165

Chapter 7
Further algebra
P3 This chapter is for Pure Mathematics 3 students only.
In this chapter you will learn how to:

■ recall an appropriate form for expressing rational functions in partial fractions, and carry
out the decomposition, in cases where the denominator is no more complicated than:
• ( ax + b )( cx + d )( ex + f )
• ( ax + b )( cx + d )2
• ( ax + b )( cx 2 + d )
■ use the expansion of (1 + x ) n , where n is a rational number and x , 1.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE

Where it comes from What you should be able to do Check your skills
Pure Mathematics 1 Equate coefficients of polynomials. 1 Find the value of A, B and C for:
Coursebook, Chapter 6
a Ax 2 − 3x + C ≡ 6x 2 + Bx − 9
b (2 − A)x 2 + 5x + 2C ≡ 3x 2 − 3Bx + 8
Pure Mathematics 1 Expand ( a + b ) n where n is a 2 Find the first 3 terms, in ascending powers
Coursebook, Chapter 6 positive integer. of x, in the expansion of:
a (1 + 2 x )7
b (3 − 2 x )5
Chapter 1 Divide polynomials. 3 Find the quotient and remainder when
x 2 − 8x + 4 is divided by x − 3.

Why do we study algebra? FAST FORWARD

At IGCSE / O Level we learnt how to add and subtract algebraic fractions. In this chapter
we will learn how to do the ‘reverse process’. This reverse process is often referred to as In Chapter 8 you will
be shown another use
splitting a fraction into its partial fractions. In Mathematics it is often easier to deal with
for partial fractions:
two or more simple fractions than it is to deal with one complicated fraction.
how to integrate
166 In the Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook, Chapter 6, you learnt how to find the binomial rational expressions
expansion of ( a + b ) n for positive integer values of n. After working through this chapter 2x − 1
such as
2 x 2 + 3x − 20
you will be able to expand expressions of the form (1 + x ) n for values of n that are not
by first splitting the
positive integers (providing x , 1). expression into partial
Combining your partial fraction and binomial expansion skills will enable you to obtain fractions.
2x − 1
series expansions of complicated expressions such as .
2 x 2 + 3x − 20
WEB LINK
7.1 Improper algebraic fractions Explore the
A numerical improper fraction is defined as a fraction where the numerator ù the Polynomials and
11 rational functions
denominator. For example, is an improper fraction. This fraction can be expressed as station on the
1 5
2 + , which is the sum of a positive integer and a proper fraction. Underground
5 Mathematics website.
So how do we define an algebraic improper fraction?

KEY POINT 7.1

P( x )
The algebraic fraction , where P( x ) and Q( x ) are polynomials in x, is said to be an algebraic
Q( x )
improper fraction if the degree of P( x ) ù the degree of Q( x ) .

x 3 − 3x 2 + 7
For example, the fraction is an improper algebraic fraction because the
x−2
degree of the numerator (3) is greater than the degree of the denominator (1).

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

x 3 − 3x 2 + 7
We can use long division to write the fraction as the sum of a polynomial and
x−2
a proper algebraic fraction.

x2 − x − 2
)
x − 2 x − 3x 2 + 0 x + 7
3

x3 − 2x2
− x2 + 0x
− x2 + 2x
− 2x + 7
− 2x + 4
3
3 2
x − 3x + 7 3
∴ = x2 − x − 2 +
x−2 x−2

EXPLORE 7.1

1 Discuss with your classmates which of the following are improper algebraic
fractions.

1 x 2 − 4x 3x 6x 3 − 2 x + 1
2x + 1 5 − x2 x−5 2x 2 − 1

167
2x − 3 x 3 + 2x2 − 7 4x 5 − 1 2x 4 − 8
−
( x + 2)( x − 1) ( x + 2)( x + 1) 3x 7 + 2 x − 2x − 1
2

2 Write each improper fraction in question 1 as the sum of a polynomial and a

proper fraction.

EXERCISE 7A

1 Express each of the following improper fractions as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
8x 6x + 1 4x 3 − 3
a b c
2x − 5 3x + 2 2x + 1
x 3 + 4x 2 + 3x − 1 7 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5x + 1 x 4 + 2x2 − 5
d e f
x2 + 2x + 3 x2 − 5 x2 + 1

x3 + x2 − 7 D
2 Given that ≡ Ax 2 + Bx + C + , find the values of A, B, C and D.
x−3 x−3
x 4 + 5x 2 − 1 E
3 Given that ≡ Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Cx + D + , find the values of A, B, C , D and E.
x +1 x +1
2 x 4 + 3x 3 + 4x 2 + 5x + 6 Cx + D
4 Given that ≡ Ax + B + 3 , find the values of A, B, C and D.
x3 + 2x x + 2x

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

7.2 Partial fractions

At IGCSE / O Level, we learnt how to add and subtract algebraic fractions. The following
table shows three different cases for addition of algebraic fractions.

