Cell : The unit of life

No nuclear membrane and

Prokaryotic no membrane bound cell
organelles. Ex-bacteria
Basic Unit of Life CELL Two Types
Eukaryotic With nuclear membrane
and membrane bound cell
organelles. Ex-human cell

Cell wall Cell Cytoplarm Nucleus Vacuoles

(plant cell) Membrane (Plant Cell)

Outermost Made of Fluid present Consists of Store house

covering of phospholipid between nucleoplasm of water,
plant cell, made bilayer and Nucleus and and nuclear nutrients
up of cellulose proteins Cell membrane membrane mineral salts,
waste

Contains cell organelles

Endo membrane Mitochondria Plastids Ribosomes Cytoskeleten Cillia and Centrosome

System Flegella Centriole

ER, golgi Double Found in Granular Proteinaceous Cilia are Form basal
apparatus, membranens plant cell & structures, structures smaller body of cilia
lysosomes structure, euglenoids made of made of hair like and flagella,
and produce contains DNA and microtubule, out and spindle
vacuoles energy in the pigments & protein, microfilaments growths fibers during
have co- form of ATP, classified as acts as & intermediate and cell division
ordinated divides by chloroplasts protein filaments, flagella of animal
function so fission, has and factories provide are larger cells
form its own DNA chromoplasts mechanical both help
endo and leucoplasts support, in
membrane ribosomes has DNA & motility and locomotion
system ribo somes maintain
shape of cell
Network of tiny tubular structures scattered in cytoplasm, which divide intracellular
ER – space into two compartments. They are two types– SER and RER

Golgibodies – Flat disc shaped sacs or cisternae, stacked parallel to each other, near nucleus.
Lysosomes – Membrane bound vescicles formed by packaging in Golgi apparatus

Cell : The Unit of Life 85

 Points to Remember

Cell Theory : Cell Theory was formulated by Schleiden and Schwann, and
was modified by Rudolf Virchow. Cell theory States that :

(A) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.

(B) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cell : Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cells

 Generally small sized (1–10 µm)  Generally large sized (5–10 µm)
 Well defined nucleus absent  Well defined nucleus present
 Membrane bounded cell organelles  Membrane bounded cell organelles
absent present
 DNA without histone protein  DNA with histone protein

e.g., Bacteria, Mycoplasma, Blue e.g., Amoeba, Euglena and other
green Algae higher organism

Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria

 Bacteria that take up gram  Bacteria do not take up gram stain
Stain. e.g., Bacillus e.g., Escherichia coli

PROKARYOTIC CELL :
Modification of cell envelope
 Cell envelope consists of tightly bound 3 layered structure – Outermost
Glycocalyx followed by cell well and plasma membrane

 Glycocalyx in form of loose sheath, is called slime same layer

 Glycocalyx in form of thick and tough sheath, is called capsule

86 Biology Class - 11
  Mesosomes : Extension of plasma membrane. These can be in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
Functions : Cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter
cells, respiration, secretion processes, to increase surface area of plasma
membrane and enzyme content.
 Flagella : Extension of cell wall. It is composed of three structures – filament,

hook and basal body. It help in motility of bacteria.

 Pili and fimbriae : Surface structure of some bacteria which attaches them

to rocks in streams and to host tissues.

Genetic Material : It is not covered by nuclear envelope. In addition to
the genomic DNA (the single chromosome/circular DNA), many bacteria have
small circular self replicating, double stranded DNA which is called as plasmid,
plasmid contain genes like antibiotic resistance.
Ribosomes : Associated with plasma membrane of prokaryatic cell, site of
protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a
chain called polyribosomes or polysomes. They translate mRNA into Proteins.
Inclusion Bodies : Stores reserve material, lie freely in cytoplasm not bound
by any membrane. e.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen
granules.
Eukaryotic cells
Possess an oragnized nucleus with nuclear envelope and have a variety of
complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
Cell Membrane — Singer and Nicolson (1972) gave ‘fluid mosaic model’.
According to this the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer; two types of proteins (Peripheral and integral
proteins) with cholesterol, glycolipids and glycoporteins. Erythrocyte membrane
has 52% protein and 40% lipids.
Function—It is selectively permeable and helps in transport of molecule
across it.
Passive transport Active transport
 Transport of molecules from  Transport of molecules from lower to

higher to lower concentration. higher concentration

 It do not utilise energy (ATP).  It utilises energy (ATP)

e.g., diffusion e.g., Na+/k+ ATPase Pump.

