General Physics (PHY 2140)

Lecture 12 Magnetic Fields

✓Faraday’s Law of Induction

✓Motional emf
✓Lenz’s Law
✓Induced emf and Electric Fields
✓Generators and Motors
✓Eddy Currents
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31.1. Faraday’s Law of Induction
Michael Faraday
British Physicist and Chemist (1791–1867)
➢ Faraday is often regarded as the
greatest experimental scientist of the
1800s.
➢ His many contributions to the study of
electricity include the invention of the
electric motor, electric generator, and
transformer as well as the discovery
of electromagnetic induction and the
laws of electrolysis.
➢ Greatly influenced by religion, he
refused to work on the development of
poison gas for the British military

➢ Electric currents produce magnetic fields (Oersted’s experiments)

➢ Can magnetic fields create electric currents? 2
31.1. Faraday’s Law of Induction

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31.1. Faraday’s Law of Induction

Figure 31.1 A simple experiment showing that a current is induced in a loop

when a magnet is moved toward or away from the loop 4
 Faraday’s experiment

The experiments show:

➢ An emf (Electromotive
force) is induced in a
loop when the magnetic
flux through the loop
changes with time.
➢ This emf is directly
proportional to the time
rate of change of the
magnetic flux through
the loop

Figure 31.2 Faraday’s experiment 5

Faraday’s law of magnetic induction
In all of those experiment induced EMF is caused by a change in the
number of field lines through a loop. In other words,
The instantaneous EMF induced in a circuit equals the rate of change
of magnetic flux through the circuit.


E= N
t
Lenz’s law The number of loops matters

Lenz’s Law: The polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a
current whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux
through the loop. That is, the induced current tends to maintain the
original flux through the circuit.

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31.1. Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s law of induction
An emf is induced in a loop when the magnetic flux through the
loop changes with time

is the magnetic flux through the loop

➢ If a coil consists of N loops with the same area and B is the

magnetic flux through one loop, an emf is induced in every loop

➢ The total induced emf in the coil

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31.1. Faraday’s Law of Induction
The induced emf as in Figure 31.3

An emf can be induced in the circuit in

several ways:
➢ The magnitude of B can change with
time.
➢ The area enclosed by the loop can
Figure 31.3 A conducting change with time.
loop that encloses an area A
in the presence of a uniform
➢ The angle  between B and the normal
magnetic field B The angle to the loop can change with time.
between B and the normal to ➢ Any combination of the above can
the loop is  occur
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 Quick Quiz 31.1

A circular loop of wire is held in a uniform magnetic field, with the

plane of the loop perpendicular to the field lines. Which of the
following will not cause a current to be induced in the loop?
(a) crushing the loop
(b) Rotating the loop about an axis perpendicular to the field lines
(c) keeping the orientation of the loop fixed and moving it along the
field lines
(d) pulling the loop out of the field

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10
 Some Applications of Faraday’s Law
The ground fault circuit (a) In an electric guitar, a vibrating magnetized
interrupter (GFCI) is an string induces an emf in a pickup coil.
interesting safety device (b) The pickups (the circles beneath the metallic
that protects users of strings) of this electric guitar detect the vibrations
electrical appliances of the strings and send this information through
against electric shock. Its an amplifier and into speakers. (A switch on the
operation makes use of guitar allows the musician to select which set of
Faraday’s law six pickups is used.)

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Example : EMF in a loop

A wire loop of radius 0.30m lies so that an external magnetic field

of strength +0.30T is perpendicular to the loop. The field changes
to -0.20T in 1.5s. (The plus and minus signs here refer to opposite
directions through the loop.) Find the magnitude of the average
induced emf in the loop during this time.

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 A wire loop of radius 0.30m lies so that an external magnetic field of strength
+0.30T is perpendicular to the loop. The field changes to -0.20T in 1.5s. (The
plus and minus signs here refer to opposite directions through the loop.) Find
the magnitude of the average induced emf in the loop during this time.

