University of La Salette, Inc.

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

MODULE I
INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

INTRODUCTION
This module covers the first section of the course that
provides a broad overview of statistical methods and a more focused
presentation of those methods in descriptive statistics. It will
introduce you to the principles of statistics and why we study and use
them in the behavioral sciences. It includes the basic terminology and
notation used for statistics, as well as how behavioral sciences think
about, use, interpret, and communicate information and data. The
module will conclude with a brief introduction to concepts in
probability that underlie how scientists perform data analysis. This
will serve as the building blocks for the logic and application of
hypothesis testing, which will be introduced in the succeeding
modules of the course.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should:

1. have a good understanding of the general goals of

statistics and you should be familiar with the basic
terminology and notation used in statistics;
2. be familiar with the techniques of descriptive statistics
to organize and summarize the results obtain from
research;
3. be able to take a set of scores and present them in
table or graph that provides an overall picture of the data
set.
4. Summarize a set of scores by calculating one or two
values such as average that describe the entire set.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

LESSON 1 ǀ DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF STATISTICS

Statistics
The word ‘Statistics’ is said to be derived from the Latin word ‘status’ or Italian word
‘statista’ or the German word ‘statistik’ each of which means a political state. In the olden
days statistics was regarded as the ‘science of state craft’ related to the administrative activity
of the state.
In general, ‘statistics’ conveys a variety of meaning to people. Some of them are:
 Statistics refers to numerical facts or data. (Data of birth date, school attendance,
dropouts, employment market, agricultural products, etc are collected by statistical
departments or other agencies which are known as statistics)
 Statistics refers to a method of dealing with quantitative information. (As a subject of
study, it is a body of method of obtaining and analyzing data in order to make
decisions on them.)

Thus statistics can be considered either as quantitative information or as a method of

dealing with quantitative information.

Definitions of Statistics

The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,

summarizing, and interpreting information.

Research in psychology and other fields involves gathering information. For example,
to determine whether violent mobile games have any effect on children’s behavior, you would
need to gather information about children’s behaviors and the mobile games they play. When
the researchers finish the task of gathering information, they typically find themselves with
pages and pages of measurements such as personality scores, reaction time scores, and so on.

Specifically, statistics serve two general purposes:

1. Statistics are used to organize and summarized the information so that the
researcher can see what happened in the research study and can communicate
the results to others.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the questions that initiated the
research by determining exactly what general conclusions are justified based
on the specific results that were obtained.

Statistics as a branch of Mathematics can be defined as the science of collection,

organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
Based from this definition, there are five stages in a statistical investigation.
They are:

1. COLLECTION
The first step of any statistical investigation is collection of data which is the
foundation of statistical analysis. If data are faulty, the conclusions drawn can never be
reliable. So, utmost care must be taken while collecting data. The data collected may be
primary (collected by the investigator) or secondary ( available from existing published or
unpublished sources).
2. ORGANIZATION
A large mass of figures that are collected needs organization, the first step of which is
editing. During editing, any omission, inconsistencies, irrelevant and wrong computation are
adjusted or corrected.
The second step in organization is classification in which data is arranged according to some
common characteristics. The third step in organization is tabulation. In tabulation, data is
arranged in rows and columns so that there is absolute clarity in the data presented.
3. PRESENTATION
Presentation of data facilitates statistical analysis. Usually, the organized data is
presented either using diagrams or graphs.
4. ANALYSIS
The data can be analyzed using different methods ranging from simple observation of
the data to complicated, sophisticated and highly mathematical techniques. Commonly used
methods of statistical analysis are measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion,
correlation, regression etc.
5. INTERPRETATION
Interpretation means drawing conclusion from the data collected and analyzed. Correct
interpretation will lead to valid conclusions helping one to take suitable decisions.
As statistical methods help in taking decisions, a better definition is “statistics is a
method of decision making in the face of uncertainty on the basis of numerical data and

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

calculated risks”.

