Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter reviews the related literature and studies which served as the guide and

frame in constructing problems and questionnaires essential for the study. The related

literature and studies presented corresponds with the study regarding the relationship of

students’ self-esteem and social media usage.

Related Literature

Social media is a combination of platforms that create, share, and/or exchange

information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. With the invention of Facebook,

social media has started to change. However, the life of Social media among young adults in

this contemporary period occupies more and more time than face-to-face interaction. Social

media has a significant impact on the way of living, language, interests, communication, and

psychology (Ismail, 2020).

According to Ahmad, Soomro and Jan (2017), Social media gained huge popularity in

the last decade because it can build relationships, connect with the world, share, and gain

knowledge but they have negative and positive effects on people. Some networking sites have

caused people to have low self-esteem. approximately 88% people making social

comparisons on Facebook and out of the 88% or 98% of the comparisons are upward social

comparisons. This research proves that there's a strong relationship between social media and

self-esteem. Increasing the social media usage can decrease self-esteem of the

individual.approximately 88% people making social comparisons on Facebook and out of the

88% or 98% of the comparisons are upward social comparisons. This research proves that

there's a strong relationship between social media and self-esteem. Increasing social media

usage can decrease self-esteem of the individual. Social networking sites help people
compare which can increase psychological distress and make self-esteem decrease.

Valkenburg et al., (2006), claimed that positive feedback increases self-esteem to a very high

degree and negative feedback lowers the self-esteem of individuals. An important

developmental task that Adolescents need to accomplish is to acquire self-esteem, the

positive and relatively stable evaluation of the self. Adolescents’ self-esteem is an important

predictor of healthy peer attachment (Gorrese & Ruggieri, 2013). According to Harter (2012),

Feedback and interaction on self-using social media, are great predictors of adolescents’ self-

esteem.

Social media users idealize self-presentations to photograph which can be a potential

threat to youth self-esteem. Youth are actively posting on many social media platforms that

may receive positive feedback which may enhance self-esteem, while not receiving positive

feedback on their appearance, which may result in reduced self-esteem (Steinsbekk et al.,

2021). Positive feedback on profiles enhanced adolescents’ social self-esteem and well-being,

Whereas negative feedback decreased their self-esteem and well-being.

According to Auld & Auld's (2019), Social media is a part of life for many people,

especially teens, since it helps to cultivate friendships and reduce loneliness. Social media use

and mental health haven't been linked directly by researchers yet. However, the rates of

anxiety and depression in teens have risen due to their social media usage. Research suggests

that excessive social media use does have a detrimental or negative influence on life

satisfaction and self-esteem. It also appears to be associated with an increase in mental health

issues and suicidality.

Problems with self-esteem may result from excessive social media use, especially

among teenage girls. According to Dr. Alexandra Hamlet, a clinical psychologist at the Child

Mind Institute, "Many girls are subjected to their friends posting the most perfect pictures of

themselves, or they're following celebrities and influencers who do a lot of Photoshopping

difficult on their self-confidence." (Auld & Auld's, 2019).

According to Bergman (2022), Researchers are aware that although social media has

numerous positive effects, it can also have negative impacts that can have long-term effects

on teens' mental health and general well-being. The way individuals interact is changing as

time goes by due to social media. The mental state of each person involved also changes as a

result of those connections. Numerous studies have shown a connection between social

media, online networking sites, and a teen's sense of self-esteem. They have also revealed a

correlation between these influences, increased risks for depression, low self-esteem,

loneliness, and anxiety. Girls between the ages of 10 and 14 tend to be the age group most

influenced by social media users' negative effects on self-esteem. Since studies have shown

that there is a correlation between social media and online networking sites on a teen's self-

esteem, it is pinpointed that Facebook is a social networking platform that frequently draws

teenagers with low self-esteem.

