Signal; a single-valued function of time that conveys (c) cheaper (a) continuous-time signal or analog signal;

information. (d) easy storage defined for every value of time it takes on
continuous interval (𝑎, 𝑏) where possibly:
Signal; a physical quantity that varies with time, Limitation of digital signal processing;
𝑎 = −∞, 𝑏 = ∞.
space or any variable
(a) speed of operation (b) discrete-time signal; defined only on certain
Signal; generation is usually associated with system (b) bandwidth consideration specific values of time.
that responds with stimulus or force
Digital signal processing; study of signals in digital Derivation of discrete time signal;
Signal; also, a description of how one parameter representation and the processing methods of these
(a) selecting values of analog signal at discrete
varies with another parameter. For instances voltage signals
time instant
magnitude varies over time or light’s luminosity
Digital signal processing; mathematics, algorithms (b) accumulating variable over a period of time
varying with distance.
and the techniques used to manipulate these signals
Continuous-valued signal; if signal takes on all
Continuous signal; represented with parentheses after they have been converted into digital form;
possible values on infinite range
examples of its applications;
Discrete signal; represented with brackets
Discrete-valued signal; if the signal takes on values
(a) visual enhancements
System; any process that produces an output signal from a finite set of possible values
(b) speech recognition and speech
in response of input signal;
(c) data compression Deterministic signal; can be expressed
(a) involve signal processing (d) data storage and transmission mathematically
(b) linear or non-linear
Superposition; divide-and-conquer strategy; Random signal; does not exhibit any pattern
(c) involves software
processing signals is broken into simple components
Algorithm; method or set of rules for implementing and processed individually, the results are reunited
the system by a program that performs the
Classification of signal according to channel;
corresponding mathematical operations
(a) single channel: generated by a single source
Time domain; dependent variable varies with time
(b) multiple channel; generated by multiple
as independent variable
source or sensors
Frequency domain; dependent variable varies with
Classification of signal according to dimension;
frequency as independent variable
(a) one dimensional; dependent variable has
Spatial domain; dependent variable varies with
only one independent variable
frequency as independent variable
(b) multi-dimensional; independent variable
Signal processing; extracting information from a has multiple independent variables
signal, conditioning signal for subsequent use, signal
Classification of signal according to value;
transformation or altering a signal structure
(a) real
Advantage of digital signal processing over analog;
(b) complex
(a) flexibility
Classification of signal according to characteristics of
(b) accuracy
time variable;
Digital signal equation; Analog-Digital and Digital-Analog Conversion; are Two factors for determining the number of bits
processes that allow digital computers to interact needed in a system;
𝑋[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 + 𝛳)
with analog signals
(a) magnitude of noise present in the analog
where; 𝑛 is the nth time (any integer)
Digital information; is sampled and quantized analog signal
Properties of discrete-time sinusoid; signal (b) magnitude of noise that can be tolerated in
the digital signal
(a) is periodic if its frequency, 𝑓 is a rational Analog to digital converter; converts analog signal to
number; digital. ; valid only when quantization error cannot be
treated as random
Steps of analog to digital converter;
𝑋[𝑛+𝑁] = 𝑋[𝑛]
Stuck; same value of an analog signal remains on the
(a) 𝑋(𝑡) : analog signal
Rational number; any number that can be same number of many samples in a row.
(b) 𝑋[𝑛] : sampled signal or discrete time signal
represented as fraction. Dithering; a common technique for improving the
(c) 𝑋𝑞[𝑛] : quantized signal
(b) frequencies are separated by an integer (d) in binary form: digital signal digitization of slowly varying signal
multiple of 2𝜋 are identical