Cell : The Unit of Life 87

 Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
Cell Wall is non-living rigid structure which gives shape to the cell and
protects cell from mechanical damage and infection, helps in cell-to-cell interaction
and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
Cell wall of algae is made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like
calcium carbonate. Plant cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins
and proteins.
Middle lamella is made of calcium pectate which holds neighbouring cells
together.
Plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Consists of network of tiny tubular structure. ER divides the intracellular
space into two distinct compartments–luminal (inside ER) and extra luminal
(cytoplasm).
(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) :
 Ribosomes attached to outer surface.

Function :  Involved in protein synthesis and secretion.

(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) :  Lack ribosomes.
Function  Site for synthesis of lipid.
Golgi apparatus : First observed by Camillo Golgi (in 1898)
Consist of cisternae stacked parallel to each other. Two faces of the organelle
are convex/cis or forming face and concave/trans or maturing face but inter
connected.
Functions : Performs packaging of materials, to be delivered either to the
intra-cellular targets or secreted outside the cell. Important site of formation of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.

88 Biology Class - 11
 Lysosomes :
Membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging
in the golgi apparatus. Contain hydrolysing enzymes (lipases, proteases,
carbohydrases) which are active in acidic pH. Also called ‘Suicidal Bag’.
Function : Intracellular digestion.
Vacuoles : Membrane bound space found in the cytoplasm. Contain water,
sap, excretory product, etc. In plant cell, vacoule occupies 90% of space.
Function : In plants tonoplast (single membrane of vacuole) faciliates
transport of ions and other substances.
Contractile vacuole for excretion in Amoeba and food vacuoles formed in
protists for digestion of food.
Mitochondria : Double membraned structure. Outer membrane smooth and
inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called cristae The inner compartment
is called matrix. The cristae increase the surface area.
DNA (Circular)

OUTER MEMBRANE
RIBOSOME (70S)
CRISTA

MATRIX
INNER MEMBRANE
OUTER MEMBRANE

Mitochondria
Mitochondria

Function : Sites of aerobic respiration. Called ’power houses’ of cell as

produce cellular energy in the form of ATP. Matrix possesses single circular DNA
molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribsomes (70S). It divides by binary fission.
Plastids : Found in plant cells and in euglenoides. Chloroplasts, chromoplasts
and leucoplasts are 3 types of plastids depending on pigments contained.
Types of Plastids

Chloroplast Chromoplast Leucoplast

(Green coloured plastids) (Colourless plastids)
• Contain chlorophyll, and • Carotenoid (fat souble) • Amyloplast (Starch)
corotenoids double stranded like Carotene, • Elaioplasts (oil + fat)
DNA and Xanthophylls and • Aleuroplast
70S ribosomes. Others. (store proteins)
• Trap light energy for • Gives the part of plant a
photosynthesis yellow orange and red colour

Cell : The Unit of Life 89

 Function : Site of photosynthesis, and imparts colours to fruits and flowers.

Chloroplast
Ribosomes
Composed of RNA and proteins; without membrane. Eucaryotic ribosomes
are 80S. S = Svedberg’s unit)
Function : Site of protein synthesis.
Cytoskeleton : Network of filaments.
Proteinaceous structure in cytoplasm made up of microtubules and micro
filaments.
Function : Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia are small structures which work like oars which help in movement.
Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement. They are covered
with a plasma membrane. Core is called axoneme which has 9 + 2 arrangement
of axonemal microtubules.