According to Wichstrømab et al., (2020), Users of social media are frequently

exposed to images of idealized versions of themselves. Youth's self-esteem in terms of

appearance could be threatened by this, although the negative impacts may vary depending

on the sort of social media use. In comparison to youths who mostly view and respond to

others' posts, who are exposed to these idealized presentations without receiving positive

feedback on their own appearance, which may result in reduced self-esteem, youths who

actively post updates may position themselves to receive positive feedback and appearance

confirmation and thus show enhanced self-esteem. According to Wichstrmab et al. (2020),

only girls have a decrease in appearance self-esteem between the ages of 10 and 12 and 12

and 14. It suggests that from childhood to adolescence, use that is other-focused but not self-

focused has a negative impact on the appearance of self-esteem.

Foreign

A study conducted by Guven (2019), entitled "Relationship Between Social Media

Use, Self-Esteem, and Satisfaction with Life," discovered that social media usage is a

negative predictor of self-esteem. The researcher also discovered that those who have higher

social media usage most likely have low self-esteem. There are 200 participants from the

University of Alabama who took part in this study, but only 188 are included in the dataset

analysis since 12 participants left the study without answering all of the questions in the

questionnaire. However, because this study is cross-sectional, it is impossible to determine

whether low self-esteem or positive affect are the causes of or the results of using social

media. The researcher divided the survey into five different parts: demographic information

and four different research instruments. Demographic information includes gender, age,

education level, the social networking sites the participants are using, and their reasons for

using social media tools. The instruments used in this study were the Social Media Addiction

Questionnaire (SMAQ), developed by Hawi and Samaha (2017); the Rosenberg Self-Esteem

Scale (RSES), an individual’s general evaluation of themselves (Rosenberg, 1965); the

Satisfaction with Life Scale; and lastly, positive affect and negative affect.

The Study of Guven (2019) aimed to provide detailed information concerning social

media usage, self-esteem, and life satisfaction to attract attention on the effects of social

media usage on young adults. In comparison to the previous study, the present study is only

going to investigate the relationship of social media usage and self-esteem, and it will not

include life satisfaction. The present study will also use Social Media Addiction

Questionnaire (SMAQ) and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES).

and Self-Esteem among Youths” discovered that gender differed significantly on self-esteem

and self-esteem was found high in female users. Additionally, the impact of social media

usage on self-esteem varied greatly too, and that low social media users had greater levels of

self-esteem. Studies have shown that women use social networking sites more frequently,

specifically, Facebook, and spend more time there in order to compare themselves to other

women. Contrarily, men are more likely to browse other people's profiles and make friends

than women. Therefore, those who spent the most time on social media per day had the

lowest levels of self-esteem. The data were obtained through an open-ended structured

interview technique and for measuring smith self-esteem inventory, self-esteem cooper

(1882) in which a total of 160 young people took part in the in the present study; 80

participants (40 boys and 40 girls) were graduate and 80 (40 boys and 40 girls) were

postgraduate students enrolled in a variety of departments at DDU Gorakhpur University;

Gorakhpur.

Another study was designed to determine whether gender and age affect how often

people use social networking sites, whether the amount of time spent on social networking

sites affects an individual's self-esteem, and whether social networking site usage changes

with age. This study is conducted by Ruigrok (2014), entitled “Usage of Social Networking

Sites and their Effects on Self-Esteem”, consisted of a total of 114 participants. The

researcher also created a second questionnaire to track how much time was spent on social

networking sites. However, the previous study uses an open-ended interview technique whilst

the present used close-ended questionnaires. For measuring, the present study used the

Rosenberg self-esteem scale in order to measure the self-esteem of the participants. On the

other hand, the previous study used another measure which is cooper, smith self-esteem

inventory.
 The study of Raymer (2015) entitled “The Effects of Social Media Sites on Self-

esteem” aimed to investigate the connection between college students' levels of self-esteem

and online social networking sites, particularly Facebook. The data were obtained through an

anonymous survey that included the Eating Attitudes Test-26, the Facebook Intensity Scale,

the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Body Esteem Scale. The study focused on a sample

of forty undergraduate students from a middle-sized Northeastern university who were

enrolled in the Essentials of Psychology course in the spring of 2015—twenty of whom were

male and twenty of whom were female. Results showed that neither the number of Facebook

friends nor Facebook usage directly correlate with self-esteem. However, the findings did

show that women often have more Facebook friends than men.

