PLANTS AND ANIMALS PHYSIOLOGY

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BIO 101
LECTURES
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WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?

▪ Physiology is the study of vital

functions and processes in living
organisms
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PHYSIOLOGY IN PLANTS
▪ Seed dormancy and germination

▪ Plant growth and development

▪ Photosynthesis

▪ Absorption and distribution of nutrients

▪ Flowering, fruit formation

▪ Other internal processes

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PHYSIOLOGY IN ANIMALS

▪ Reproduction and fœtal development

▪ Digestion and absorption of nutrients

▪ Growth and development

▪ Formation and distribution of enzymes, proteins, hormones,

carbohydrates

▪ Functoning of organs and other structures

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Physiological processes

▪ All physiological processes in Plants and

animals are mediated by ENZYMES
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What then are ENZYMES?

▪ Enzymes are biological molecules that

increase the rates of biochemical reactions in
living organisms

▪ In other words, enzymes are biological

catalysts!
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Nature of ENZYMES

▪ Enzymes are linear chains of polypeptides,

containing between 82 to 2500 amino acid residues.
▪ This chain folds to produce a 3-dimensional, globular
structure.
▪ Therefore, enzymes are called globular proteins
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Nature of ENZYMES cont’d

▪ This folding of the enzyme polypeptide creates a unique

“pocket” or “groove” on the surface of the enzyme.

▪ Into this groove, a complementary shaped substrate

molecule can fit.

▪ This pocket or groove in an enzyme is called the active

site.
 ENZYME ACTIVE SITE

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The Nature of ENZYMES

▪ Most enzymes are protein.

▪ A few other enzymes are not proteins, but RNA-

based biomolecules

▪ An example of an RNA-based enzyme is

Ribonucleoprotein.
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ENZYMES

▪ Some enzyme proteins function alone.

▪ Other enzyme proteins require a non-protein component before

functioning.

▪ These non-protein components are called Cofactors

▪ Enzyme proteins alone, without their cofactors, are termed

Apoenzymes or Apoproteins.
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COFACTORS

▪ INORGANIC ▪ ORGANIC (tightly bound to

its apoenzyme). Prosthetic
▪ Metal ions e.g K+, Fe2+, group e.g Biotin
Fe3+, Cu2+, Zn2+,
Mn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+,
Mo3+. ▪ ORGANIC (loosely bound to
its apoenzyme). Coenzyme
e.g Riboflavin (FAD),
Thiamine, Folic acid, NAD,
NADP.
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ENZYME NOMENCLATURE

▪ The International Enzyme Commission

approved a system by which all enzymes are
names.

▪ The system is based on the type of reaction

catalysed by the enzyme.

▪ All enzymes fall into six (6) major classes.

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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Enzymes in this group

catalyse oxidation and
reduction reactions.

▪ That is, the transfer of

▪ EC 1. hydrogen or oxygen atoms
Oxidoreductases between biomolecules.

▪ Examples are oxidases,

dehydrogenases,
peroxidases.
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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Catalyse the transfer of

a functional group e.g
methyl, phosphate group
▪ EC 2 from one molecule to
another.
TRANSFERASES
▪ An example is
Hexokinase
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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Catalyse hydrolysis
reactions.
▪ The breakdown of large
molecules by addition of
▪ EC 3 HYDROLASES water molecules.

▪ Examples esterases,
glycosidases,
proteases, lipases.
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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Enhance the addition of a

group to a double bond

▪ Or enhance the removal of

two groups from nearby
atoms to create a double
▪ EC 4 LYASES
bond.

▪ Examoles are aldolases and

dehydratases.
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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Catalyse Isomerization
changes within a single
molecule

▪ That is, the rearrangement of

atoms in a molecule without
▪ EC 5 ISOMERASES
changing their chemical
formula

▪ Examples are epimerases

and racemerases.
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CLASSES OF ENZYMES

▪ Catalyse formation of
covalent bonds between two
molecules.

▪ energy of catalysis is
▪ EC 6 LIGASES OR obtained from the cleavage or
SYNTHETASES breakdown of a nucleoside
triphosphate (ATP, GTP).

▪ Examples are DNA ligase,

chelatases
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ENZYME CODE

▪ Each enzyme class has subclasses

▪ Enzyme code is a four-digit code or number preceeded by EC

▪ The first three digits define the reaction catalysed.

▪ The fourth digit is a unique identifier (serial number).

▪ Each enzyme is also given a systemic name defining the

reaction catalysed.
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ENZYME CODE

▪ EC = Enzyme Commission
▪ 2 = Enzyme major class
(Transferase)
▪ 7 = Enzyme subclass (a
Phosphotransferase)
EC 2711
▪ 1 = Phosphotransferase with
a hydroxyl group as acceptor
▪ 1 = D-glucose as phosphoryl
group acceptor
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PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

▪ Most enzymes are proteins

▪ Enzymes are biological catalysts

▪ Enzyme reactions are reversible

▪ The concentration of an enzyme affects its activity.

▪ Enzymes are thermolabile (45 degrees Centigrade maximum)

▪ Enzymes are sensitive to pH

▪ Enzyme reactions are specific.

▪ Most enzymes require cofactors to work.

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THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION IN
MAMMALS
▪ Digestion in Mammals is made possible by the gut

▪ The gut is a long tube stretching from the mouth to

the anus.

▪ Four sections of the gut are important in Digestion.

▪ These are the Mouth, the Stomach and accessories,

the Small Intestine, and the Large Intestine.
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Digestion Processes

▪ Digestion breaks down large, ingested food particles into small

forms that can be absorbed and used by the body.

▪ It requires both mechanical and chemical digestion.

▪ Digestion occurs on the mouth, Stomach, and Small Intestine.

▪ Secretions from accessory organs like the pancreas, gall

Bladder and liver also aid in the digestion process.
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The Mouth

▪ Provides both mechanical and chemical digestion.

▪ Functions optimally with the pH of 6.7 and 7.0.

▪ Digestion of carbohydrates starts in the mouth.

▪ Salivary glands in the mouth secret alpha-amylase to digest

carbohydrates.

▪ An example of alpha-amylase is Ptyalin, which converts starch into

maltose and isomaltose.
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The Stomach

▪ Has a pH of between 0.8 to 3.5

▪ Proteins are digested in the stomach into polypeptides and

oligopeptides.

▪ This is effected by the enzyme pepsin, which functions optimally

at a pH of 2.0 to 3.0
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The Stomach

▪ Minor digestion of lipids into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols

also occurs in the stomach.

▪ This is made possible by the action of the enzyme lipase.

▪ Lipase is secreted by the Chief Cells in the oxyntic glands of

the body of the stomach.
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The Small Intestine

▪ Has an optimum pH of 6 to 7.

▪ Is separated from the stomach by the pylorus.

▪ Has three parts: the duodenum, the jejenum, and the ileum.

▪ Produces digestive enzymes, and with those of the pancreas and

liver, help in absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

▪ Has mucosal folds, villi, and microvilli to help in the absorption of

nutrients.
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The Large Intestine

▪ Functions to absorb water and salts from already digested material.

▪ Has micro-organismes which release vitamins from their action

▪ Consists of the Cecum and Colon.

▪ The colon is divided into ascending colon, descending colon,

transverse colon, Sigmoid colon, and rectum.

▪ The large intestine empties through the anus.