COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE III: (CONTROL ENGINEERING)

Instrumentation and measurement system and introduction to

mechatronics

Prepared By:

1. GADISA GUDETA (MSC)

2. ZERIHUN GETACHEW (MSC)

JANUARY, 2023

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Tables of contents

Contents
Tables of contents ............................................................................................................................. 2
INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT ......................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER ONE: BASICS OF MEASUREMENTS AND ITS CONCEPTS ................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO: TRANSDUCER ........................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 3: SIGNAL CONDITIONING ................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 4– TRANSDUCER AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM................................................................ 23
CHAPTER FIVE: DISPLAY DEVICES AND RECORDERS .......................................................................... 28
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS ............................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER TWO. ACTUATION SYSTEM FOR MECHATRONICS ............................................................. 49
CHAPTER THREE: PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC ACTUATION SYSTEMS ............................................ 61
CHAPTER FOUR: SENSOR COMMUNICATION DESIGN ...................................................................... 74
CHAPTER FIVE: MICROCONTROLLER AND MICROPROCESSOR .......................................................... 86
CHAPTER SIX: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER ...................................................................... 95

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INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER ONE: BASICS OF MEASUREMENTS AND ITS CONCEPTS

WHAT IS MEASUREMENT?

An act of acquiring information by comparison between an Unknown quantities to a

predefined standard. After comparison the results are expressed in numerical values. The
process of converting any physical parameters into meaningful number is called
measurement.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS: An act of acquiring electrical quantities using electrical

circuits in electrical instrument.

Instrumentation: The field of designing measuring instruments and systems is called

Instrumentation.

Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of an unknown quantity or

variable.

The purpose of measurement system is to give the user a numerical value corresponding to
the variable being measured.

Requirement of measurement system

 The standards used must be accurately defined and universally accepted.

 The equipment and method for the measurement should be proved

Methods of measurement

1. Direct method

2 Indirect method

1. Direct method: The measurand (unknown qty) is directly compared against a standard, &
results is in terms of numbers and units

Example: Length, Mass and Time

2 Indirect methods Effect t of the measurand on another known characteristics or

element is measured as a new quantity direct method is not possible for measurement

 Not possible
 Not feasible

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Classifications of Indirect method

Measurement by conversion
 the measurand is converted into directly measurable quantity
Measurement by substitution
 The element carrying the measurand is placed into the measuring device, and
then substituted by some accurately known standard.
The application of null method.
 Bridges method uses the null method which has a high degree of accuracy.

Purpose of measurement

Purpose in industrial manufacturing and processing

 Improve the quality of the product

 Improve the efficiency of production

 Maintain the proper operation

Structure of measurement systems

SENSING ELEMENT:

 This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some way on
the variable to be measured.

Examples

 Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature

 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

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 SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT:
 This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more
suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency
signal.
Examples
 Deflection bridge which convert an impedance change into a voltage change
 Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

Signal processing element:

 This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form
more suitable for presentation
Example
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital
form for input to a computer.
 Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the
incoming digital data.

Data presentation element:

This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized by the observer.

Examples

 Alphanumeric display

 Chart recorder

 Visual display unit (VDU).

TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS [principle based]

1. Mechanical instruments

2. Electrical instruments

3. Electronic instruments

Mechanical instruments

 Very static and stable

 Not for dynamic applications

They have moving parts, and hence Inertia problems arises

Electrical instruments

Devices that used to describe physical properties of electricity

Example: Electric current, voltage, etc.

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  Output is generally a mechanical movements
 Limited time of response

Electronic instruments

Devices consisting of a large number of small complex parts of that utilize electricity.

Examples. Electronic computers or microchip, more reliable, higher sensitivity, recording

capabilities. Measured and monitored even in remote locations. Have a Lower weight and
Lesser power consumption

Characteristics of an Instrument

Static characteristics

 When measurand is either constant or slow varying

 A set of criteria that gives meaningful description of the quality of measurement

 Accuracy, Sensitivity, Reproducibility, Drift, Static error and Zone

Dynamic characteristics

 Instruments and measurements involved in rapidly varying quantities

 To establish a relation b/w the input and output in terms of mathematical equations

 Speed of Response, Measuring Lag, Fidelity and Dynamic error

CALIBRATION = ????

The process of checking the instrument against a known standard and Subsequently to find
ERRORS and ACCURACY

Speed of Response

Rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

What is TRUE VALUE ? [IDEAL VALUE]

Defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values, when the average deviation
due to various contributing factor tends to ZERO

INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS

It is because of:

1. Inherent short comings in the Instrument

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2. Misuse of the Instrument

3. Loading Effect

Random ERRORS

Errors because of:

1. Un known happenings

2. Unaware disturbances

3. Very small factors

Lumped together to give this errors, also called as RESIDUAL ERRORS

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER TWO: TRANSDUCER

Transducers are Electrical quantities, such as current, voltage, etc. They produce electrical
signals. Hence their measurements involve proper conditioning of the signals and displaying
them in convenient ways. Transducers are seldom necessary in such measurements.
Sometimes called sensors’ or detectors, transducers more often than not constitute the first
stage of an instrumentation set up for the measurement of non-electrical quantities.

Is a device which receives energy in one form or state and transfers it to a convenient form or
state. So, transduction is just not conversion of energy from one form to another. The
transducer or the responding device can be mechanical, electrical, optical, acoustic, magnetic,
thermal, nuclear, chemical or any of their combinations.

But, of course, devices with electrical output are preferred for the following reasons:

 The signal can be conditioned, i.e. modified, amplified, modulated, etc. as desired.
 A remote operation as well as multiple readout is possible
 Devices, such as op-amps are available to ensure a minimal loading of the system.
 Observer-independent data acquisition and minute control of the process with the help
of microprocessors, or for those matter computers, are possible.

Classification of Transducers

Transducers can broadly be divided into the following categories:

• Active and passive transducers

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 • Analogue and digital transducers

• Primary and secondary transducers

• Direct and inverse transducers

• Active and Passive Transducers

Active transducers are self-generating devices, their functioning being based on conversion
of energy from one form to another. And since they generate energy themselves, no external
source of energy is necessary to excite them. For example, the thermocouple is an active
transducer. Depending on their principles of operation, active transducers can be

Thermoelectric, Piezoelectric, Photovoltaic, Electromagnetic and Galvanic

Passive transducers, on the other hand, do not generate any energy. They need be excited by
the application of electrical energy from outside. The extracted energy from the measured
produces a change in their electrical state which can be measured. For example, a photo
resistor can be excited by an emf from a cell and the voltage against the photo resistor can be
measured. When exposed to a light of certain intensity (measurand) its resistance changes,
thus changing the voltage across it.

Depending on their principles of operation, passive transducers can be

1. Resistive 4. magneto resistive 7. Elastoresistive

2. Inductive 5. Photoconductiv 8. Hall effect-based

3. Capacitive 6. Thermoresistiv

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Analogue and Digital Transducers

Analogue transducer converts the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time. Digital transducers generate output in the discrete form. Converts input
quantity into electrical output which is in the form of pulse.

Primary and Secondary Transducers

A transducer is said to be a primary transducer when the applied signal is directly sensed by
it. Or A transducer producing output in the electrical format may be the first element in an
instrumentation system. Generally, such sensing elements are called primary transducers.
Sometimes, as for example in pressure measurement, a mechanical sensor senses the input
and then another device converts the output of that sensor to an electrical format. There, the
latter sensors are called secondary transducers.

Direct and Inverse Transducer

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A direct transducer is a device which receives energy in one form or state and transfers it to
an electrical signal. The sensing device can be mechanical, optical, acoustic, magnetic,
thermal, nuclear, chemical or any of their combinations.

Inverse transducer is the transducer which converts electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity. A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field may be called an inverse
transducer because the current carried by it is converted to a force which causes translational
or rotational displacement.

Strain gauges

Is basically a device used for measuring mechanical surface strain and is one of the most
extensively used electrical transducers. Physical quantities such as torque, pressure, weight
and tension etc. can be measured by strain gauges.

Working principle

The working of strain gauge is based on the fact that when stress is applied on the metal
conductor its resistance changes owing to change in length and x-sectional area of the
conductor. Resistance of the conductor under stress is also changed in due to change in
resistivity of the conductor, this property is called the piezo-resistive effect (the linear
electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline
materials). That is why strain gauges are also called the piezo-resistive strain gauges.

If a conductor of length l, area of cross-section A is subjected to axial tension, the resistance

will change because of change in length, area of x-section and resistivity of the material.

• Resistance of an unstrained conductor is given by an expression

Let under strained conditions resistance of conductor be changed by ΔR because of change in

length by Δl, cross-sectional area by ΔA and resistivity byΔρ .these quantities can be related
with each other by differentiating above expression with respect to stress.
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Types of strain gauges

1. Wire strain gauge 2. Thin film strain gauges and

3. Foil strain gauge 4. Semiconductor strain gauge

Wire strain gauges

 are normally of smaller size

 are subject to minimal leakage

 can be employed in high temperature application

The characteristics that should be possessed by wire strain gauges in order to give excellent
and reproducible results are as follows:

1. The element of the wire strain gauge should be of low resistance temperature
coefficient so that measurement accuracy is not affected by variations in
temperature.

2. Wire strain gauges should be of resistance as high as possible so that accuracy of

measurement is not affected due to small variations in resistance of measuring circuit.

3. Wire strain gauges should have a high value of gauge factor so that a large change in
resistance is obtained for a particular value of strain resulting in high sensitivity.

4. Wire strain gauges should be of linear characteristics for its entire range in order to
have easy calibration.

5. Wire strain gauges should have very good frequency response as these are frequently
employed for dynamic measurements.

Wire strain gauges are of two types namely

(a) Unbounded wire strain gauges

(b) Bonded wire strain gauges

Unbounded wire strain gauges

As name indicate, resistance wire is not bonded on a base ,instead of that strain is directly
transferred to the resistance wire and so a smaller force is required for changing the wire’s
length. In such a strain gauge the resistance wires of about 25 micron diameter are stretched
between a stationary frame and an armature that is supported in the center of the frame as
shown in the figure below.

Since the resistance wires would buckle under compressive forces, an internal Preload,
greater than expected compressive load is used. Four resistance wires are generally connected
in four arms of a Wheatstone bridge as shown below.
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Bonded wire strain gauges

The most common type of bonded wire strain gauge used for detecting displacements caused
by large forces in flat grid type, as shown below.

Main drawbacks of Bonded wire strain gauges

Resistance of the loop lengths at the end of the wires also changes due to transverse strain
and cause serious error.

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 Its resistance also depends on temperature and so a change in temperature of the surrounding
environment (or induced because of stress) can cause serious error. To counteracting this
temperature effect, a second strain gauge, identical to first one, can be mounted on the same
structure in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the force. The force has no effect
on this strain gauge, as it is not aligned with the force, and that is why it is called the dummy
gauge.

The purpose of this dummy gauge is to cancel out any temperature related resistance
variation in the active gauge. with both gauges experiencing the same temperature, any
resistance variation in the active gauge due to temperature variations appears in the dummy
gauge too ,therefore , the bridge remains balanced. In this ways, variations due to temperature
can be eliminated as a source of error. This dummy gauge is wired into the Wheatstone
bridge as shown in the fig. below.

Single wire type gauge

Two or more wires are stretched across and laid as shown below, instead of loop formed by
the same wires thick copper wires are used for joining the ends, reducing the cross-sensitivity
considerably. Such gauges are not very popular and are used for large gauge lengths only.

Woven type gauge

A silk-insulated Eureka wire is wound as the weft on a rayon wrap. Such a gauge is useful
for tests on fabrics and leather.