90 Biology Class - 11
Centrosome and Centrioles
Centrosome contains two cylindrical structures called centrioles. Surrounded
by amorphous pericentriolar material. Made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral
fibrils of tubulin protein (9+0). Centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella
and spindle fibres for cell division in animal cells. They produces spindle apparatus
during cell divison.
Nucleus : Double membranous with perinuclear space and nuclear pores;
has Chromatin, nuclear matrix and nucleoli (site for rRNA synthesis). (Named
by Robert Brown – 1831)
Chromatin DNA + nonhistone proteins. (Named by Fleming)
Nucleoplasm – Nucleolus + Chromatin
Nulear membrane—It is with perinuclear space and nucleopores.
Chromosomes—DNA/RNA + Histone protein/Nonhistone protein.
Centromere : Primary constriction–in every chromosome
Kinetochores : Disc shaped structure on the sides of centsomere.
No nucleus in Erythrocytes (RBC) of mammals and sieve tubes in vascular
plants.
Chromosomes (on basis of position of centromere) :
Metacentric : Middle centromere.
Sub-metacentric : Centromere nearer to one end of chromosomes.
Acrocentric : Centromere situated close to its end.
Telocentric :Has terminal centromere.

Metacentric
Telocentric
Sub metacentric Acrocentric

Satellite : Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at

a constant location, which gives the appearance of small fragment called satellite.

Cell : The Unit of Life 91

 Questions

Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)

1. Name the parts of bacterial flagella.
2. Name the nutrient stored in (i) elaioplasts (ii) aleuroplasts
3. Name the scientist who first saw and described a living cell.
4. What are plasmids ?
5. Name the scientist who first explained that new cells arose from pre-existing
cells (Omnis cellula-e-cellula)
6. What is the composition of plasma membrane of human erythrocyte.
7. Eukayotic ribosomes are 80S. What does ‘S’ stand for ?
8. Write the function of cytoskeleton in a cell ?
Short Answer Questions–I (2 marks each)
9. What are nuclear pores ? State their function.
10. State the cell theory.
11. Differentiate between active and passive transport.
12. Differentiate between RER and SER.
13. List two functions of golgi apparatus.
14. List two functions of mesosome.
15. Differentiate between the electron microscopic structure of cilia/flagella and
centriole.
16. Give the specific terms for the following :
(a) Cluster of ribosomes found in cytoplasm
(b) Extensive infolding in the inner membrane of mitochondria
(c) Stacks of closely packed thylakoids
(d) Stalked particles on the inner membrane of mitochondria
17. (a) Write the function of inclusion bodies in prokaryotic cells ?
(b) Where are they present ?
(c) Give two examples of inclusion bodies.
Short Answer Questions–II (3 marks each)
18. With the help of labelled diagram explain the ‘fluid mosaic model’ structure
of cell membrane.
19. Differentiate between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
20. What are lysosomes ? How are they formed ? Write their functions.
21. Give the structural details of an eukaryotic nucleus along with its diagram.

92 Biology Class - 11
22. The ribosomes of prokaryoters are of 70 S type ribosomes and while of
eukaryotes are of 80 S type as well as 70 S types.
(a) Give the composition of 70 S type ribosomes and 80 S type ribosome
(two sub units, from each of them are made of)
(b) Name two cell organelles of eukaryotic cells which have their own
independent ribosomes of 70 S type
Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)
23. (a)
Give the structural details of mitochondria.
(b)
Draw its diagram.
(c)
Why is it called ‘powerhouse of the cell’ ?
24. (a)
Diagrammatically represent the types of chromosomes based on the
position of centromere.
(b) What does chromatin contain ?
(c) What is perinuclear space ?

Answers

Very Short Answers (1 mark each)

1. Filament, hook, basal body.
2. Elaioplasts : fats and oils.
Aleuroplasts : proteins.
3. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek
4. The small circular DNA, outside the genomic DNA of bacteria.
5. Rudolf Virchow.
6. 52% proteins, 40% lipids.
7. Sedimentation coefficient (Svedberg unit)
8. Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of shape of cell.
Short Answers–I (2 marks each)
9. Minute pores present in the nuclear envelope; provide passage for movement
of RNA and proteins between nucleus and cytoplasm.
10. Refer ‘Points to Remember’.
12. Refer ‘Points to Remember’.
13. Refer ‘Points to Remember’.
14. Refer ‘Points to Remember’.