Given: The loop is always perpendicular to the field, so the

normal to the loop is parallel to the field, so cos = 1.
r = 0.30 m The flux is then
Bi = 0.30 T  = BA = B r 2
Bf = -0.20 T
t = 1.5 s Initially the flux is

 i = ( 0.30T )  ( 0.30m ) =0.085 T  m 2

2

Find:
and after the field changes the flux is

 f = ( −0.20T )  ( 0.30m ) =-0.057 T  m 2

EMF=? 2

The magnitude of the average induced emf is:

  f −  i 0.085 T  m 2 -0.057 T  m 2
emf = = = = 0.095V
t t 1.5s
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 Example 2: EMF of a flexible loop

The flexible loop in figure below has a radius of 12cm and is in a magnetic
field of strength 0.15T. The loop is grasped at points A and B and stretched
until it closes. If it takes 0.20s to close the loop, find the magnitude of the
average induced emf in it during this time.

A
X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X B X X

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Example 31.1 Inducing an emf in a Coil

A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square

of side d = 18 cm, and a uniform magnetic field directed
perpendicular to the plane of the coil is turned on. If the
field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50 T in 0.80 s, what is
the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while the
field is changing?

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Example 31.1 Inducing an emf in a Coil
A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side d = 18 cm, and a
uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the plane of the coil is turned
on. If the field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50 T in 0.80 s, what is the magnitude
of the induced emf in the coil while the field is changing?

Find the magnitude of the induced current in the coil while the field is changing?
➢ If the ends of the coil are not connected to a circuit → the current is zero!
(Charges move within the wire of the coil, but they cannot move into or out of
the ends of the coil)
➢ The ends of the coil must be connected to an external circuit (the coil is
connected to a circuit and the total resistance of the coil and the circuit is 2.0 V)
→ the magnitude of the induced current in the coil is

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Example 31.2 An Exponentially Decaying Magnetic Field

A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic

field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnitude of B varies in
time according to the expression B = Bmaxe-at, where a is some constant.
That is, at t = 0, the field is Bmax, and for t > 0, the field decreases
exponentially. Find the induced emf in the loop as a function of time

Figure 31.6 Exponential decrease in the magnitude of the magnetic field

through a loop with time. The induced emf and induced current in a
conducting path attached to the loop vary with time in the same way
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Example 31.2 An Exponentially Decaying Magnetic Field

A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic

field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnitude of B varies in
time according to the expression B = Bmaxe-at, where a is some constant.
That is, at t = 0, the field is Bmax, and for t > 0, the field decreases
exponentially. Find the induced emf in the loop as a function of time

→ The induced emf decays exponentially in time. The maximum

emf occurs at t = 0, where
→ The plot of  versus t is similar to the B-versus-t curve

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31.2 Motional EMF
Let's consider a conducting bar moving
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field with
constant velocity v.

F = qvB sin 
This force will act on free charges in the conductor.
It will tend to move negative charge to one end,
and leave the other end of the bar with a net
positive charge.

Figure 31.7 A straight electrical conductor of length ℓ, moving with a velocity v

through a uniform magnetic field B directed perpendicular to v 19
31.2 Motional EMF

The separated charges will create an electric field which

will tend to pull the charges back together.
When equilibrium exists, the magnetic force, F=qvB, will
balance the electric force, F=qE, such that a free charge
in the bar will feel no net force.
Thus, at equilibrium, E = vB. The potential difference
across the ends of the bar is given by V=El or
V = El = Blv
A potential difference is maintained across the conductor
as long as there is motion through the field. If the motion
is reversed, the polarity of the potential difference is also
reversed.

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31.2. Motional EMF – conducting rails

Figure 31.8 (a) A conducting

bar sliding with a velocity v
along two conducting rails
under the action of an applied
force Fapp. (b) The equivalent
circuit diagram for the setup
shown in (a)

We can apply Faraday's law to the complete loop. The change of flux through the
loop is proportional to the change of area from the motion of the bar:

or (Faraday’s law)
Motional EMF

The induced current 21

31.2. Motional EMF – conducting rails

Figure 31.8 (a) A conducting

bar sliding with a velocity v
along two conducting rails
under the action of an applied
force Fapp. (b) The equivalent
circuit diagram for the setup
shown in (a)