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Foil strain gauges

It is basically an extension of the bonded wire strain gauge differs in construction and has
certain advantages. The bonded wire strain gauges have been completely superseded by foil
strain gauges. In such gauges, metal foils are used instead of wire as shown below. The
required grid pattern is formed from a very thin foil of the same material as that used in wire
strain gauges by photo-etching (cold chemical process that corrosively removes unwanted
material) processes that permits great flexibility with regard to shape. The thickness of foil
varies from 2.5 microns to 6 microns.

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Thin Film strain Gauges

A thin film strain gauge is produced by depositing a thin layer of metal alloy on an elastic
metal specimen by means of vacuum deposition or sputtering process. This molecularly
bonded to the specimen under test, so the drawbacks of the epoxy adhesive bond are
eliminated. This technique is most widely used for transducer applications such as in
diaphragm-type pressure gauges.

For producing thin film strain gauge transducers, first an electrical insulation such as a
ceramic is deposited on the stressed elastic metal member such as a diaphragm or beam and
then strain gauge alloy is deposited on the top of the insulation layer. Both layers may be
deposited either by vacuum deposition (is a family of processes used to deposit layers atom-
by-atom or molecule-by-molecule at sub-atmospheric pressure (vacuum) on a solid surface)
or sputtering process (a process whereby atoms are ejected from a solid target material due to
bombardment of the target by energetic particles).

Semi-conductor strain gauges

Semiconductor strain gauges are based on the piezo-resistive property of doped (doping
intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic)
semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties.) silicon and germanium
and that is why the transducers based on semiconductor gauges are often called piezo-
resistive transducers. They are made as continuous films of germanium or silicon base
materials.

Potentiometers

Is very simple and cheap form of transducer. It converts linear or rotational displacement into
voltage. The simplest and cheapest form is a single length of wire along which a slider or
other form of moving device contacts the wire. The position of the slider determines the
effective length of the conductor. Hence a change in electrical resistance or voltage drop is
related to the position or displacement of the slider. In a wire-wound resistive potentiometer a
very thin (0.01mm diameter) wire of platinum or nickel alloy is wound uniformly throughout
its length with a sliding contact called the wiper.
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 • Translatory potentiometer = potentiometer having translatory motion of the wiper.

• Rotary potentiometers = potentionmeter having rotary motion of wiper

• Helipot = potentiometer in which the wiper has translational motion as well as

rotational motion

Piezoelectric transducers

In some crystalline or ceramic materials, a potential difference appears across the opposite
faces of the materials as a result of dimensional changes when a mechanical force is applied
to it. This is called the piezoelectric effect and such materials are called the piezoelectric
material. This effect is reversible also i.e., when a potential difference is applied across the
opposite faces of the materials, it changes its physical dimensions. This principle uses for
constructing transducers which converts mechanical energy into electrical and the reverse.

Piezoelectric transducers which converts mechanical into electrical energy are widely uses
for measurement of dynamic pressure, force and shock or vibratory motion. Piezoelectric
transducers which convert electrical into mechanical energy are employed in small vibration
shakers, sonar systems for acoustic ranging and direction detection, industrial ultrasonic non-
destructive test equipment, pumps for ink-jet printers, ultrasonic flow meters, and micro
motion actuators. Piezoelectric are of three types namely natural crystals such as quartz and
Rochelle salt; synthetic crystals such as lithium sulphate , ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate, and polarized ferroelectric ceramics such as barium titanate, etc.

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Inductive transducers

Are passive transducers. These transducers operate, generally, upon one of the following
three principles

1.Variation of self inductance of the coil

2.Variation of mutual inductance of the coil

3. Production of eddy currents

Transducers operating on the principle of variation of self-inductance

Transducers operating on the principle of production of eddy current

Conducting plate is kept near a coil carrying alternating current, eddy currents are induced in
the conducting plate, producing its own magnetic field in opposition to the main field created
by the coil.

Thus eddy currents induced in the conducting plate reduce the net flux linking with the coil
and so inductance of the coil is reduced.

The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the induced eddy currents and so higher is
the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus, the inductance of the coil changes with the
movement of the plate.

Linear variable differential transformer(LVDT)

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It is the most widely used inductive transducer for translating the linear motion into an
electrical signal. It consists of Primary winding P and two identical secondary windings S 1
and S2 , wound over a hollow bobbin of non-magnetic and insulating material The two
secondary winding which have equal number of turn arranged concentrically and placed
either side of the primary winding.

A soft iron core, attached to the sensing element of which displacement is to be measured, in
the shape of rod or cylinder slides freely in the hollow portion of the bobbin.

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER 3: SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Objective:

• To understand and explain the process of modification of the measured result to

become compatible with data presentation stage.
• Familiarize the different types of signals and amplifier

Introduction

The first stage of the instrumentation or measurement system which detects the measured
(physical quantity) is termed as detector-transducer stage. In this stage in most cases, the
quantity is detected and is transduced into an electrical form. Output from the first stage
needs certain modifications before it becomes compatible with the data presentation stage.
The necessary modification is carried out in the intermediate stage, more commonly referred
to as signal conditioning stage. The last stage of the measurement system may consist of
indicating, recording, displaying, data processing elements or may consist of control
elements.

Intermediate modifying (Signal conditioning) device

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In most cases, the mechanical quantity which was detected will be transduced into an
“electrical form". The output of the first stage has to be amplified (signal conditioning) before
it is fed to the third or terminating stage such as indicators, recorders or control elements.

Signal conditioning equipment used may be of mechanical, electrical electronic. Mechanical

types (using elements such as linkages, gearing, cams) have many limitations such as friction,
inertia, nonlinearity, backlash, elastic deformation. Hence electrical and electronic systems
are used which are free from these drawbacks. Also they give large voltage and power
amplifications required to the recording devices. The mechanical signals transduced into
electrical signals are not only amplified but in special types, signal conditioning may involve
filtering, integration, differentiation, remote recording etc.

Common types of signal conditioning

1. Amplification: Means enhancement of the signal level which often in the low level
range. The amplification system must bring the level of transducer signal to a value
adequate enough to make it useful for conversion, processing, indicating and
recording. By amplifying the input signal, the conditioned signal uses more of the
effective range of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and enhances the accuracy
and resolution of the measurement.
2. Attenuation: is the opposite of amplification. It is necessary when the voltages to be
digitized are beyond the input range of the digitizer.
This form of signal-conditioning diminishes the amplitude of the input signal so that
the conditioned signal is within the range of the ADC (analog-to-digital converter).
Attenuation is necessary for measuring high voltages.
3. Filtering is required to remove unwanted frequency components from a signal,
primarily to prevent aliasing and reduce signal noise. Thermocouple measurements
typically require a low-pass filter to remove power line noise from the signals.
Vibration measurements normally require an antialiasing filter to remove signal
components beyond the frequency range of the acquisition system.
4. Excitation Many sensors, such as RTDs, strains gauges, and accelerometers, require
some form of power to make a measurement. Excitation is the signal-conditioning
technology required to provide this power. This excitation can be a voltage or current
source , depending on the sensor type.
5. Linearization Some types of sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly
related to the physical quantity they are measuring. Linearization, the process of
interpreting the signal from a physical measurement, can be done either with signal-
conditioning or through software. Are the classic example of a sensor that requires
linearization.

Signal conditioning and Processing

Since, we are familiar with transducer. We must now examine how to process the output of
the transducers into the form required by the rest of the instrument system. Most modern
equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
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 1) Electric 4 to 20 mA
2) Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
3) Digital standards
4) Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V.

The vast array of instrumentation and control equipment available uses many forms of
signals.

Here is a summary:-

o ELECTRICAL - Voltage, current, digital.

o MECHANICAL - Force and movement.

o PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC – Pressure and flow.

o OPTICAL – High speed digital signal transmission.

o RADIO – Analogue and digital transmission.

o ULTRA VIOLET – Similar application to radio over short ranges.

Processing may do the following things.

o Change the level or value of the signal (e.g. voltage level)

o Change the signal from one form to another.

(e.g. current to pneumatic)

o Change the operating characteristic with respect to time.

o Convert analogue and digital signals from one to the other.

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

a measuring device converts a primary indication into some form of energy that can easily be
displayed on a scale; some transmitters also do the same things. Transmitters could be
considered as devices which transmit the value of the primary variable at a considerable
distance from the primary element. if transmission is to be carried over very long distances,
then devices are known as telemeters the terms data transmission and telemetry refer to the
process by which the measurand is transferred to a remote location for the purpose of being
processed, recorded and displayed. For transmission purposes, the measured variable is
converted into a transmittable signal (either pneumatic or electrical), so that it can be received
by a remote indicating, recording, or controlling device.

SIGNAL CONVERTERS

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The converters are series of transducers which play an important role in the modern
instrumentation, linking electrical (voltage and current based) and pneumatic control systems
together. Signal converters change the signal from one form to another.

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

CRO is the most versatile readout device for mechanical measurements. It is used for
measurement and analysis of waveforms and other phenomenon in electrical and electronic
circuits.CRO is a voltage sensitive instrument with an electron beam striking the fluorescent
screen. The extremely low inertia beam electrons enables it to be used for following the
rapidly varying voltages. The heart of the CRO is the cathode ray tube (CRT),whose
important parts are,

1.Electron gun assembly

The electron gun assembly produces a sharply focused beam of electrons which in turn
are accelerated to high velocity. This beam of electrons strikes the fluorescent screen with
sufficient energy to cause a luminous spot on the screen.

2.Electron gun

An electron gun emits electrons and makes them into a beam. It consists of a heater ,
cathode , grid ,focusing and accelerating anodes. Electrons are emitted from an indirectly
heated cathode. These pass through a small hole in the control grid. The grid controls the

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electrons emitted from the cathode and hence the intensity of beam. The electrons are then
accelerated by accelerating anodes.

3.Deflection plates

These are two pairs of electrostatic plates. A voltage applied to a pair of vertical plates moves
the electron beam vertically up or down. And if the voltage is applied to the pair of horizontal
plates, the electron beam moves horizontally from one end to other end of the screen. The
CRT is evaluated so that the emitted electrons can move freely from one end of the tube to
the other. Usually in CRO’s,the horizontal voltage is internally developed where as the
vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation (input).this voltage moves the luminous
spot up and down in accordance with the instantaneous value of voltage. In other words, it
traces the "wave form” of the input voltage w.r.t time. CRO’s can also be used to visualize
various quantities such as current ,strain ,acceleration ,pressure if they can be converted into
voltages.

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INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER 4– TRANSDUCER AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Outlines:

• Pressure measurement

• Velocity measurement

• Discharge measurement

• Viscosity measurement

• Density measurement

Pressure measurement

The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices Manometers and Mechanical
gauges Manometers: are devices which are used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are
classified as: Simple manometers and Differential manometers Mechanical gauges: are
devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead
weight.

The simple manometer: consists of a glass tube having one of its end connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere. The
common types of the simple manometers are: piezometer, u-tube manometer and single
column manometer

Piezometer: It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. And
One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and the
other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in fig 5.1. The rise of liquid gives the pressure
head at that point. For example, if you want to measure the pressure at point A given the
fluid is water, the height of the liquid water rises h meter in piezometer tube, then the
pressure at A would be.

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U-tube manometer: it consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected
to a point at which pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in fig. 5.2. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid
whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be
measured.

Single column manometer: A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube

manometer in which a reservoir a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to
the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as
shown in fig 4.3. Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in
pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be
neglected and hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other
limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus, there are two types of single column manometer as:

 Vertical single column manometer, and

 Inclined single column manometer

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Velocity measurement

Velocity constitutes an important parameter in kinematics and dynamics of fluid flow. Thus,
its measurement is quite important. Velocity measuring devices may be classified as: Three-
cup anemometer; Savonius rotor; Turbine mounted in a duct; Free-propeller meter, Hot-wire
anemometer; (f) hot-film anemometer; Pitot-static tube; Laser - Doppler Anemometer, each is
shown in figure below.