Cell : The Unit of Life 93

15. Flegella/Cilia Centriole

(i) Possess (9 + 2) pattern of axoneme : Possess (9 + 0) pattern,
microtubules enclosed by a membrane membrane less organelle
(ii) Each tubule is doublet : Each tubule is a triplet

16. (a) Polyribosome/Polysome

(b) Cristae
(c) Grana
(d) Fo–F1 particles ...
17. (a) Reserve materials are stored,
(b) They are free in the cytoplasm
(c) e.g.,Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules.
Short Answers–II (3 marks each)
18. Refer page no. 131–132, NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.
19. Differences in nucleus/chromosomes/mesosome/membrane bound cell
organelles/ribosomes/compartments in cell.
20. Refer page no. 134 NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.
21. Refer page no. 138, NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.
22. (a) 70 S ribosomes have 50 S and 30 S sub units; 80S ribosomes have 60
S and 40 S sub units.
(b) Mitochondria and chloropolast.

Long Answers (5 marks each)

23. Refer page no. 134-135, NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.
24. Refer page no. 138–139, NCERT, Text Book of Biology for Class XI.

Case Based :
25. Read the following and answer any four questions from 25 (i) to 25 (v) given
below :
It is thought that life originated on earth around 4 billion years ago. The
endosymbiotic theory states that some of the organelles in today’s Eukaryotic

94 Biology Class - 11
 cells were once prokaryotic microbes. In this theory the first eukaryotic
cell was probably an Amoeba like cell which ingested prokaryotic cells
which survived within these amoeba host cells. Both organisms established
symbiotic relationship. Mitochondria is formed when bacteria capable of
aerobic respiration were injected, chloroplast formed when photosynthetic
bacteria were ingested. They eventually lost their cell wall and much of their
DNA.
Some evidences which support this theory are :
(i) Mitochondria and chloroplast have their own circular DNA, just like
prokaryotes.
(ii) Both have 70s type of ribosomes.
(iii) Both are of the same size as prokaryotic cells and divide by binary fission.
(iv) Both are covered by double layered and contain respiratory enzymes on their
inner surface.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are semiautonomous organelles as they have
their own DNA and ribosomes. They can synthesise some of their proteins
on their own.
25. (i) Which feature have the prokaryotes lost during their evolution into
mitochondria and chloroplast?
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus
(c) ER
(d) Cell wall
25. (ii) Theory of endosymbiosis explains the :
(a) origin of organelles in eukaryotes
(b) how bacteria live
(c) how species evolve
(d) origin of multicellular life

Cell : The Unit of Life 95

25. (iii) Host cell received _______ from its endosymbiont and endosymbiont
received ______ from its host :
(a) Energy & shelter
(b) Shelter and energy
(c) Motility and reproduction
(d) Reproduction and motility
25. (iv) Which of the following evidence support endosymbiotic theory. Select
all that which applies :
(A) Chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own small circular DNA like
prokaryotes
(B) They divide by binary fission
(C) 70s type of ribosomes in tem
(D) Respiratory enzymes on their inner surface
(a) A & B
(b) A, B & C
(c) A, B, C & D
(d) B, C, & D
25. (v) Assertion : Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi autonomous
organelles.
Reason : They are formed by the division of preexisting organelles as well

as contain their own DNA but lack protein synthesizing machinery.
(a) Both assertion & reason are true, and the reason is the correct explanation
of the assertion.
(b) Both assertion and reason are true, but the reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(c) Assertion is true but reason is false.
(d) Both the assertion & reason are false.

96 Biology Class - 11
Assertion and Reason type Questions (1 mark each)
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one is Assertion
and other is Reason. Mark the correct answer as :
(a) Both assertion & reason are true, and the reason is the correct explanation
of the assertion.
(b) Both assertion and reason are true, but the reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(c) Assertion is true but reason is false.
(d) Both the assertion & reason are false.
26. Assertion : Specialization of cells is useful for organisms.
Reason : It increases the operational efficiency of an organism.
27. Assertion : Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles.
Reason : Prokaryotic cells do not contain membrane bound organelles.

Answers:
Ans. 25. (i) (d) Cell wall
Ans. 25. (ii) (a) Origin of organelles in eukaryotes
Ans. 25. (iii) (a) energy and shelter
Ans. 25. (iv) (c) A, B, C and D
Ans. 25. (v) (c) Assertion is true but reason is false.
Ans. 26. (a) Both assertion & reason are true, and the reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
Ans. 27. (b) Both assertion and reason are true, but the reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.


Cell : The Unit of Life 97

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