Need and Significance of Statistics in Psychology

Statistics is widely employed as a tool and is a highly valuable one in the analysis of
problems in nature, physical and social sciences. Statistical methods are indispensable in
forecasting, controlling and exploring various phenomena.
Statistics helps in systematic collection, organization, presentation of numerical data
and in drawing conclusions or making predictions on the basis of particular evidences.
In psychology, statistics is very much essential as it involves measurement of
behaviors, especially in various experiments for theory formation and verification.
The use of statistics in the field of psychology cannot be listed exhaustively, but some
applications are given below:

1. In measurement and evaluation

Instruments to measure variables of psychological interests are to be developed and
standardized to make the process of measurement and evaluation more accurate. Statistics is
used in the process of construction and standardization of such psychological tools. The data
collected through these tools are organized, analyzed and arrived at conclusion using the
methods of statistics.
2. In carrying out activities related to profession as
psychologist/psychometrician/guidance counselor.
A psychologist has to take decisions regarding guidance or counseling based
on data collected through surveys or experiments. He has to use statistical methods in
conducting experiments or surveys and arriving at valuable conclusions.
3. In carrying out researches
Research is needed for the expansion and verification of knowledge in any
field. A researcher needs statistics for successful completion of his research.
According to Guilford (1973), statistical methods help a researcher in:
- Describing the work in an exact form.
- Making the procedure definite and exact.
- Summarizing the results in a meaningful and convenient format,
- Drawing general conclusions.
- Predicting and
- Analyzing the causal factors underlying complex and otherwise
bewildering events.
4. In understanding and using the products of research
Statistics help the practitioners to be conversant with latest developments in

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

the field. The interpretation and proper use of the results of applied and theoretical
researches become possible with proper knowledge of statistics. Thus statistics has
much application in psychology and is highly useful for professionals in the field to
discharge their duties effectively, to update their knowledge and to contribute
significantly for the welfare of the society.

What statistics are not?

Many psychology students dread the idea of taking a statistics course, and more than a few
have changed majors upon learning that it is a requirement. That is because many students
view statistics as a math class, which is actually not true. While many of you will not believe
this or agree with it, statistics isn’t math. Although math is a central component of it, statistics
is a broader way of organizing, interpreting, and communicating information in an objective
manner. Indeed, great care has been taken to eliminate as much math from this course as
possible (students who do not believe these are welcome to ask the professor what matrix
algebra is). Statistics is a way of viewing reality as it exists around us in a way that we
otherwise could not.

Pre-requisite of studying Statistics

Statistics involves numbers and formulae and hence need fundamentals of mathematical
computations and reasoning for its study. But one need not be a scholar in mathematics for
learning the procedure of using statistical methods in dealing with data related to behavioral
sciences. Basic knowledge of the four fundamental operations-addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of rational and irrational numbers, square and square roots of
numbers, proportion and percentage and simplification of complex expressions are needed for
applying statistics in psychology. Besides the essential mathematical knowledge, the nature of
variable, types of measurement, various statistical symbols and theory of probability are
required for understanding statistical methods.

What one need to be successful in use of statistics are systematic study of the subject and an
analytic mind to arrive at accurate conclusions.

Misuses of Statistics
There is a general comment that ‘statistics can prove anything’. The main reasons for
this comment are -
i. Figures are convincing and hence people are easily led to believe them.
ii. Data can be manipulated in such a manner as to establish foregone conclusions.
iii. Even if correct figures are used, they may be presented in such a manner that the
reader in misled.
It is to be remembered that ‘statistics neither proves anything nor disproves anything’.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

It is only a tool –a method of approach. Tools, if properly used, give accurate results, if
misused, prove disastrous.

Name: ________________________ Date: ________________

IDENTIFYING SAMPLING METHODS

A. In each of the following examples, identify the sampling method being used.
1. A sample of 2,000 was sought to estimate the average achievement in science of fifth
graders in a city’s public schools. The average fifth grade enrollment in the city’s elementary
schools is 100 students. Thus, 20 schools were randomly selected and within each of those
schools all fifth graders were tested.

2. A researcher has a population of 100 third grade children from a local school district
from which a sample of 25 children is to be selected. Each child’s name is put on a list, and
each child is assigned a number from 1 to 100. Then the numbers 1 to 100 are written on
separate pieces of paper and shuffled. Finally, the researcher picks 25 slips of paper and the
numbers on the paper determine the 25 participants.