Basically we can classify velocity measuring devices as:

 Instruments like the pitot - tube and hot wire anemometers which measure the local
velocity at a point in the channel or duct through which the fluid is flowing.

 Instruments like the cup and vane anemometers which measures the average
velocity of fluid flow.

The Pitot static tube:

Pitot probes (also called Pitot tubes) and Pitot-static probes, named after the French engineer
Henri de Pitot (1695–1771), are widely used for flow velocity measurement. Is a slender tube
aligned with the flow can measure local velocity by means of a pressure difference. It has
sidewall holes to measure the static pressure Ps in the moving stream and a hole in the front
to measure the stagnation pressure Po, where the stream is decelerated to zero velocity.
Instead of measuring Po or Ps separately, it is customary to measure their difference with a
transducer, as in Fig. below.

A Pitot probe is just a tube with a pressure tap at the stagnation point that measures
stagnation pressure, while a Pitot-static probe has both a stagnation pressure tap and several
circumferential static pressure taps and it measures both stagnation and static pressures.

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 • It consists of a slender double-tube aligned with the flow and connected to a
differential pressure meter. The inner tube is fully open to flow at the nose, and thus
it measures the stagnation pressure at that location (point 1). The outer tube is sealed
at the nose, but it has holes on the side of the outer wall (point 2) and thus it measures
the static pressure.

• In its elementary form, a pitot tube consists of an L-shape tube; a tube bent through
90o and with ends unsealed.

• One limb called the body is inserted into the flow stream and aligned with the
direction of flow whilst the other limb called the stem is vertical and open to the
atmosphere as shown in fig. below.

Fig. 4.9: P
p

Discharge measurement

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A major application area of fluid mechanics is the determination of the flow rate of fluids,
and numerous devices have been developed over the years for the purpose of flow metering.

Flow meters range widely in their level of sophistication, size, cost, accuracy, versatility,
capacity, pressure drop, and the operating principle.

We will look at an overview of the different meters commonly used to measure the flow rate
of liquids and gases flowing through pipes or ducts. Here, we limit our consideration to
incompressible flow.

Some flow meters measure the flow rate directly by discharging and recharging a measuring
chamber of known volume continuously and keeping track of the number of discharges per
unit time.

But most flow meters measure the flow rate indirectly - they measure the average velocity V
and determine the volume flow rate using:

• Therefore, measuring the flow rate is usually done by measuring flow velocity, and
most flow meters are simply called velocimeters used for the purpose of metering
flow.

• The velocity in a pipe varies from zero at the wall to a maximum at the center, and it
is important to keep this in mind when taking velocity measurements.

 For laminar flow, for example, the average velocity is half the centerline velocity.
But this is not the case in turbulent flow, and it may be necessary to take the weighted
average of several local velocity measurements to determine the average velocity.

Variable-Area Flow meters (Rota-meters):

A simple, reliable, inexpensive, and easy-to-install flow meter with low pressure drop and no
electrical connections that gives a direct reading of flow rate for a wide range of liquids and
gases is the variable-area flow meter, also called a rotameter or float meter. A variable-area
flow meter consists of a vertical tapered conical transparent tube made of glass or plastic
with a float inside that is free to move. As fluid flows through the tapered tube, the float rises
within the tube to a location where the float weight, drag force, and buoyancy force balance
each other and the net force acting on the float is zero.

 The flow rate is determined by simply matching the position of the float against the
graduated flow scale outside the tapered transparent tube.

• We know from experience that high winds knock down trees, break power lines, and
blow away hats or umbrellas. This is because the drag force increases with flow
velocity.

• The weight and the buoyancy force acting on the float are constant, but the drag force
changes with flow velocity.

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Viscosity measurement

Viscosity is measured with a device called Viscometers or viscometers. The operation of all
the viscometers depends upon the existence of laminar flow under certain controlled and
reproducible conditions. There are different types of viscometers available Capillary tube
viscometer Efflux viscometers Falling sphere viscometer Rotating cylinder viscometer.

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER FIVE: DISPLAY DEVICES AND RECORDERS

Objectives:

 Understand the operation of Display devices and recorders

 Describe the Analog and Digital types instruments
 State the advantages and disadvantages of these devices

Introduction:

The main purpose of any measurement system is to provide information concerning the state
and condition of the physical phenomenon being investigated. The measuring systems may
be activated either directly from the measuring means or by means of a servo-operated
system. The last stage of a measurement system is the data presentation stage.
If the results of the system are meaningful they must be displayed for instant observation by a
display device or for storage for observation at a later stage by a recorder.
The data presentation devices may be called as “output devices.

Display of Measurement Signals

Measurement signals in the form of a varying electrical voltage can be displayed either by an
oscilloscope or else by any of the electrical meters. However, if signals are converted to
digital form, other display options apart from meters become possible, such as
electronic output displays or using a computer monitor.

Indicators:
Indicators may be analogue or digital. Analog indicators have a scale and a pointer moves
along the scale to indicate the value. Digital indicators may be a display of numerals which
change in fixed steps. Sometimes a digital indicator is made to simulate an
analogue scale (e.g. a digital watch with hands). The pointer however moves in fixed steps.
Digital indicators have a minimum resolution and usually this is smaller than the resolution a
human eye can make on an analog scale so digital indicators are often
more accurate to read.

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It is easier to make a mistake reading an analogue scale than a digital indicator. However
when the value indicated is changing rapidly, an analogue indication is best because you can
see the way the pointer is moving. It would be difficult to read rapidly
changing set of numerals. For example, speedometer and altimeters are best displayed on
an analogue scale.

Analog Instruments: Moving-iron instruments

Advantages:

 Can be used both in DC as well as in AC circuits

 Robust and simple in construction
 Possess high operating torque
 Can withstand overload momentarily
 Cheap (stationary and moving parts are simple)
 Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits
 Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of precision and industrial grades

Disadvantages:

 Scale not uniform

 For low voltage range the power consumption is higher
 The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating system and due to
stray magnetic field
 In case of AC measurements, change in frequency causes serious error
 With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases

Moving – coil instruments

1. Permanent-magnet moving coil type –

works on the principle that “when carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted
upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out of the field The instrument
consists of a Permanent magnetM and a rectangular coil C which consists
of insulated copper wire wound on light aluminum frame fitted with polished steel pivots
resting in jewel bearings. The magnet is made of alnico and has soft iron pole piecesPP which
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are bored out cylindrically. The rectangular coil C is free to move in air gaps
between the soft iron pole pieces and a soft iron cylinder

Moving-coil permanent-magnet type

Advantages:
Low power consumption

Scales are uniform

No hysteresis loss

Have very effective and efficient eddy-current damping

Range can be extended with shunts and multipliers

No effect of stray magnetic field

Disadvantages:
Somewhat costlier as compared to moving-iron instruments

Cannot be used for AC measurements

Friction and temperature might introduce errors

Some errors are set in due to the ageing of control springs and the permanent magnets.

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 3. Electrodynamic or dynamometer instruments:

These instruments essentially consist of fine wire moving coil placed in the magnetic
field produced by another fixed coil when carrying currents. The fixed coil FC is divided
into two halves placed closed together and parallel to each other in order to provide a
fairly uniform field within the range of the movement of the moving coil. This instrument
can be used as ammeter or as voltmeter but generally used as a wattmeter.

Dynamometer instrument

Advantages:
1. Can be used on both DC as well as AC systems

2. Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors

3. It is possible to construct ammeters up to 10A and voltmeters up to 600V with precision

grade accuracy

Disadvantages:

Since torque/weight ratio is small, such instruments have Low sensitivity

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The scale is not uniform

4. Cost of this instrument is higher in comparison to those of moving iron instruments.

5. Only use as voltmeters and ammeters

6. Higher friction losses

Digital instruments

The digital instruments indicate the value of the measured in the form of decimal number
whereas the analog instrument display the quantity to be measured in terms of deflection of a
pointer. A digital instrument can be considered as a counter which counts the
pulses in a predetermined time. The information in the electronic digital read-out (display)
devices is presented as a series of digits on tubes, screen or printed on a piece
of paper. The relevant characters (letters A-Z, numerals 0-9, punctuation mark and other
symbols in common use can be generated by the ff:

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

If the PN junction of a diode is manufactured from gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP),

light will be emitted from the junction when a current is made to pass in the forward-biased
direction. This is a light emitting diode (LED) and will produce red, yellow or green light
with slight changes in the manufacturing process. LEDs are used extensively as indicators on
electronic equipment and in digital displays. They last for a very long time (50 000 hours)
and draw only a small current. Operate at 1.5V – 3.3V

LED
Advantages:
1. LEDs are miniature in size and they can be stacked together to form numeric and
alphanumeric display in high density matrix

2. The light output from a LED is a function of current flowing through it, therefore intensity
of light emitted from it can be smoothly controlled

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3. They require moderate power for their operation

4. They are very useful where dynamic operation of large number of arrays is involved

5. Economical and high degree of reliability

6. Being rugged they can withstand shocks and vibrations

Disadvantage:
LEDs are not suited for large areas display, primarily because of their high cost.

Some LED applications:

 opanel indicator
 odigital watches
 omultimeters
 ocalculators ointercoms
 oswitch boards
 oburglar-alarms systems
 ooptical fiber communication systems

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

A liquid crystal is a material, usually an organic compound which flows like a liquid at room
temperature. when light is incident on an activated layer of a liquid crystal, it is either
absorbed or else is scattered by the disoriented molecules.

a liquid crystal cell consists of a thin layer (10μm) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between
two glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces LCD produces no
illumination of its own; it depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external
source for its visual effect. LCD advantages and some uses:

Advantages:
1. Extremely low power requirement

2. Long life time about 50,000 hours Uses:

1.Cellular phone display

2. Disk top LCD monitors

3. Notebook computer display

4. Watches and portable

5. Pocket TV receiver

Recorders

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A recorder records electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function of time. The record
may show how one variable varies respect to another, or how the input signal varies with
time. The record serves the following objectives: ▪it preserves the details of measurement at a
particular time ▪it provides at a glance the overall picture of the performance of unit it
provides immediate reflection on the action taken by the operator

Types of Recorders:

Chart Recorder

Chart recorders keep a record of the measurements over a period of time. There are
electrical and pneumatic versions. The recorder may use paper strips or polar
charts. The paper moves one way and the marker pen moves at right angles to
this. Often they use more than one pen to record several channels. The recorder is
often part of a controlled system and contains other equipment to do with the
control. Paper recorders are being replaced by computer systems which store the
information on a magnetic medium and displays either the indicated reading or the
chart record or both on a visual display unit (computer screen or VDU).

Strip Chart Recorder

a long wall of graph paper moving vertically. a system for driving the paper at some selected
speed. a stylus for marking paper on the moving graph paper a stylus driving system which
moves the stylus in nearby replica or analog of the quantity being measured

Galvanometer type strip chart recorder

This type of recorder operates on the deflection principle the deflection is produced by a
galvanometer, which produces a torque on account of a current passing through its coil.
The current is proportional to the quantity being measured these recorders can work on

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ranges for a fewmA to several mA or from a few mV to several mV the moving
galvanometer type recorder is comparatively inexpensive instrument this type of recorder is
not useful for recording fast variations in either current or voltage or power.

Ultra violet Recorder

An ultraviolet recorder consists of an number of galvanometer (moving coil) elements

mounted in single magnet block. A paper sensitive to ultraviolet light is used for producing a
trace for the purpose of recording. The uv light is projected on the paper
with the help of mirrors attached to the moving coils.