The previous study of Ruigrok (2014) encompassed a larger size of participants which

consisted of 114 participants compared to the current study which only consisted of a group

of forty students. However, some parts of the studies shared similar goals as both are aiming

for undergraduate students with a minimum age of 18 and older.

Another study entitled “Social Media Use and Self-Esteem in Undergraduate

Students” was conducted by Pineiro (2016) to explore the relationship between social media

usage and self-esteem levels. The hypothesis that the researcher expected is that the higher

the usage of social media would be associated with lower self-esteem levels. An online

survey was created to compute students’ social media usage and self-esteem levels, in which

100 undergraduate students from Rowan University answered, but only 92 surveys were

analyzed. The survey consists of 2 questions about social media usage and 10 statements on

the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), which can be answered by (1) Strongly Disagree,

(2) Disagree, (3) Agree, and (4) Strongly agree. After the data analysis, it was determined

that there is no significant relationship between social media usage and self-esteem levels.
 The previous study and the present study share a similarity as both studies focus on

the correlation between students’ self-esteem and social media usage. The previous study of

Pineiro (2016) uses a small population and does not include a large section for social media

usage, which affected the results of the study. On the other hand, the present study will have a

larger population since it includes multiple strands from the senior high school department at

Tarlac National High School (TNHS). Moreover, the present study will use a scale to

measure the social media usage of the participants.

A similar study was conducted by Gallagher (2017), entitled "The Influence of Social

Media on Teens’ Self-esteem." Both studies by Pineiro and Gallagher shared the same

purpose but had different results. Gallagher’s hypothesis is that social media usage influences

self-esteem. And to test this hypothesis, the researcher used two surveys that were given to

two different high schools. The two surveys are for self-esteem generated by the Center for

Disease and Control, and the other is for social media use. The researcher discovered that

there are positive and negative effects of social media usage on self-esteem; those who have a

greater number of likes on social media tend to have higher self-esteem compared to those

who have a smaller number of likes on their posts. Furthermore, the study of Pineiro (2016)

concludes that there is no significant relationship between students’ self-esteem and social

media usage. Contrary to that, Gallagher discovered that there is a relationship between

students’ self-esteem and social media usage. A recommendation from both researchers is

that further study must be conducted to determine the causal factors involved in why

students’ self-esteem and social media usage can affect a person or not. (Pineiro, 2016;

Gallagher, 2017).

The previous and present studies aim to discover the relationship between students'

self-esteem and social media usage. The study of Gallagher (2017) used a different scale to
measure self-esteem, and the survey took place in two different places, whereas the current

study will use a common scale to determine someone’s self-esteem, and the current study will

only be conducted in one place instead of two.

All studies mentioned beforehand revolved around the relationship of self-esteem and

social media usage. These studies focus on social media usage of an individual and social

networking sites, except that Raymer (2015) focused only on Facebook usage. The study of

Guven (2019), Hasan (2018), Raymer (2015), and Gallagher (2017) shows in the results that

there is a significant correlation between self-esteem levels and social media usage; on the

other hand, the study of Ruigrok (2014) and Pineiro (2016) determined that there is no

significant correlation between self-esteem levels and social media usage. The purpose of the

current study is to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and social media use and

how students' use of social media influences their self-esteem.