3. A sociologist conducts an opinion survey in a major city. Part of the research plan
calls for describing and comparing the opinions of four different ethnic groups: African
Americans, Asian Americans, European Americans, and Native Americans. For a total sample
of 300, the researcher selects 75 participants from each of the four predetermined subgroups.

4. Instructors teaching research methods are interested in knowing what study techniques
their students are utilizing. Rather than assessing all students, the researchers randomly select
10 students from each of the sections to comprise their sample.

B. Describe how you would select people to take your survey in the following situations
with the listed method (when provided):

5. Say you wanted to survey professors at KSU about their publication records. You
want to be sure to include professors from each department, even the very small ones.

6. You want to select a sample of KSU students using simple random sampling, how
would you do this?

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

ACTIVITY 2:
I. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV)
of the given situation.

1. Time of day has a significant effect on alertness

IV
____________________________________________________________________
DV
____________________________________________________________________
2. Cathleen is going to hang clean shirts up in the closet. The number of empty hangers she
needs will depend on how many clean shirts are there.

IV
____________________________________________________________________
DV
____________________________________________________________________
3. A planned program of counselling interventions will enable clients to achieve low stress
levels.

IV
____________________________________________________________________
DV
____________________________________________________________________
4. A teller at a bank is tying bills into stacks. The number of stacks the teller can make
depends on how many bills on hand.

IV
___________________________________________________________________
DV
____________________________________________________________________
5. Stressful experiences significantly increase the likelihood of headaches.
IV
____________________________________________________________________
DV
____________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 3. CLASSIFICATION: Indicate which level of measurement is being used in the

given scenario. Write N for nominal, O for Ordinal, I for interval and R for ratio. Write your
answer on the space provided.

_____1. The teacher of a class records the height of each student.

_____2. The teacher of a class records the eye color of each student.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

_____3. The teacher of a class records the percentage that each student got correct on the

last mathematics test.

_____4. A meteorologist compiles a list of temperatures in degrees Celsius for the month of

September.

_____5. A film critic lists the top 50 greatest movies of all time.

_____6. The roster of a basketball team lists the jersey numbers for each of the players.

_____7. A local animal shelter keeps track of the breeds of dogs that come in.

_____8. List of favorite foods of statistics class.

_____9. Number of students in the classroom.

_____10. Ages of students in a research class

ACTIVITY 4 . Identify the different types of variables in the given example.

A study was conducted to find out the effects of different study habits on examination
performance. The study followed student – participants who were assigned randomly to one
of two conditions. The first group was asked to study individually using class lecture notes.
The second group was asked to study together, allowing discussions. The amount of time
examinations given to both groups was similar.

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the independent variable?

2. What is the dependent variable?

ACTIVITY 5. Sigma Notation

1.Determine the number of terms in the series:

a) b) c) d)

2.Determine the given term of the series:

a) find b) find c) find

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

3. Evaluate the following:

a) b)

c) d)

4. Expand the following:

a) b)

5. Solve:

6.Write the following using sigma notation:

a) b)

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]
 University of La Salette, Inc.
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Santiago City, Philippines 3311

This is a study related to measuring the results of the examination performance in two
groups with two created situations.

Explanation:

A. What are the independent variables in this study?

The influence of study habits created under certain conditions (Group 1 is directed to study
individually and Group 2 is directed to conduct group discussions in learning).

It is called the independent variable because this variable is indeed independent, meaning
that it can stand alone without being influenced by other variables. This variable is also said
to be an influence variable because it will have an influence on other variables.

B. What is the dependent variable in this study?

The results of the exams of the 2 groups of students tested.

The independent variable is the variable that is influenced by the independent variable.
Therefore, the dependent variable is also said to be the affected variable. The dependent
variable is usually located at the end of the title of a study.

C. What is the type of quantitative research used in this hypothetical research

example?

For this quantitative research, it belongs to the comparative quantitative type where the
hypothesis being tested is to measure the comparison of two situations in two groups to
measure the same variable with statistical methods and the results are in the form of a
subject (student) eximination performance.

Comparative quantitative research is a quantitative approach whose data is numerical and

processed using statistical methods. Comparative research is research that is intended to
determine the level of difference of a variable from two different groups.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Subject Teacher: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR
Faculty, La Salette of Ramon, Inc.
09550212075/[email protected]