Magnetic Tape Recorders

These recorders have the response characteristics Which enable them to be used at higher
frequencies Hence they find an extensive use in instrumentation Systems.

end of course I

INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system design. It involves
application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer engineering to develop products,
processes and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming.
It concurrently includes all these disciplines.

Figure 1.
1.2 Definition
Mechatronics may be defined as" the complete integration of mechanical
system with electronics, electrical and computer system into a single system".

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Mechatronics is “ the synergistic (Together) combination of mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering, control engineering and systems thinking in the design of products
and manufacturing processes"
Example: automatic washing machine, digital fuel injection system, engine
management system. Etc.,
The following areas have been recognized under Mechatronics discipline.
a) Motion control actuators and sensors b) Micro devices and optoelectronics
c) Robotics d) Automotive systems
e) Modeling and design f) System integration
g) Manufacturing g) Vibration and noise control.
Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics:
Advantages:
1. The products produced are cost effective and very good quality.
2. High degree of flexibility
3. Greater extent of machine utilization
4. Greater productivity
5. High life expected by proper maintenance.
6. The integration of sensor and control system in a complex system reduces capital expenses.
Disadvantages:
1. Higher initial cost of the system.
2. Imperative to have Knowledge of different engineering fields for design and
implementation.
3. It is expenses to incorporate Mechatronics approaches to existing/old systems.
4. Specific problem of various systems will have to be addressed separately and properly.
Applications of Mechatronic systems:
The application areas of mechatronics are: Automotive machines, Fax and photocopier
mechanics, Dishwashers., Automatic washing machine, Air conditioners, elevator controls,
Documents scanners, IC manufacturing systems, Robotics employed in welding, nuclear
inspection, painting etc., VCRs and CD Players.
1.3 Measurement systems
Measurement: is a represent of physical phenomenon in numerical values.
Measurement system: a group of device/element arranged in rational manner to achieve the
act of measurement.
Measured: is a numerical quantity of physical phenomenon such as force, quantity,
displacement, time, velocity, etc.,
A fundamental part of many mechatronic systems is a measurement system composed of the
three basic parts illustrated in Figure 1.3. The transducer is a sensing device that converts a
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physical input into an output, usually a voltage. The signal processor performs filtering,
amplification, or other signal conditioning on the transducer output. The term sensor is often
used to refer to the transducer or to the combination of transducer and signal processor.
Finally, the recorder is an instrument, a computer, a hard-copy device, or simply a display
that maintains the sensor data for online monitoring or subsequent processing.

Figure 1.1. Elements of measurement system.

Functions of each elements of measurement system:
Sensor/transducer unit:
 The heart of any measurement or control system is sensor/transducer.
 Sensor/transducer is a device it converts the one form of energy to another form.
 Sensor/transducer it senses the physical phenomenon to be measure and transform it
from one form to another form (generally electrical form).
 The output of this unit is input to the signal conditioner which is next element.
Signal conditioner unit:
 This unit senses the output signals of sensor and converts it into suitable, measurable
level of signals.
 An amplifier is acts as a signal conditioner.
The following functions of signal conditioners are:
a. Amplification of signals: the level of signals from the transducer may be of low level for
the
next use and hence need to be amplified (increased).
b. Attenuation: similarly, the level of signals from the transducer may be of higher level for
the
next use and hence need be attenuated (decreased).
c. Filtering: signals from the transducer may contain some other undesirable signals which
need
to be filtered or eliminated before it is used. Otherwise a corrupt output will be generated.
d. Analog to digital conversion (ADC): the signals from the transducer may be analog in
nature and if these signals were to be used as input to electronic system/computer system,
they need to be converting to digital form. Similarly, sometimes we use DAC.
Display/read out unit:
 It displays the output of signal conditioner unit and this display will be the
quantitative form of measured.
 Display unit may be either of analog (dial gauge) and digital (LED) type.
Example of Measurement System
Digital Thermometer
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 Figure: Digital thermometer principle
Control system:
The word control means „to regulate‟, „manipulate‟, and „command‟.

Definition of Control system:

A group of devices/elements which maintains the required output based on the predefined
value by controlling the parameter responsible for output.
1.4 Classification of control system:
1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system).
2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system).
1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system):
In which the output is dependent on the input, but input is independent of output is called
open loop control system.

Figure: Open Loop System

Example:
1. ON/OFF of an electric lamp: electric lamps are used for lighting the lamp. ON/OFF
control is carried out with the help of a switch and the switch is generally operated by an
operator depending on the amount of light that exist in that area. If the switch is ON, the lamp
is glow. If the person operating the switch does not put OFF of the switch, the lamp remains
ON until he switched OFF. So it is called open loop control system.

2. Control the temperature of the room with room heater: the amount of heat generated by a
room heater depends on the amount of input power controlled by a regulator. If the power is
switch ON, the power supplied to the heater continues and temperature of the room goes on
increasing immaterial of whether heat is required in the room or not. Here person is go and
OFF the power supply switch and there by cooling the temperature of the room is decreasing.

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Advantages of open loop control system:
1. Less costly. 2. Relatively simple 3. Good reliability.
4. Easy maintenance. 5. Inherently stable.
Disadvantages of open loop control system:
1. Inaccurate since there is no correction of error.
2. Relatively slow in response to change in demand.
3. The control depends on the human judgment.
5. Any change in system component not to be taken care automatically.
2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system):
In which input is depend on the output. i.e., variation in the output influences the input by
some means of controlling on the input is called a closed loop system.

Fig 5: Closed loop control system

Elements of closed loop control system:

The basic elements of a closed loop control system are:
1. Comparison element. 2. Control unit.
3. Correction unit. 4. Process unit.
5. Feedback unit.
Functions of each elements of a closed loop system:
Comparison element: this unit compares the reference value with feedback value and
produces an error signal.
Error = reference value – feedback value
Control unit: Control unit analyses the error signal and decides what action is to be taken.
Correction unit: the modified signal from the control unit will be received by the correction
unit which produces a change in the process to correct or change the controlled condition.
Process unit: process unit is the unit which is being controlled.
Examples of closed loop system
1. Hand reaching an object.
2. Speed control of an automobile:
3. Water level control of overhead tanks:
4. Room temperature controller (manual):

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Advantages of closed loop control system:
1. More accurate.
2. Any change in system component can be taken care automatically.
3. Use of feedback system response is relatively insensitive to external disturbances and
internal variations in system parameters.

Disadvantages of closed loop control system:

1. Expensive and complicated to construction.
Differences between open loop control system and closed loop control system

1.5 Mechatronics System Models

Mathematical Models
-Mechanical System Building Blocks -Electrical System Building Blocks
-Fluid System Building Blocks -Thermal Systems Building Blocks
Mathematical modeling

• Think how systems behave with time when subject to some disturbances.

• In order to understand the behavior of systems, mathematical models are required.

• Mathematical models are equations which describe the relationship between the input
and output of a system.

• The basis for any mathematical model is provided by the fundamental physical laws
that govern the behavior of the system.
Building blocks
• Systems can be made up from a range of building blocks.
• Each building block is considered to have a single property or function.

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 • Example: an electric circuit system which is made up from blocks which represent the
behavior of resistance, capacitance, and inductor, respectively.
• By combining these building blocks a variety of electrical circuit systems can be built
up and the overall input-output relationship can be obtained.
• A system built in this way is called a lumped parameter system.
Mechanical system block building
• Basic building block: spring, dashpots, and masses.
• Springs represent the stiffness of a system
• Dashpots represent the forces opposing motion, for example frictional or damping
effects.
• Masses represent the inertia or resistance to acceleration.
• Mechanical systems do not have to be really made up of springs, dashpots, and
masses but have the properties of stiffness, damping, and inertia.
• All these building blocks may be considered to have a force as an input and
displacement as an output.
Stiffness of spring
• Stiffness of a spring is described as the relationship between the force F used to
extend or compress a spring and the resulting extension or compression x.
• In the case of spring where the extension or compression is proportional to the force
(linear spring): F = kx, where k is a constant, the bigger the value of k the greater the
forces have to be to stretch or compress the spring and so the greater the stiffness.

Translational Spring, k (N)

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Rotational system
• The mass, spring, and dashpot are the basic building blocks for mechanical systems
where forces and straight line displacements are involved without any rotation.
• If rotation is involved, then the equivalent three building blocks are a torsional spring,
a rotary damper and the moment of inertia (i.e. the inertia of a rotating mass).
• With a torsional spring the angle  rotated is proportional to the torque: T = k.
• With a rotary damper a disc is rotated in a fluid and the resistive torque T is
proportional to the angular velocity .
• The moment of inertia block exhibits the property that the greater the moment of
inertia J the greater the torque needed to produce an angular acceleration
d
T  c  c ; T  Ja
dt
Rotational Spring, ks (N-m-sec/rad)

Dashpot
• The dashpot block represents the types of forces experienced when pushing an object
through a fluid or move an object against frictional forces. The faster the object is
pushed the greater becomes the opposing forces.
• The dashpot which represents these damping forces that slow down moving objects
consists of a piston moving in a closed cylinder.
• Movement of the piston requires the fluid on one side of the piston to flow through or
past the piston. This flow produces a resistive force. The damping or resistive force is
proportional to the velocity v of the piston:
F = cv or F = c dv/dt.

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Translational Damper, Bv (N-sec)

Rotational Damper, Bm (N-m-sec/rad)

Mass
• The mass exhibits the property that the bigger the mass the greater the force required
to give it a specific acceleration.
• The relationship between the force F and acceleration a is Newton’s second law as
shown below.
• Energy is needed to stretch the spring, accelerate the mass and move the piston in the
dashpot. In the case of spring and mass we can get the energy back but with the
dashpot we cannot.

Mechanical building block

Building Block Equation Energy representation

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 Translational

Spring F = kx E = 0.5 F2/k

Dashpot F = c dx/dt P = cv2

Mass F = m d2x/dt2 E = 0.5 mv2

Rotational

Spring T = k E = 0.5 T2/k

Damper T = c d/dt P = c2

Moment of inertia T = J d2/dt2 E = 0.5 J2

Figure 1.6 Mechanical systems: (a) spring, (b) dashpot (damper), (c) mass

Analysis of mechanical system

 The analysis of such systems is carried out by drawing a free body diagram for each
mass in the system. Thereafter the systems equation can be derived.
 The net force applied to the mass is F minus the resisting forces exerted by each of the
spring since these are

Building Mechanical Blocks

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Electromechanical Analogies
From Newton’s law or using Lagrange equations of motions, the second-order differential
equations of translational-dynamics and torsional-dynamics are found as
d 2x dx
m 2  Bv  k s x  Fa (t ) (Translational dynamics)
dt dt
d 2 d
j 2  Bm  k s  Ta (t ) (Torsional dynamics)
dt dt
Building Electrical System Models
• Newton’s laws used to build mechanical systems from components. For electrical systems,
we use Kirchhoff’s laws to form differential equations for the systems
• These two laws can be very simply stated:
◦ Law 1 – The total current flowing into a node in the circuit is equal to the total current
flowing from that node. (i.e. there is no residual current at nodes)
◦ Law 2 – In a closed loop of the network, the algebraic sum of the potential differences
across each part of the circuit is equal to the applied voltage within that loop
Electrical System Building Blocks
The basic building blocks of electrical systems are resistance, inductance and capacitance.