Local

The study of Petilos, Racpan, Santos, and Tulagan entitled “The Influence of

Facebook Use on Body Image and Self-Esteem of the Grade 12 Students of De La Salle

University-Manila A.Y. 2018-2019” discovered that regardless of how much time the

selected participants spend on Facebook, they still have a positive body image perception and

high self-esteem, which suggests that Facebook use has a positive impact on them. A total of

30 senior high school students from De La Salle University, divided into two groups,

participated in the study. It was considered that they were engaged on social media,

particularly Facebook. Only four respondents displayed low self-esteem, and even those who

claimed they had been exposed to the aforementioned media for a certain period of time all

scored at or above average in terms of body image perception. The researchers have chosen

to utilize questionnaires from two distinct studies. In order to cover the two primary topics,
self-esteem and body image, the researchers divided the questionnaire into two parts. The

questionnaire’s first part utilized Rosenberg’s (1965) Self-Esteem Scale, and its second part

was adapted from the one used in the study “Facebook & Body Image: What Influences Does

Facebook Have on Users’ Body Images? (2017)”.

The study of Petilos et al. (n.d.) aimed to investigate the effects of Facebook use on

the self-esteem of Grade 12 students at De La Salle University Manila with a particular

emphasis on their body image perception. In comparison to the previous study, the present

study is aiming to explore how strong the relationship between self-esteem and social media

usage is with a larger sample size of participants. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale will be

used in this study, as it was in the previous one, to measure the participants' self-esteem.

Aguilar, Arcenal, Atillo, Coma, Encenales, Ruiz, and Ruiz conducted a study entitled

“The Effects of Social Networking Sites on the Self-Esteem of Nursing Students in the

University of San Carlos”. The study sought to understand how the use of social networking

sites can play a role in the self-esteem and overall well-being of adolescents. 60 nursing

students from the University of San Carlos-Talamban Campus participated in the study (15

per year level). A questionnaire was given to each of them. The questionnaire includes

inquiries about how social networking sites affect an individual’s self-esteem.

The study of Aguilar et al. (2014) discovered that social networking sites generally

have a more favorable impact on nursing students’ self-esteem than negative. To find,

observe, describe, and document the answers to the research questions, a quantitative and

descriptive research design was utilized in this study, which differs from the present study’s

correlational research design. The previous study accessed only 60 out of 189 enrolled

students in the Department of Nursing, thus the results may not be generalized to the larger

population of nursing students.

Magdoza, Orbiso, and Villasencio entitled “Social Networking Sites Usage and Self-Esteem

of Grade 12 HUMSS Students in University of Cebu-Main Senior High School Department”

focuses on the relationship between social networking sites usage and self-esteem. 30

adolescents from 12 HUMSS students in the University of Cebu Main Senior High School

Department participated in this study. The Social Networking Usage Questionnaire (SNUQ)

by Liyaqat Bashir and Gupta Savita and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale questionnaire were

given to the participants.

The study of Alegado et al. (2019) demonstrates that there is no meaningful

correlation between students' self-esteem and their use of social networking sites. While the

present study utilizes a correlational design, this study used a descriptive-correlation design

and simple random sampling to select individuals. In contrast to the previous study, which

only focused on one strand—HUMSS—the current study will cover multiple strands.

All of the studies mentioned revolved around the relationship between social

networking sites and self-esteem, but Petilos et al. (n.d.) focused on Facebook. The study of

Aguilar et al. (2014) aimed to determine the effects of social networking sites on self-esteem.

The study of Alegado et al. (2019) examined the relationship between the level of social

networking sites and students’ self-esteem. Petilos et al. (n.d.) investigated the effects of

Facebook use on self-esteem, focusing on the aspect of their body image perception. The

current study will delve deeper into how students' use of social media affects their self-

esteem and explore how strong the relationship between self-esteem and social media usage

is.

Conceptual Framework
 The model this study used is a Predictor-Criterion (PC) model — having the social

media usage of grade 12 students at TNHS as the predictor variable of this study and their

self-esteem as the criterion variable. Factors under social media usage, the predictor, include

types of social media used, frequency of social media use, and use of social media as these

are variables affecting students' self-perception. Self-esteem, on the other hand, acts as the

criterion as it is what gets affected by the aforementioned factors.