The power delivered by the applied force

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Quick Quiz 31.2 In Figure 31.8a, a given applied force of magnitude
Fapp results in a constant speed v and a power input P. Imagine that
the force is increased so that the constant speed of the bar is
doubled to 2v. Under these conditions, what are the new force and
the new power input?
(a) 2F and 2P (b) 4F and 2P
(c) 2F and 4P (d) 4F and 4P

Figure 31.8 (a) A conducting

bar sliding with a velocity v
along two conducting rails
under the action of an applied
force Fapp. (b) The equivalent
circuit diagram for the setup
shown in (a)

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Example 31.3 Magnetic Force Acting on a Sliding Bar

The conducting bar illustrated moves on two frictionless, parallel rails in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field directed into the page. The bar has
mass m, and its length is ℓ,. The bar is given an initial velocity vi to the right
and is released at t = 0
(A) Using Newton’s laws, find the velocity of the bar as a function of time
(B) Show that the same result is found by using an energy approach

Figure 31.9 A conducting bar of

length ℓ , on two fixed conducting
rails is given an initial velocity vi to
the right
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Example 31.3 Magnetic Force Acting on a Sliding Bar
The conducting bar illustrated moves on two frictionless, parallel rails in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field directed into the page. The bar has mass m,
and its length is ℓ,. The bar is given an initial velocity vi to the right and is released
at t = 0
(A) Using Newton’s laws, find the velocity of the bar as a function of time
(The negative sign indicates that the
force is to the left)

where 25
Example 31.3 Magnetic Force Acting on a Sliding Bar
The conducting bar illustrated moves on two frictionless, parallel rails in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field directed into the page. The bar has mass m,
and its length is ℓ,. The bar is given an initial velocity vi to the right and is released
at t = 0
(B) Show that the same result is found by using an energy approach
➢ Consider the sliding bar as one system component possessing kinetic energy,
which decreases because energy is transferring out of the bar by electrical
transmission through the rails.
➢ The resistor is another system component possessing internal energy, which
rises because energy is transferring into the resistor.
➢ Because energy is not leaving the system, the rate of energy transfer out of the
bar equals the rate of energy transfer into the resistor
➢ The power entering the resistor to that leaving the bar:

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Example 31.4 Motional emf Induced in a Rotating Bar

A conducting bar of length ℓ, rotates with a constant angular speed  about a

pivot at one end. A uniform magnetic field B is directed perpendicular to the plane
of rotation. Find the motional emf induced between the ends of the bar

Figure 31.10 A conducting bar rotating around a pivot at one end in a uniform
magnetic field that is perpendicular to the plane of rotation. A motional emf
is induced between the ends of the bar
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Example 31.4 Motional emf Induced in a Rotating Bar
A conducting bar of length ℓ, rotates with a constant angular speed  about a
pivot at one end. A uniform magnetic field B is directed perpendicular to the plane
of rotation. Find the motional emf induced between the ends of the bar

Let’s estimate the emf that is generated in this situation

(The magnitude of the magnetic field of the B = 0.5 x 10-4 T. A typical spoke on a
Ferris wheel might have a length on the order of 10 m. The period of rotation is on
the order of 10 s)

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31.3 Lenz’s law revisited

Application of Lenz's law will tell

us the direction of induced
currents, the direction of
applied or produced forces,
and the polarity of induced
emf's.
Lenz's law says that the induced current will produce
magnetic flux opposing this change. To oppose an
increase into the page, it generates magnetic field which
points out of the page, at least in the interior of the loop.
Such a magnetic field is produced by a counterclockwise
current (use the right hand rule to verify).

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Lenz’s law: energy conservation

We arrive at the same conclusion from

energy conservation point of view
The preceding analysis found that the
current is moving ccw. Suppose that this
is not so.
◼ If the current I is cw, the direction of the
magnetic force, BlI, on the sliding bar
would be right.
◼ This would accelerate the bar to the right,
increasing the area of the loop even more.
◼ This would produce even greater force Our original
and so on. assertion that the
◼ In effect, this would generate energy out of current is cw is
nothing violating the law of conservation of not right, so the
energy. current is ccw!
4/3/2019 30
 S The induced S
flux seeks to
S counteract S
v the change.
N v
N N

change change
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Quick Quiz 31.3 Figure shows a circular loop of wire falling toward a
wire carrying a current to the left. What is the direction of the
induced current in the loop of wire?
(a) clockwise
(b) counterclockwise
(c) zero
(d) (d) impossible to determine

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Example 31.5 Application of Lenz’s Law
A magnet is placed near a metal loop as shown in Figure
(A) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the
magnet is pushed toward the loop.
(B) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the
magnet is pulled away from the loop.