Resistor : v  iR; P  i 2 R
1 1
Inductor : i   vdt; E  Li 2
L 2
dv 1
Capacitor : i  C ; E  Cv 2
dt 2
Resistance, R (ohm)

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Inductance, L (H)

Capacitance, C (F)

For a series RLC circuit, find the characteristic equation and define the analytical
relationships between the characteristic roots and circuitry parameters.

d 2 i R di 1 1 dva
  i
dt 2 L dt LC L dt
R 1
s2  s  0
L LC
The characteristic roots are
2
R  R  1
s1      
2L  2 L  LC
2
R  R  1
s2      
2L  
2 L LC

Mechanical & Electrical Analogies

• Similarities between behavior of mechanical and electrical building blocks
• Dashpots and resistors are both energy dissipation devices. Take current in electrical
circuit to be analogous to force in mechanical Resistor: i=V/R, Dashpot: F =c v
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Gives velocity analogous to potential difference and viscous damping constant, c, to
reciprocal of resistance, 1/R
Fluid System Building Blocks
The basic building blocks of fluid systems are the volumetric rate of flow q and the pressure
difference.

 Fluid system can be divided into two types: hydraulic and pneumatic. Hydraulic
resistance is the resistance to flow of liquid as the liquid flow through valves or
changes in pipe diameter takes place.
 p1  p2  Rq p1 - p2 is pressure difference
R is the hydraulic resistance
q is the volumetric rate of flow
Fluid Systems Components
• Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage with a liquid where
it is stored in the form of potential energy. A height of liquid in a container is one
form of such a storage. For such capacitance, the rate of change of volume V in the
container (dV/dt) is equal to the difference between the volumetric rate at which liquid
enters the container q1 and the rate at which it leaves q2.
dV
q1  q2  ; V  Ah
dt
dh
q1  q2  A
dt
A dp
q1  q2 
pg dt
( p is liquid density; g is the acceleration due to gravity)
A dp
C ; q1  q2  C
pg dt

Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in

mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity a force is required.

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With pneumatic systems the three basic buildings blocks are as with hydraulic systems,
resistance, capacitance, and inertance. However, gasses differ from liquids in being
compressible.
dm p1  p2
Resistance 
dt R
dm d ( p1  p2 )
Capacitanc e C
dt dt
dm 1
dt L 
Inertance  ( p1  p2 )dt

A fluid system

Thermal system building block

 There are only two basic building blocks for thermal systems: resistance and
capacitance.
 There is a net flow of heat between two points if there is a temperature difference
between them.
 The value of the resistance depends on the mode of heat transfer.
T2  T1 T  T1
q  Ak 2
R L
A : Cross sectional area of the material through w hich the heat is being conducted
L is the length of material between the points at which t he temperature are T1 and T2 .
k is the thermal conductivity

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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Define Mechatronics and list out advantages and disadvantages of mechatronics.
2. Draw a neat block diagram of a generalized measurement system.
3. Define control system and different types of control systems.
4. Enumerate the difference between open loop and closed loop control system.
5. With a block diagram explain the working of a microprocessor controlled washing
machine.

CHAPTER TWO. ACTUATION SYSTEM FOR MECHATRONICS

2.1 Mechanical systems

Mechanical Systems Devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they
transform motion from one form to some other required form.
4.2 Types of Motion
The motion of an object shows its changing position. But varying objects show varying types
of motion.

Fig 2.1: Types of motion

2.3 Cams
Cams are mechanical devices which are used to generate curvilinear or irregular motion of
mechanical elements. They are used to convert rotary motion into oscillatory motion or
oscillatory motion into rotary motion.
Necessary elements of a cam mechanism are shown in Figure 2.2.
• A driver member known as the cam shaft
• A driven member called the follower
• A frame which supports the cam and guides the follower

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The cam shaft rotates by using prime movers. It causes the rotation of cam. This rotation
produces translatory motion of tappet against the spring. This translatory motion is used to
open or close the valve.
Applications of cams
Cams are widely used in automation of machinery, gear cutting machines, screw machines,
printing press, textile industries, automobile engine valves, tool changers of machine centers,
conveyors, pallet changers, sliding fork in ware houses etc. Cams are also used in I.C engines
to operate the inlet valves and exhaust valves.

Figure: 2.2 cam mechanism

Ratchet and pawl mechanism

Figure 2.3 ratchet and pawl mechanism

A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction. Figure 2.3
shows a schematic of the ratchet and pawl mechanism. It is used in rotary machines to index
air operated indexing tables.
Rack and pinion mechanism

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Figure 2.4 Rack and pinion mechanism
A rack and pinion gear arrangement usually converts rotary motion from a pinion to linear
motion of a rack. But in indexing mechanism the reverse case holds true.
Geneva mechanism

Figure 2.5 Geneva mechanism

The Geneva drive is also commonly called a Maltese cross mechanism. The Geneva
mechanism translates a continuous rotation into an intermittent rotary motion.
Gear
Gears are toothed wheels used for transmitting motion and power from one shaft to another
when they are not too far apart and when a constant velocity ratio is desired. In comparison
with belt, chain and friction drives, gear drives are more compact. It can operate at high
speeds and can be used where precise timing is required. Also gear drives are used when
large power is to be transmitted
Advantages and limitations of gear drive over chain belt drives
Advantages
• No slip so exact velocity ratio obtained
• Capable of transmitting larger power
• More efficient up to 99%
• Less space
• Can transmit motion at very low velocity
Limitations
• Special tools and equipment need for manufacture
• Manufacturing and maintenance costs are high

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 • Error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise
TYPES OF GEARS
• Classification based on the relative position of their shaft axis
1. Parallel shafts [ex. Spur gear, helical gear and internal gears.]
2. Intersecting shafts [ex. Bevel gears]
3. Non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts [ex. Worm gear]
• Classification based on the position of teeth on the wheel
1. Straight gears
2. Helical gears
3. Herringbone gear
4. Curved tooth gear
• Classification based on the type of contact between surfaces of gear
1. External gearing
2. Internal gearing
3. Rack and pinion

Figure 2.6 types of gear

Electrical actuation systems
Electrical systems
• Electrical drives
These are direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) servo motors. They are small in size
and are easy to control.
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• Hydraulic drives
These drives have large power to size ratio and provide step less motion with great accuracy.
But these are difficult to maintain and are bulky. Generally, they employ petroleum based
hydraulic oil which may have fire hazards at the upper level of working temperatures.
• Pneumatic drives
This drives use air as working medium which is available in abundant and fire proof. They
are simple in construction and are cheaper. However, these drives generate low power, have
less positioning accuracy, and are noisy. In CNC, usually AC, DC, servo and stepper
electrical drives are used.
4.6 Mechanical switches
Mechanical switches can be classified into different types based on several factors such as
the method of actuation (manual, limit, and process switches), number of contacts (single
contact and multi-contact switches), number of poles and throws (SPST, DPDT, SPDT, etc.),
operation and construction (push button, toggle, rotary, joystick, etc), based on state
(momentary and locked
switches), etc.

Solenoids and Relays

A solenoid is a coil of insulated or enameled wire wound on a rod-shaped form made of solid
iron, solid steel, or powdered iron. Devices of this kind can be used as electromagnets, as
inductors in electronic circuits, and as
miniature wireless receiving
antennas.

Figure 2.7: Solenoid

Electromechanical Relay

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 Figure 2.8 Relay
We have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may be “Normally Open”, or
“Normally Closed”. One pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open, (NO) or make
contacts and another set which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC) or break contacts. In
the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field current is “ON” and
the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.

In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current is
“OFF” as the switch contacts return to their normal position.
4.8 DC/AC Motors

Figure 2.9 Classification of motors

Electric drives are mostly used in position and speed control systems. The motors can be
classified into two groups namely DC motors and AC motors (Figure 2.12). In this session
we shall study the operation, construction, advantages and limitations of DC and AC motors.
DC motors
A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into the rotation of an
element (mechanical energy). These motors can further be classified into brushed DC motors
and brushless DC motors.
Brush-type DC motor

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A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two parts, a pair
of brushes, and horseshoes electromagnet as shown in Figure 2.13. A simple DC motor has
two field poles namely a north pole and a south pole. The magnetic lines of force extend
across the opening between the poles from north to south. The coil is wound around a soft
iron core and is placed in between the magnet poles. These electromagnets receive electricity
from an outside power source. The coil ends are connected to split rings. The carbon brushes
are in contact with the split rings. The brushes are connected to a DC source. Here the split
rings rotate with the coil while the brushes remain stationary.

Figure 2.10 Brushed DC motor

The working is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's left-
hand rule. The magnitude of the force is given by figure 2.10.

Advantages of brushed DC motor:

• The design of the brushed DC motor is quite simple
• Controlling the speed of a Brush DC Motor is easy
• Very cost effective
Disadvantages of brushed DC motor:
• High maintenance
• Performance decreases with dust particles
• Less reliable in control at lower speeds
• The brushes wear off with usage
Brushless DC motor
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Figure 2.11 Brushless DC motor

A brushless DC motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings. The
rotor can be of ceramic permanent magnet type. The brushes and commutator are eliminated
and the windings are connected to the control electronics. The control electronics replace the
commutator and brushes and energize the stator sequentially. Here the conductor is fixed and
the magnet moves (Figure 2.11). The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of
rotor. It is switched in sequence using transistors. The position of the rotor is sensed by Hall
effect sensors. Thus a continuous rotation is obtained.
Advantages of brushless DC motor:
• More precise due to computer control
•More efficient
• No sparking due to absence of brushes
• Less electrical noise
• No brushes to wear out
• Electromagnets are situated on the stator hence easy to cool
• Motor can operate at speeds above 10,000 rpm under loaded and unloaded conditions
• Responsiveness and quick acceleration due to low rotor inertia
Disadvantages of brushless DC motor:
• Higher initial cost
• Complex due to presence of computer controller
• Brushless DC motor also requires additional system wiring in order to power the electronic
commutation circuitry

AC motors convert AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element (mechanical

energy). As in the case of DC motor, a current is passed through the coil, generating a torque
on the coil. Typical components include a stator and a rotor. The armature of rotor is a

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magnet unlike DC motors and the stator is formed by electromagnets similar to DC motors.
The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is more difficult to control in
AC motors. To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with variable frequency
drives but the improved speed control comes together with a reduced power quality.

Figure 2.12 AC motor working principle

The working principle of AC motor is shown in figure 2.12.
Synchronous motor

Figure 2.13 synchronous motor

A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of the
system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and hence is
suited for applications that start with a low load. It has two basic electrical parts namely stator
and rotor as shown in figure 2.13.

Induction motor
Induction motors are quite commonly used in industrial automation. In the synchronous
motor the stator poles are wound with coils and rotor is permanent magnet and is supplied
with current to create fixed polarity poles. In case of induction motor, the stator is similar to
synchronous motor with windings but the rotors’ construction is different.

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Figure 2.14 Induction motor rotor
Rotor of an induction motor can be of two types:
• A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. The
bars can be of copper or aluminum. These bars are fitted at both ends by means end rings as
shown in figure 4.1.8.
• A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. The rotor is wound for
as many numbers of poles as the stator. The three phases are wired internally and the other
ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes resting on them.
Induction motors can be classified into two types:
• Single-phase induction motor: It has one stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor. It
operates with a single-phase power supply and requires a device to start the motor.
• Three-phase induction motor: The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced
three-phase power supply. These motors can have squirrel cage or wound rotors and are self-
starting.
Advantages of AC induction motors
• It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
• The operation is simple with less maintenance (as there are no brushes)
• The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with reasonably
good power factor
• The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and thus simple and
reliable operation
Disadvantages of AC induction motors
• The speed control of these motors is at the expense of their efficiency
• As the load on the motor increases, the speed decreases
• The starting torque is inferior when compared to DC motors
Principle of Stepper Motors & servomotors
Stepper motor
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A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in
steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop position
control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
 Permanent Magnet
 Employ permanent magnet
 Low speed, relatively high torque
 Variable Reluctance
 Does not have permanent magnet
 Low torque
Advantages of stepper motors
• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip\
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur when
running at high speed.
Servomotor
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of rotation.
A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a position sensing
device. Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a
mechanical system. The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in
Figure 2.15.