Sampling; conversion of a continuous-time signal
(c) highest rate of oscillation is attained when;
into a discrete-time signal, obtained by taking
1 1 samples in analog signal at discrete time instants.
𝜔 = 𝜋(𝜔 = −𝜋), 𝑓 = (𝑓 = − )
2 2 Sampled results are represented by digital numbers
Harmonically related complex exponentials; sets of as measurement of signals (amplitude).
period complex exponential with fundamental Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem; used to
frequencies that are multiples of a single positive determine the number of samples for proper
frequency sampling.
𝑆𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑘2𝜋𝑡 ; Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem; the sampling
where 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 … frequency must be greater than the twice the
bandwidth of the signal.
Linear combination of harmonically related complex
exponential; Quantization; the conversion of a discrete-time
continuous-valued into a discrete-time discrete-
∞ ∞
valued signal
𝑋𝑎 (𝑡) = ∑ 𝐶𝑘 𝑆𝑘 (𝑡) = ∑ 𝐶𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝑘 = −∞ 𝑘 = −∞ Quantization; process of approximating a
continuous range of values by relatively-small set of
where 𝐶𝑘 is arbitrary constant, 𝑘 = 0, ±1,
discrete symbols or integer values
±2, ±3 …
Coding; process of altering the characteristic of a
Discrete-time exponentials
signal for digital application.
𝑆𝑘 [𝑛] = 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑛 ; 𝑆𝑛 [𝑛] = ∑𝑁−1
𝑘 = 0 𝐶𝑘 𝑆𝑘 [𝑛]
Coding; process where each discrete value 𝑋𝑞[𝑛]
(quantized values) is represented by binary
sequence.
Sampling of analog signals; Sampling theory; Signal to quantization ratio; signal to quantization
noise ratio of signal power to noise
(a) 𝑋[𝑛] ; discrete-time signal obtained by taking (a) check for discrete-time signal component’s
samples of the analog signal 𝑋𝑎 (𝑡) every 𝑇 identicality 𝑺𝑵𝑸𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒃
seconds (b) combine the components, select the lower
where; 𝑏: number of bits used in the coding stage
(b) 𝑇𝑠 ; sampling period or sampling interval frequency
(c) 𝑓𝑠 ; sampling rate or sample frequency (c) simply the discrete-time signal Coding of quantized samples: coding; assigning a
(d) 𝑓; digital, relative or absolute frequency unique binary number to each quantization level.
Quantization; conversion of discrete-time
(e) 𝐹; analog frequency
continuous-valued signal to discrete-time discrete- 𝟐𝒃 ≥ 𝑳
𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑋𝑎 [𝑛𝑇] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹𝑛𝑇 + 𝛳) valued signal
where;
Consider; Quantization; process of approximating a
continuous range of values by a relatively small set (a) 𝑏: number of bits used
𝐹 1 (b) 𝐿: quantization level
𝑓 = ;𝑇 = of symbols or integer values
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
Quantization error; error introduced in representing
1
𝑋[𝑛] = cos {2𝜋𝐹𝑛 ( ) + 𝛳} the continuous-valued signal by a finite set of
𝑓𝑠
discrete value levels
𝑿[𝒏] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 {𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒏 + 𝜭}: discrete-time signal
(a) 𝑋[𝑛] : discrete-time continuous-valued signal
Discrete-time signal properties; (b) 𝑄{𝑋[𝑛] }: quantizer operation
1 1 𝑓 𝑓𝑠
(c) 𝑋𝑞 [𝑛]: quantized samples
− 2 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 2; − 2𝑠 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 2
𝑄{𝑋[𝑛] } = 𝑋𝑞 [𝑛]
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝑭
Quantization error;
Nyquist rate; the minimum sampling rate that can
be used to sample on analog with frequency 𝐹 𝒆𝒒 [𝒏] = 𝑿𝒒 [𝒏] − 𝑿[𝒏]

𝒇𝒔(𝒎𝒊𝒏) = 𝟐𝑭(𝒎𝒂𝒙) Rounding quantizer;

Alias frequency; frequency produced in improper 𝜟 𝜟

− ≤ 𝒆𝒒 [𝒏] ≤ 𝜟
sampling 𝟐 𝟐

Alias signal; signal produced in improper sampling [𝑿(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝑿(𝒎𝒊𝒏) ]

𝜟=
(𝑳 − 𝟏)
Alis frequency; frequency of a signal at which when
sampled at a given rate produces same values as where;
the original signal (a) 𝑿(𝒎𝒂𝒙): maximum amplitude
Folding frequency; maximum analog frequency that (b) 𝑿(𝒎𝒊𝒏): minimum amplitude
can be sampled by sampling rate 𝑓𝑠 (c) 𝐿: quantization levels
(d) [𝑿(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝑿(𝒎𝒊𝒏) ]: dynamic range
𝒇𝒔
𝑭(𝒎𝒂𝒙) =
𝟐