Figure 31.13 A moving bar magnet induces a current in a conducting loop

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Example 31.5 Application of Lenz’s Law
A magnet is placed near a metal loop as shown in Figure
(A) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is pushed toward the loop.
(B) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is pulled away from the
loop.

➢ The magnet moves to the right toward the loop (Fig a), the external magnetic flux
through the loop increases with time.
➢ To counteract this increase in flux due to a field toward the right, the induced current
produces its own magnetic field to the left → Figure 31.13b
➢ The left face of the current loop acts like a north pole and the righ face acts like a south
pole 34
Example 31.5 Application of Lenz’s Law
A magnet is placed near a metal loop as shown in Figure
(A) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is pushed toward the loop.
(B) Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is pulled away from the
loop.

➢ The magnet moves to the left (Fig c), the flux through the area enclosed
by the loop decreases in time.
➢ The induced current produces its own magnetic field to the right → Figure d
➢ The left face of the current loop is a south pole and the right face is a north pole

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 Example: direction of the current

Find the direction of the current induced in

the resistor at the instant the switch is
closed.

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Applications of Magnetic Induction

Tape / Hard Drive / ZIP Readout

◼ Tiny coil responds to change in flux as the magnetic domains (encoding
0’s or 1’s) go by.

Question: How can your VCR display an image while paused?

Credit Card Reader

◼ Must swipe card
→ generates changing flux
– Faster swipe → bigger signal

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 31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields
➢ This induced electric field is nonconservative,
unlike the electrostatic field produced by
stationary charges.
➢ To illustrate this point, consider a conducting
loop of radius r situated in a uniform magnetic
field that is perpendicular to the plane of the
loop

➢ The work done by the electric field in moving a

charge q once around the loop is equal to
q = The work done by the electric field in
moving the charge once around the loop is
qE(2r)

Figure 31.15 A conducting loop

of radius r in a uniform magnetic
field perpendicular to the plane
of the loop 38
 31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields
➢ The emf for any closed path can be
expressed as the line integral of over
that path

➢ Faraday’s law of induction

➢ The induced electric field E in Equation 31.9 is

a nonconservative field that is generated by a
changing magnetic field
➢ The field E that satisfies Equation 31.9 cannot
Figure 31.15 A conducting loop possibly be an electrostatic field because were
of radius r in a uniform magnetic the field electrostatic and hence conservative,
field perpendicular to the plane the line integral of over a closed loop
of the loop would be zero 39
Example 31.7 Electric Field Induced by a Changing Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length and carries a
timevarying current that varies sinusoidally as I = I max cos t, where Imax is the
maximum current and  is the angular frequency of the alternating current source

(A) Determine the magnitude of the induced electric field outside the solenoid at a
distance r > R from its long central axis.
(B) What is the magnitude of the induced electric field inside the solenoid, a
distance r from its axis?

Figure 31.16 A long solenoid carrying a

time-varying current given by I = I max cos t.
An electric field is induced both inside and
outside the solenoid

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Example 31.7 Electric Field Induced by a Changing Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length and carries a timevarying
current that varies sinusoidally as I = I max cos t, where Imax is the maximum current and  is
the angular frequency of the alternating current source
(A) Determine the magnitude of the induced electric field outside the solenoid at a
distance r > R from its long central axis.
(B) What is the magnitude of the induced electric field inside the solenoid, a distance r from
its axis?

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Example 31.7 Electric Field Induced by a Changing Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length and carries a timevarying
current that varies sinusoidally as I = I max cos t, where Imax is the maximum current and  is
the angular frequency of the alternating current source
(B) What is the magnitude of the induced electric field inside the solenoid, a distance r from
its axis?
r < R)

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