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Fig. 4.2.4 Servo system block diagram
DC servomotors
DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and accelerate the load
quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components, namely:
• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit
AC servo motor
In this type of motor, the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current
which further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This
motor provides high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. The stator is
composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a
permanent magnet. Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital
signals, which are in proportion of rotation of the shaft.
Advantages of servo motors
• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
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• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. With a neat block diagram explain Cams.
2. What does Servo and Induction motor consists
3. Draw stepper motors.
4. Explain the concept of solenoids.
5. Explain the main features and functions of relays.

CHAPTER THREE: PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Pneumatic Systems
Basic elements of pneumatic system
• Compressor and motor
• PRV and Check valve
• Cooler, filter and water trap
• Air receiver
• DCV and FCV
• Actuator
Compressors
A compressor is used to provide pressurized air, usually on the order of 70 to 150 psi (482
kPA to 1.03 MPa), which is much lower than hydraulic system pressures. As a result of the
lower operating pressures, pneumatic actuators generate much lower forces than hydraulic
actuators. After the inlet air is compressed, excess moisture and heat are removed from the air
with an air treatment unit (see Figure 2.8). Unlike hydraulic pumps, which provide positive
displacement of fluid at high pressure on demand, compressors cannot provide high volume
of pressurized air responsively; therefore, a large volume of high-pressure compressed air is
stored in a reservoir or tank.

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Fig. 2.8 Pneumatic system components (compressor)
Hydraulic Accumulator
• An energy storing device
• It is a pressure storage reservoir in which a fluid is held under pressure by compressed
gas or spring or a raised weight
• Main usage of this in hydraulic systems are,
 Avoid large pump size
 Quick response management of system

Figure 2.9 accumulator

HYDRAULIC PUMPS
• Pump is a device which convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy

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 Figure 2.10 pump
In general, the applications of Hydraulic Pumps can be summarized as,
 Hydraulic pumps are used to transfer power via hydraulic liquid.
 The hydraulic pumps are commonly used in the automotive vehicles especially in
power steering systems.
 The lift system of tractor is operated by the hydraulic pumps. These are used in
automatic transmissions and material handling systems in industries.
 Many precise controllers are developed by using hydraulic pumps. The commonly
used compressor is operated by reciprocating pumps.
 The hydraulic pumps are also used in routine household systems like power lift and
air-conditions.
Directional Control Valves [DCV]
• The primary function of any control valve is to direct, regulate the flow of fluid and
regulate the pressure in various loading device
• It is also used for sensing, processing and controlling the following functions
• Controlling the flow by guiding and directing it into a loading line
• Select the path to allow the fluid or block
• Releasing the fluid to return to reservoir or atmosphere
• Performing logic control functions
• Stopping and starting flow [ on-off]
• Sensing cylinder position
Single spool valve

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Rotary spool valve

Spool valve

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Pneumatic Actuators
• It is a device used as an output device to do useful work. Work produced by both
hydraulic and pneumatic systems is in the form of moving, gripping and applying
force to an object
Linear Actuators
• Single acting cylinder
• Double acting cylinder
Rotary Actuators
 Vane type
 Rack and pinion types

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Figure 2.11 single acting and double acting cylinders
3. Semiconductors
3.1. Introduction
• Silicon
– Basic building material of most integrated circuits
– Has four valence electrons, which allow it to form four covalent bonds.
• Silicon crystal is an insulator-- no free electrons.

• Resistance to current flow in the silicon crystal is reduced by adding small amounts of
foreign impurities, which is referred to as doping.
• Doping transforms a silicon crystal from a good insulator into a viable conductor;
hence, the name semiconductor.

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Two Dopant Types
 N-type (Negative) –Free flowing electrons are added to the silicon crystal structure.
– Examples include Group V elements including Phosphorous,
Arsenic, and Antimony.
 P-type(Positive)- Lack electrons and serve as potential slots for migrating electrons.
– Examples include Group III elements such as Boron,
Aluminum, and Gallium

• Semiconductor resembles an insulator, but with a smaller energy band.

• Small energy band makes it a marginal conductor

3.2 Diodes

What Are Diodes Made Out of?

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most common single elements that are
used to make Diodes. A compound that is commonly used is Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs because of its large bandgap.
• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements, meaning they have 4 valence
electrons. Their structure allows them to grow in a shape called the diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5 element. When put together
as a compound, GaAs creates a zinc blend lattice structure.
• In both the diamond lattice and zin blend lattice, each atom shares its valence
electrons with its four closest neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately
allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added
to Si, Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of the material so we are able to make the
P- and N-type materials that become the diode.
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N-Type Material

When extra valence electrons are introduced into a material such as silicon an n-type
materialm is produced. The extra valence electrons are introduced by putting impurities or
dopants into the silicon. The dopants used to create an n-type material are Group V elements.
The most commonly used dopants from Group V are arsenic, antimony and phosphorus. The
2D diagram to the left shows the extra electron that will be present when a Group V dopant is
introduced to a material such as silicon. This extra electron is very mobile.

P-Type Material:

P-type material is produced when the dopant that is introduced is from Group III. Group III
elements have only 3 valence electrons and therefore there is an electron missing. This
creates a hole (h+), or a positive charge that can move around in the material. Commonly
used Group III dopants are aluminum, boron, and gallium.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole that will be present when a Group III dopant is
introduced to a material such as silicon. This hole is quite mobile in the same way the extra
electron is mobile in a n-type material.

The Biased PN Junction

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The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied. There are two
types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.

Forward Bias:

In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking the energy
required for charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore,
as the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow across the junction. The barrier
potential of the diode is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to flow through the
diode. The barrier potential varies for different materials

Vapplied > 0

Reverse Bias:

Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the electric field produced by
the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small leakage current, Is
(saturation current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This saturation current is made up of
electron-hole pairs being produced in the depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes
referred to as scale current because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.

Vapplied < 0

Properties of diodes

The Shockley Equation

The trans conductance curve on the above figure is characterized by the following equation:
ID = IS(eVD/VT – 1)
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 • As described in the last slide, ID is the current through the diode, IS is the saturation
current and VD is the applied biasing voltage.
• VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room
temperature. The equation to find VT at various temperatures is:
VT = kT
qk = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x 10 -19 C
•  is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by the way the diode is
constructed. It somewhat varies with diode current. For a silicon diode  is around 2
for low currents and goes down to about 1 at higher currents
Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode Model

The diode is designed to allow current to flow in only one direction. The perfect diode would
be a perfect conductor in one direction (forward bias) and a perfect insulator in the other
direction (reverse bias). In many situations, using the ideal diode approximation is
acceptable.

Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the value of I D if a) VA
= 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts (reverse bias)

a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so:
ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50  = 100 mA
b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is acting like a perfect insulator, therefore no
current can flow and ID = 0.
The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential
This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode model because it includes the
approximate barrier potential voltage. Remember the barrier potential voltage is the voltage
at which appreciable.

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Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include the barrier
potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value of I D
if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).

With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL
equation to find ID:
0 = VA – IDRS - V
ID = (VA - V)/ RS = (4.7V)/50 = 94 mA
The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance
This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a linear forward resistance that is
calculated from the slope of the linear portion of the transconductance curve. However, this
is usually not necessary since the RF (forward resistance) value is pretty constant. For low-
power germanium and silicon diodes the R F value is usually in the 2 to 5 ohms range, while
higher power diodes have a RF value closer to 1 ohm.

The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance
Example: Assume the diode is a low-power diode with a forward resistance value of 5 ohms.
The barrier potential voltage is still: V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode)
Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts.

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Once again, write a KVL equation for the circuit:
0 = VA – IDRS - V - IDRF
ID = VA - V = 5 – 0.3 = 85.5 mA
RS + RF 50 + 5
The Q Point
The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no-signal condition. The Q
point is obtained graphically and is really only needed when the applied voltage is very close
to the diode’s barrier potential voltage. The example 3 below that is continued on the next
slide, shows how the Q point is determined using the transconductance curve and the load
line.

First the load line is found by substituting in different values of V into the equation for ID
using the ideal diode with barrier potential model for the diode. With R S at 1000 ohms the
value of RF wouldn’t have much impact on the results.
ID = VA – V 
RS
Using V  values of 0 volts and 1.4 volts we obtain ID values of 6 mA and 4.6 mA
respectively. Next we will draw the line connecting these two points on the graph with the
transconductance curve. This line is the load line.
Types of Diodes and Their Uses
PN Junction Diodes:
Are used to allow current to flow in one direction while blocking current flow in the opposite
direction. The pn junction diode is the typical diode that has been used in the previous
circuits.
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Zener Diodes
Are specifically designed to operate under reverse breakdown conditions. These diodes have
a very accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

Schottky Diodes:
These diodes are designed to have a very fast switching time which makes them a great diode
for digital circuit applications. They are very common in computers because of their ability
to be switched on and off so quickly.

Shockley Diodes:
The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode while other diodes are normally made with only two
layers. These types of diodes are generally used to control the average power delivered to a
load.

Light-Emitting Diodes:
Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large bandgap so movement of carriers across
their depletion region emits photons of light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting
Diodes) emit infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap energy emit visible light.
Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs because they are extremely bright and last
longer than regular bulbs for a relatively low cost.

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Photodiodes:
While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to received light. They are constructed so
their pn junction can be exposed to the outside through a clear window or lens. In
Photoconductive mode the saturation current increases in proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is used in CD players.
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the
diode generates voltage and can be used as an energy source. This type of diode is used in
the production of solar power.

CHAPTER FOUR: SENSOR COMMUNICATION DESIGN

4.1 Introduction
 In virtually every engineering application there is the need to measure some physical
quantities, such as displacements, speeds, forces, pressures, temperatures, stresses,
flows, and so on.
 These measurements are performed using physical devices called sensors, which are
capable of converting a physical quantity to a more readily manipulated electrical
quantity.
4.2 Sensors- Terminology
Transducer is a device which transforms energy from one type to another, even if both
energy types are in the same domain.
– Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical
and thermal.
Transducer can be further divided into Sensors, which monitors a system and Actuators,
which impose an action on the system.
– Sensors are devices which monitor a parameter of a system, hopefully without
disturbing that parameter.
Categorization of sensor
• Classification based on physical phenomena
– Mechanical: strain gage, displacement (LVDT), velocity (laser vibrometer),
accelerometer, tilt meter, viscometer, pressure, etc.
– Thermal: thermal couple
– Optical: camera, infrared sensor
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 – Others …
4.3 sensors
Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable of a physical system or an environment
Classification of Sensors
• Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain, rotation velocity, acceleration, pressure,
force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
• Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
• Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage, current, frequency phase; visual/images,
light; magnetism.
• Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value
Sensor selection criteria
 Range—Difference between the maximum and minimum value of the sensed
parameter
 Resolution—The smallest change the sensor can differentiate
 Accuracy—Difference between the measured value and the true value
 Precision—Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy
 Sensitivity—Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input
 Zero offset—A nonzero value output for no input
 Response time—The time lag between the input and output
 Bandwidth—Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB
 Resonance—The frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs
 Operating temperature—The range in which the sensor performs as specified
 Dead band—The range of input for which there is no output
 Signal-to-noise ratio—Ratio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise at the
output
Linearity
• It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to
the quantity being measured.
• An instrument is considered if the relationship between output an input can be fitted in a
line.

Non Linearity
• No-linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the output over the straight line

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Environmental effects
 All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.
 Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift
and sensitivity drift.
 Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.
Instrument Drift
This is caused by variations taking place in the parts of the instrumentation over time. Prime
sources occur as chemical structural changes and changing mechanical stresses. Drift is a
complex phenomenon for which the observed effects are that the sensitivity and offset values
vary. It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument differently at the various amplitudes of
the signal present.

