).

Title page

The very first page of your document contains your dissertation title, your name, department,
institution, degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also includes your student
number, your supervisor’s name, and the university’s logo.
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Acknowledgements or preface

The acknowledgements section is usually optional and gives space for you to thank everyone
who helped you in writing your dissertation. This might include your supervisors, participants in
your research, and friends or family who supported you. In some cases, your acknowledgements
are part of a preface.

Abstract

The abstract is a short summary of your dissertation, usually about 150 to 300 words long.
Though this may seem very short, it’s one of the most important parts of your dissertation,
because it introduces your work to your audience.

Tip

Write your abstract at the very end, when you’ve completed the rest of your dissertation.

Your abstract should:

 State your main topic and the aims of your research

 Describe your methods
 Summarize your main results
 State your conclusions

Table of contents

The table of contents lists all of your chapters, along with corresponding subheadings and page
numbers. This gives your reader an overview of your structure and helps them easily navigate
your document.

Remember to include all main parts of your dissertation in your table of contents, even the
appendices. It’s easy to generate a table automatically in Word if you used heading styles.
Generally speaking, you only include level 2 and level 3 headings, not every subheading you
included in your finished work.

List of figures and tables

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While not usually mandatory, it’s nice to include a list of figures and tables to help guide your
reader if you have used a lot of these in your dissertation. It’s easy to generate one of these in
Word using the Insert Caption feature.

List of abbreviations

Similarly, if you have used a lot of abbreviations (especially industry-specific ones) in your
dissertation, you can include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations so that the reader can
easily look up their meanings.

Glossary

In addition to the list of abbreviations, if you find yourself using a lot of highly specialized terms
that you worry will not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary. Here,
alphabetize the terms and include a brief description or definition.

Introduction

The introduction serves to set up your dissertation’s topic, purpose, and relevance. It tells the
reader what to expect in the rest of your dissertation. The introduction should:

 Establish your research topic, giving the background information needed to contextualize
your work
 Narrow down the focus and define the scope of your research
 Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing your work’s relevance to a
broader problem or debate
 Clearly state your research questions and objectives
 Outline the flow of the rest of your work

Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and relevant. By the end, the reader
should understand the what, why, and how of your research.

Literature review

A formative part of your research is your literature review. This helps you gain a thorough
understanding of the academic work that already exists on your topic.

Literature reviews encompass:

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 Finding relevant sources (e.g., books and journal articles)

 Assessing the credibility of your sources
 Critically analyzing and evaluating each source
 Drawing connections between them (e.g., themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps) to
strengthen your overall point

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing sources. Your literature review should
have a coherent structure and argument that leads to a clear justification for your own research. It
may aim to:

 Address a gap in the literature or build on existing knowledge

 Take a new theoretical or methodological approach to your topic
 Propose a solution to an unresolved problem or advance one side of a theoretical debate

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework. Here, you define
and analyze the key theories, concepts, and models that frame your research.

Methodology

Your methodology chapter describes how you conducted your research, allowing your reader to
critically assess its credibility. Your methodology section should accurately report what you did,
as well as convince your reader that this was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

 The overall research approach (quantitative vs. qualitative) and research methods (e.g.,
a longitudinal study)
 Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment)
 Details of where, when, and with whom the research took place
 Any tools and materials you used (e.g., computer programs, lab equipment)
 Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical analysis, discourse analysis)
 An evaluation or justification of your methods

Results
 P a g e | 27

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. You can structure this
section around sub-questions, hypotheses, or themes, but avoid including any subjective or
speculative interpretation here.

Note

Whether your results section is combined with your discussion section or separate depends on
your discipline. Be sure to check your departmental guidelines to know how to best proceed. In
most quantitative designs, the results should be presented separately, prior to discussing their
meaning.

Your results section should:

Concisely state each relevant result together with relevant descriptive

statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics, p values)

Briefly state how the result relates to the question or whether the hypothesis was supported

Report all results that are relevant to your research questions, including any that did not meet
your expectations.

Additional data (including raw numbers, full questionnaires, or interview transcripts) can be
included as an appendix. You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader
better understand your results.

Discussion

Your discussion section is your opportunity to explore the meaning and implications of your
results in relation to your research question. Here, interpret your results in detail, discussing
whether they met your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that you built in
earlier chapters. Refer back to relevant source material to show how your results fit within
existing research in your field.

Some guiding questions include:

 What do your results mean?

 Why do your results matter?
 What limitations do the results have?
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If any of the results were unexpected, offer explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea
to consider alternative interpretations of your data.

Conclusion

Your dissertation’s conclusion should concisely answer your main research question, leaving
your reader with a clear understanding of your central argument and emphasizing what your
research has contributed to the field.

In some disciplines, the conclusion is just a short section preceding the discussion section, but in
other contexts, it is the final chapter of your work. Here, you wrap up your dissertation with a
final reflection on what you found, with recommendations for future research and concluding
remarks.

It’s important to leave the reader with a clear impression of why your research matters. What
have you added to what was already known? Why is your research necessary for the future of
your field?

Reference list

It is crucial to include a reference list or list of works cited with the full details of all the sources
that you used, in order to avoid plagiarism. Be sure to choose one citation style and follow it
consistently throughout your dissertation. Each style has strict and specific formatting
requirements.

Common styles include MLA, Chicago, and APA, but which style you use is often set by your
department or your field.

Appendices

Your dissertation should contain only essential information that directly contributes to answering
your research question. Documents such as interview transcripts or survey questions can be
added as appendices, rather than adding them to the main body.

Proofreading and editing

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Making sure that all of your sections are in the right place is only the first step to a well-written
dissertation. Don’t forget to leave plenty of time for editing and proofreading, as grammar
mistakes and sloppy spelling errors can really negatively impact your work.

Dissertations can take up to five years to write, so you will definitely want to make sure that
everything is perfect before submitting. You may want to consider using a professional
dissertation editing service or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect prior to
submitting.

Defending your dissertation

After your written dissertation is approved, your committee will schedule a defense. Similarly, to
defending your prospectus, dissertation defenses are oral presentations of your work. You’ll
present your dissertation, and your committee will ask you questions. Many departments allow
family members, friends, and other people who are interested to join as well.

After your defense, your committee will meet, and then inform you whether you have passed.
Keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality; most committees will have resolved any
serious issues with your work with you far prior to your defense, giving you ample time to fix
any problems.
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