Dynamic Terms
1. Dead Time: The time taken by an instrument to begin its response for a change in
measured quantity.

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2. Over shoot: the maximum amount by which the moving parts move beyond the steady
state.
3. Response time: the time at which the transducer gives an output corresponding to some
specified percentage.
4. Rise time: the time taken for the output to rise, to some specified percentage of the steady
state output. The time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady state value.
5. Settling time: the time taken for the output to settle within some percentage. Often the
active element of a sensor is referred to as a transducer. Most sensors, therefore, convert the
change of a physical quantity (e.g. pressure, temperature) to a corresponding and usually
proportional change in an electrical quantity (e.g. voltage or current). Often the direct output
from a sensor needs additional manipulation before the electrical output is available to the
user.
4.4 Attributes of Sensors
• Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors function, such as
electro optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet.
• Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical variables.
• Size: The physical volume of sensors.
• Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or discrete/analog or
digital.
• Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-making.
• Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just receiving signals.
• Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in environment.
• Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough for its operation conditions
Strain Gauges
Foil strain gauge
-Least expensive -Widely used
-Not suitable for long distance -Electromagnetic Interference
-Sensitive to moisture & humidity
Vibration wire strain gauge
-Determine strain from freq. of AC signal -Bulky
Fiber optic gauge
-Immune to EM and electrostatic noise -Compact size
-High cost -Fragile
Resistive Foil Strain Gage
– Technology well developed; Low cost
– High response speed & broad frequency bandwidth
– A wide assortment of foil strain gages commercially available
– Subject to electromagnetic (EM) noise, interference, offset drift in signal.
– Long-term performance of adhesives used for bonding strain gages is
questionable
Vibrating wire strain gages can NOT be used for dynamic application because of their low
response speed.
Optical fiber strain sensor

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 • Piezoelectric Strain Sensor
– Piezoelectric ceramic-based or Piezoelectric polymer-based (e.g., PVDF)
– Very high resolution (able to measure Nano strain)
– Excellent performance in ultrasonic frequency range, very high frequency
bandwidth; therefore, very popular in ultrasonic applications, such as
measuring signals due to surface wave propagation
– When used for measuring plane strain, cannot distinguish the strain in X, Y
direction
– Piezoelectric ceramic is a brittle material (cannot measure large deformation)

Acceleration sensor
• Piezoelectric accelerometer
– Nonzero lower cutoff frequency (0.1 – 1 Hz for 5%)
– Light, compact size (miniature accelerometer weighing 0.7 g is available)
– Measurement range up to +/- 500 g
– Less expensive than capacitive accelerometer
– Sensitivity typically from 5 – 100 mv/g
– Broad frequency bandwidth (typically 0.2 – 5 kHz)
– Operating
temperature: -70 – 150
C

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Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

 • Capacitive accelerometer
– Good performance over low frequency range, can measure gravity!
– Heavier (~ 100 g) and bigger size than piezoelectric accelerometer
– Measurement range up to +/- 200 g
– More expensive than piezoelectric accelerometer
– Sensitivity typically from 10 – 1000 mV/g
– Frequency bandwidth typically from 0 to 800 Hz
– Operating temperature: -65 – 120 C

Force Sensor
Metal foil strain-gage based (load cell)
– Good in low frequency response
– High load rating
– Resolution lower than piezoelectricity-based
– Rugged, typically big size, heavy weight

Piezoelectricity based (force sensor)

– lower cutoff frequency at 0.01 Hz
• can NOT be used for static load measurement
– Good in high frequency
– High resolution

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 – Limited operating temperature (cannot be used for high temperature
applications)
– Compact size, light

Displacement Sensing
• LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):
– Inductance-based electromechanical sensor
– “Infinite” resolution
• limited by external electronics
– Limited frequency bandwidth (250 Hz typical for DC-LVDT, 500 Hz for AC-
LVDT)
– No contact between the moving core and coil structure
• no friction, no wear, very long operating lifetime
– Accuracy limited mostly by linearity
• 0.1%-1% typical
– Models with strokes from mm’s to 1 m available

Linear Potentiometer
– Resolution (infinite), depends on
– High frequency bandwidth (> 10 kHz)
– Fast response speed
– Velocity (up to 2.5 m/s)
– Low cost
– Finite operating life (2 million cycles) due to contact wear
– Accuracy: +/- 0.01 % - 3 % FSO
– Operating temperature: -55 ~ 125 C

• Magnetostrictive Linear Displacement Transducer

– Exceptional performance for long stroke position measurement up to 3 m
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 – Operation is based on accurately measuring the distance from a predetermined
point to a magnetic field produced by a movable permanent magnet.
– Repeatability up to 0.002% of the measurement range.
– Resolution up to 0.002% of full scale range (FSR)
– Relatively low frequency bandwidth (-3dB at 100 Hz)
– Very expensive
– Operating temperature: 0 – 70 C

• Differential Variable Reluctance Transducers

– Relatively short stroke
– High resolution
– Non-contact between the measured object and sensor

Velocity Sensor
Scanning Laser Vibrometry
– No physical contact with the test object; facilitate remote, mass-loading-free
vibration measurements on targets
– measuring velocity (translational or angular)
– automated scanning measurements with fast scanning speed
– However, very expensive (> $120K)

Light sensors:
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Principle of Working and Applications of Light Sensors:
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/ photo resistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications.
Photo resistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photo resistor varies
inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photo resistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material. Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor.

Figure 4.1: Construction of Light Sensors

Applications of Light Sensor
 Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of a screen.
 Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology.
 In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots.
 Auto Flash for camera
 Industrial process control.
2.5 Photo diodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It is
made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n
configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the band gap of silicon) fall on
the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created.
The depth at which the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the
energy of the photons, the deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart.
When the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and
an electric current establishes.

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 Figure 4.2: Construction of Photo diodes
Applications of photo diodes
Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X Ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers.

Industry
• Bar Code Scanners • Light Pens • Brightness Controls •
Encoders
• Position Sensors • Surveying Instruments • Copiers - Density of Toner
Safety Equipment
• Smoke Detectors • Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment
2.6 Proximity sensors:
2.6.1 Eddy current proximity sensors:

Figure 4.3: Construction of Eddy current proximity sensors

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials.
They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch. When an alternating current is passed through
this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their generation. As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the
amplitude of alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined
level of change in current. Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small
in size, highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors:
 Automation requiring precise location
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  Machine tool monitoring
 Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
 Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
 Drive shaft monitoring
 Vibration measurements

Inductive proximity Sensor:

Figure 4.4 inductive proximity sensor

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects. Figure
shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An inductive proximity sensor has four
components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit. An alternating current is
supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal object comes closer to
the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes. This is continuously monitored by a circuit
which triggers a switch when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.
Applications of inductive proximity Sensor
 Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
 Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines
Optical Proximity Sensor:
Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Figure shows the
construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of
equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the
holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has
just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. The holes on the middle
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track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This
arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in
clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise
direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc.
With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be, 360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.

Figure 4.5: Construction and working principle of Optical Proximity Sensor

Hall Effect Sensors:

Hall Effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through
a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight
line path. Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will be
of positive charge. This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the
measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current. The typical application
of Hall Effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a container. The container
comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit with a
current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will
come close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to
stop the fluid to come inside the container.
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position of
an object. Hall Effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry. They can be
operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment
contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial
automation.

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Figure 4.6: Hall Effect

CHAPTER FIVE: MICROCONTROLLER AND MICROPROCESSOR

5.1 Introduction
Programmable Logic Devices (PLD) are programmable systems and are generally used in
manufacturing automation to perform different control functions, according to the programs
written in its memory, using low level languages of commands. There are following three
types of PLDs are being employed in mechatronics systems.
Microprocessor
It is a digital integrated circuit which carries out necessary digital functions to process the
information obtained from measurement system.
Microcomputer
It uses microprocessor as its central processing unit and contains all functions of a computer.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
It is used to control the operations of electro-mechanical devices especially in tough and
hazardous industrial environments.
A typical programmable machine has basic three components as shown in Figure 1:
1. Processor, which processes the information collected from measurement system
and takes logical decisions based on the information. Then it sends this
information to actuators or output devices.
2. Memory, it stores
1 the input data collected from sensors
2 the programs to process the information and to take necessary decisions or actions.
Program is a set of instructions written for the processor to perform a task. A group of
programs is called software.
1. Input/output devices: these are used to communicate with the outside world/operator.

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 Figure 1: Components of a programmable logic device
2. Microprocessor
It is a multi-purpose, programmable device that reads binary instructions from a storage
device called memory, processes the data according to the instructions, and then provides
results as output. In common practice it is also known as CPU (central processing unit). CPU
can be referred as complete computational engine on a single chip. First Microcontroller,
Intel 4004 was launched in 1971. It was able to process just 4 bits. It started a new era in
electronics engineering. Microprocessor chip was the one of the important inventions of the
20th century.
Table 1 shows the history of micro-processors.

Applications of microprocessors are classified primarily in two categories:

1. Reprogrammable Systems: Micro computers
2. Embedded Systems: photocopying machine, Digital camera
Microprocessor works or operates in binary digits i.e. 0 and 1, bits. These bits are nothing
but electrical voltages in the machine, generally 0 - low voltage level, and 1 high voltage
level. A group of bits form a ‘word’. In general, the word length is about 8 bits. This is called
as a ‘byte’. A word with a length of 4 bits is called as a ‘Nibble’
Microprocessor processes the ‘commands in binary form’ to accomplish a task. These are
called as ‘instructions’. Instructions are generally entered through input devices and can be
stored in a storage device called memory.
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 Figure 2 Schematic of configuration of a micro processor

Figure 2 and 3 show the configuration and basic blocks of a microprocessor. The functions
of each element are as follows.

Figure 3 Working of a microprocessor

 ALU: ALU stands for Arithmetical Logical Unit. As name indicates it has two parts:
Arithmetical unit which is responsible for mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division,
 Logical unit which is dedicated to take logical decisions like greater than, less than,
equal to, not equal to etc. (Basically AND/OR/NOT Operations)
 Register Array: Registers are small storage devices that are available to CPU or
processors. They act as temporary storage for processing of intermediate data by
mathematical or logical operations.
 Control: This part of CPU is dedicated to coordinate data flow and signal flow
through various types of buses i.e. Data Bus, Control Bus, and Address Bus etc. It
directs data flow between CPU and storage and I/O devices.
 Memory: There are two different types of memory segments being used by the CPU.
First is the ROM which stands for Read Only Memory while other is R/W which
stands for Read and Write Memory or Random Access Memory (RAM).
 ROM: From this memory unit, CPU can only read the stored data. No writing
operations can be done in this part of memory. Thus it is used to store the programs
that need no alteration or changes like Monitor Program or Keyboard driver etc.

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  R/W: As name indicates it is opposite to ROM and used for both reading and writing
operations. In general User’s program and instruction are stored in this segment of
memory unit.
 Input Devices: Input devices are used to enter input data to microprocessor from
Keyboard or from ADC which receives data from sensors/signal conditioning
systems.
 Output Devices: These devices display the results/conclusions coming out from
ALUs either in soft copy (Monitor) or in Hard Copy (Printer).
5.2 Functions of microprocessor
Various functions of microprocessor are as follows:
A) Microprocessor performs a variety of logical and mathematical operations using its
ALU.
B) It controls data flow in a system and hence can transfer data from one location to
another based on the instructions given to it.
C) A microprocessor can take necessary decisions and jump to a new set of instructions
based on those decisions. 3. Microcontroller
Microcontroller is a microprocessor based system. It is a data processing system that employs
a microprocessor as its central unit. Based on the input it takes decisions. These decisions are
further used to control a system or to actuate an action or operation.
Microprocessor based programmable controller

Figure 5.1 Schematic of microcontroller.

It is a microprocessor-based system. It implements the functions of a computer and a
controller on a single chip. Generally, microcontroller is programmed for one specific
application and it is dedicated to a specific control function.
Microcontrollers find applications in automobiles, aircraft, medical electronics and home
appliances. They are small in size and can be embedded in an electromechanical system
without taking up much space. Thus we can have a system with its functions completely
designed into a chip. However, microcontrollers have very little user programmable memory.
Various types of microcontroller chip available in market are: Motorola 68HC11, Zilog Z8
and Intel MCS51 and 96 series.
5.3 Differences between Microprocessor and microcontroller
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The differences are listed below and are considered as a major distinguishing parameters
between the two.
Table 2: Microprocessor and microcontroller comparison

5.4 Basics of microprocessor programming

In this lecture we will study the various number systems, programming languages, and
internal architecture of the basic microprocessor, 8085.
Number System
Number system is a way of representing the value of any number with respect to a base value.
Number System can be classified on the basis of its “base”. Each number has a unique
representation in a number system. Different number systems have different representation of
the same number. In general Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal Number systems are
used in microprocessor programming. Table 3 shows different numbering systems and their
details.
Table 2: Numbering system

Number representation
Conversion of any number system to decimal number system:
Let B be the base of number system and An, An-1, …………………A1, A0 be the digits of
given number. Then to convert it into decimal equivalent we can use the following formula:
N = An.Bn + An-1.Bn-1+ ……….+A1.B + A0.B0

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Example: what is the decimal equivalent of (11101011)2?
Here, we have taken An = 1, An-1= 1, ……. An-3=0, while n=8 and B
= 2. Then the decimal equivalent is (235)10.
Decimal number system to any number system:
Let us take an example of converting a decimal number 235 to its binary equivalent.
Following table shows the conversion process as stated above.
Table 3: Binary representation of (235)10

Hence Binary equivalent of (235)10 is (11101011)2.

5. Digital logic
 Gates are main building blocks for computer systems and their subsystems.
 Understanding of logic gets is necessary in order to understand the fundamentals of
electronic circuits.
Two types of digital logics:
 Combinatorial logic: output is a function of inputs
 Sequential logic: output is a complex function of inputs, previous inputs and
previous outputs
 Logic gates are designed to provide a specific output value based on the value of the
input
 Both inputs and outputs, the values can be either of two levels, the binary values 0 or
1
 For purposes of industrial control, we will define ‘0’ to mean that OFF and ‘1’ to
mean ON
 Ex. Electromagnetic relays, transistors, fluidic sensors, PLC, control computers
 The elements are classified,
 AND
 OR
 NOT gates

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 Figure logical gates logical elements and logic network symbols.
Sequencing elements
• Many applications in mechatronics require the controller to provide a prescheduled
set of ON/OFF control functions for the output variables
• The outputs are provided in open-loop circuit
• Another feature that the sequence of outputs are cyclical
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 • Timers and counters are the example

Decimal Number System

• In a decimal system (base-10), 10 symbols or digits are used to construct any number.
The symbols are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
. . . 103 102 101 100
thousands hundreds tens units
• How do you read 3456.789?
• 3000 plus 400 plus 50 plus 6 plus 7 tenth plus 8 hundredth plus 9 thousandth
• That is: 3X103 + 4X102 + 5X101 + 6X100 + 7X10-1+ 8X10-2 + 9X10-3

Binary Number System

 In a binary system (base-2), 2 symbols or digits are used to construct any number. The
symbols are: 0 & 1
... 23 22 21 20
bit 3 bit 2 bit 1 bit 0
Converting from decimal to binary
• To convert a number from decimal to binary, you successively divide the number by 2
and keep track of the remainder
• Ex: convert 13 to binary.

Octal Number System

 In an octal system (base-8), 8 symbols or digits are used to construct any number. The
symbols are: 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
... 83 82 81 80

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 bit 3 bit 2 bit 1 bit 0

Hexadecimal Number System

 In a hexadecimal system (base-16), 16 symbols or digits are used to construct any
number. The symbols are: 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
... 163 162 161 160
bit 3 bit 2 bit 1 bit 0
 Example-4: Convert the following decimal numbers to HEX.
a) 53, b) 211, c) 347
Soln.
a)

Binary-to-octal conversion
 To convert from binary to octal, group each three digits into one octal digit
Example:
Convert 101110111.100010 to octal.
Soln.
101110111.100010

Octal-to-binary conversion
 To convert from octal to binary, simply expand each octal digit into 3 binary digits
Example:
Convert 236.43 to binary.
Soln.

Binary-to-Hexadecimal conversion

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  To convert from binary to hexadecimal, simply group each 4 binary digits into one
hex-digit
Example:
Convert 101111111.100010 to hex.
Soln.

Hexadecimal-to-binary conversion
 To convert from hex. to binary, simply expand each hexadecimal digit into 4 binary
digits
Example:
Convert F5C.46 to binary.

Binary Coded Decimal System

 Each digits of the decimal is represented by its binary equivalent.
Example:
Convert 192.8310 to BCD.
Soln.

CHAPTER SIX: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

Definition
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory for the internal
storage of instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic to control through digital or analog modules, various types of
machines or process.
Application area of PLC
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  Manufacturing / Machining
 Food / Beverage
 Metals
 Power
 Mining
 Petrochemical / Chemical
6.1 Sizes of PLC
1. SMALL
 it covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and memories up to 2 Kbytes.
 these PLC’s are capable of providing simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM
 have up to 2048 I/O’s and memories up to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE
the most sophisticated units of the PLC family. They have up to 8192 I/O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes.
 can control individual production processes or entire plant.
Tank Used to Mix Two Liquids

A tank is used to mix two liquids. The control circuit operates as follows:
1. When the start button is pressed, solenoids A and B energize. This permits the two liquids
to begin filling the tank.
2. When the tank is filled, the float switch trips. This de-energizes solenoids A and B and
starts the motor used to mix the liquids together.
3. The motor is permitted to run for one minute. After one minute has elapsed, the motor
turns off and solenoid C energizes to drain the tank.
4. When the tank is empty, the float switch de-energizes solenoid C.
5. A stop button can be used to stop the process at any point.
6. If the motor becomes overloaded, the action of the entire circuit will stop.
7. Once the circuit has been energized it will continue to operate until it is manually stopped.
Major Components of a Common PLC

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6.2 Power Supply
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic- level signals inside the
PLC and the field’s high level signal.
Processor
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire PLC systems.
Programming Device
used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of operation and control of
process equipment or driven machine.
Programming Device
Also known as:
 Industrial Terminal (Allen Bradley)
 Program Development Terminal (General Electric)
 Programming Panel (Gould Modicon )
 Programmer (Square D)
 Program Loader (Idec-Izumi)
 Programming Console (Keyence / Omron)
Types:
 Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
 Desktop type with a CRT display
 Compatible computer terminal
I/O Module
• The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to external field devices.
• The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals received
from or sent to the external input and output devices.

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 • Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to logic levels
acceptable to PLC’s processor.
• Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving the
connected discrete or analog output devices.
DC INPUT MODULE

AC INPUT MODULE

DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS
1. Pilot Duty Outputs
Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current electromagnetic loads such as
solenoids, relays, valves, and motor starters. These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a
large inrush current. Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an inrush current
of 10 times the rated load for a short period of time without failure.
2. General - Purpose Outputs
These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used to drive indicating lights and
other non-inductive loads. Noise suppression may or may not be included on this types of
modules.
3. Discrete Inputs
Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit switches, push buttons, and other
discrete sensors. Noise suppression is of great importance in preventing false indication of
inputs turning on or off because of noise.

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4. Analog I/O
Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals. Analog inputs come from devices, such as
thermocouples, strain gages, or pressure sensors, that provide a signal voltage or current that
is derived from the process variable. Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V Analog
outputs can be used to drive devices such as voltmeters, X-Y recorders, servomotor drives,
and valves through the use of transducers. Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V;
0-10V.
5. Special - Purpose I/O
Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific types of circuits such as
servomotors, stepping motors PID (proportional plus integral plus derivative) loops, high-
speed pulse counting, resolver and decoder inputs, multiplexed displays, and keyboards. This
module allows for limited access to timer and counter presets and other PLC variables
without requiring a program loader.

Discrete Input
A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is either ON or OFF are
connected to the PLC digital input. In the ON condition it is referred to as logic 1 or a logic
high and in the OFF condition maybe referred to as logic o or logic low.

Analog input
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal. Typical inputs may vary from
0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V. Below, a level transmitter monitors the level of liquid in
the tank. Depending on the level Tx, the signal to the PLC can either increase or decrease as
the level increases or decreases.

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Digital Output
A discrete output is either in an ON or OFF condition. Solenoids, contactors coils, lamps are
example of devices connected to the discrete or digital outputs. Below, the lamp can be
turned ON or OFF by the PLC output it is connected to.

Analog Output
An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous signal. Typical outputs may vary
from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V.

PLC Operation
Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user program stored in
application memory, then, based on whatever control scheme has been programmed by the
user, turn the field output devices on or off, or perform whatever control is necessary for the
process application. This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in
memory, and updating the outputs is known as scanning.
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the following four phases, which are
repeated continuously as individual cycles of operation:

PHASE 1 – Input Status scan

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  A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status of its inputs.
PHASE 2– Logic Solve/Program Execution
 The application program is executed using the status of the inputs
PHASE 3– Logic Solve/Program Execution

Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics and communication
tasks
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan
 An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output values are sent to
actuators and other field output devices. The cycle ends by updating the outputs.
Selection criteria of PLC
o Number of logical inputs and outputs.
o Memory
o Number of special I/O modules
o Scan Time
o Software
o Communications
List of items required when working with PLCs:
1. Programming Terminal - laptop or desktop PC.
2. PLC Software. PLC manufacturers have their own specific software and license key.
3. Communication cable for connection from Laptop to PLC.
4. Backup copy of the ladder program (on diskette, CDROM, hard disk, flash memory). If
none, upload it from the PLC.
5. Documentation- (PLC manual, Software manual, drawings, ladder program printout, and
Seq. of Operations manual).
Ladder logic diagram
• Used to display the relationship between combinational logic elements
• They are not able to show the various input/output variables as function of time
• The diagram shows the action of variables as they change over time, but it is not
useful for displaying the logic of the system

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PROGRAMMING

Power flows through these contacts when they are closed. The normally open (NO) is true
when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 1. The normally closed (NC) is
true when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 0.
Coils

Coils represent relays that are energized when power flows to them. When a coil is energized
it causes a corresponding output to turn on by changing the state of the status bit controlling
the output to 1. That same output status bit maybe used to control normally open or normally
closed contact anywhere in the program.
Boxes

Boxes represent various instructions or functions that are Executed when power flows to the
box. Some of these Functions are timers, counters and math operations.
And Operation

Each rung or network on a ladder program represents a logic operation. In the rung above,
both inputs A and B must be true (1) in order for the output C to be true (1).
Or Operation

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In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B is being true (1), or both are true,
then the output C is true (1).
Not Operation
In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1), then the output C is true (0) or
when A is (0), output C is 1.
Ladder logic
Binary combinations are expressed by series and parallel relay contact:

Figure
Micro Electromechanical Systems (MEMS)
• Micro Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) is an enabling technology for the cost
effective development of sensors and actuators for mechatronics applications.
• Already, several MEMS devices are in use in automobiles, including sensors and
actuators for airbag deployment and pressure sensors for manifold pressure
measurement.
• Integrating MEMS devices with CMOS signal conditioning circuits on the same
silicon chip is another example of development of enabling technologies that will
improve mechatronic products, such as the automobile.

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