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

5 4 3 2 2 3
+ + +
x+3 x−2 x + 1 ( x + 1)2 x − 1 x2 + 5
5( x − 2) + 4( x + 3) 3( x + 1) + 2 2( x 2 + 5) + 3( x − 1)
= = =
( x + 3)( x − 2) ( x + 1)2 ( x − 1)( x 2 + 5)
9x + 12 3x + 5 2 x 2 + 3x + 7
= = =
( x + 3)( x − 2) ( x + 1)2 ( x − 1)( x 2 + 5)

Denominator in answer has: Denominator in answer has: Denominator in answer has:

two distinct linear factors. one linear repeated factor. one linear factor and one
quadratic factor.

In this section we will learn how to do the reverse of this process. We will learn how to split
(or decompose) a single algebraic fraction into two or more partial fractions.

Case 1: Proper fraction where the denominator has distinct linear factors
If the denominator of a proper algebraic fraction has two distinct linear factors, the fraction
can be split into partial fractions.

KEY POINT 7.2

168
px + q A B
≡ +
( ax + b )( cx + d ) ax + b cx + d

This rule can be extended for 3 or more linear factors.

KEY POINT 7.3

px + q A B C
≡ + +
( ax + b ) ( cx + d ) ( ex + f ) ax + b cx + d ex + f

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.1

2 x − 13
Express in partial fractions.
(2 x + 1)( x − 3)
Answer
2 x − 13 A B Multiply throughout by (2 x + 1)( x − 3).
≡ +
(2 x + 1)( x − 3) 2 x + 1 x − 3
2 x − 13 ≡ A( x − 3) + B (2 x + 1) (1)

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

Method 1: Choose appropriate values for x.

Let x = 3 in equation (1):

2(3) − 13 = A(3 − 3) + B (6 + 1)
−7 = 7 B
B = −1
1
Let x = − in equation (1):
2

2  −  − 13 = A  − − 3  + B ( −1 + 1)
1 1
 2  2 
7
−14 = − A
2
A=4
2 x − 13 4 1
∴ ≡ −
(2 x + 1)( x − 3) 2 x + 1 x − 3

Method 2: Equating coefficients.

2 x − 13 ≡ A( x − 3) + B (2 x + 1) Expand brackets and collect like terms.

2 x − 13 ≡ ( A + 2 B )x − 3A + B Equate the coefficients of x and the constants.

A + 2B = 2 (2) 169
−3A + B = −13 (3) Solve equations (2) and (3) simultaneously.
A = 4, B = −1
2 x − 13 4 1
∴ ≡ −
(2 x + 1)( x − 3) 2 x + 1 x − 3

Case 2: Proper fraction with repeated linear factor in the denominator

If the denominator has a repeated linear factor, the fraction can be split into partial fractions
using the rule:

KEY POINT 7.4

px + q A B
≡ +
( ax + b )2 ax + b ( ax + b )2

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.2

2 x − 11
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 4)2
Answer
2 x − 11 A B Multiply throughout by ( x − 4)2 .
≡ +
( x − 4)2 x − 4 ( x − 4)2
2 x − 11 ≡ A( x − 4) + B (1)

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

Let x = 4 in equation (1):

2(4) − 11 = A(4 − 4) + B
B = −3
Let x = 0 in equation (1):
2(0) − 11 = A(0 − 4) − 3
A=2
2 x − 11 2 3
∴ ≡ −
( x − 4)2 x − 4 ( x − 4)2

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.3

1 − 9x − 8x 2
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 2)(2 x + 3)2
Answer
1 − 9x − 8x 2 A B C Multiply throughout by ( x − 2)(2 x + 3)2 .
≡ + +
( x − 2)(2 x + 3)2 x − 2 2 x + 3 (2 x + 3)2
1 − 9x − 8x 2 ≡ A(2 x + 3)2 + B ( x − 2)(2 x + 3) + C ( x − 2) (1)

Let x = 2 in equation (1):

170
1 − 9(2) − 8(2)2 = A(4 + 3)2 + B (2 − 2)(4 + 3) + C (2 − 2)
−49 = 49 A
A = −1
3
Let x = − in equation (1):
2
2
1 − 9  −  − 8  −  = A( −3 + 3)2 + B  − − 2  ( −3 + 3) + C  − − 2 
3 3 3 3
 2  2  2   2 
7 7
− =− C
2 2
C =1
Let x = 0 in equation (1):

1 = 9 A − 6B − 2C (2) Substitute A = −1 and C = 1 in equation (2).

B = −2

1 − 9x − 8x 2 1 2 1
∴ ≡− − +
( x − 2)(2 x + 3)2 x − 2 2 x + 3 (2 x + 3)2

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

Case 3: Proper fraction with a quadratic factor in the denominator that

cannot be factorised
In this syllabus you will only be asked questions where the quadratic factor is of the form
cx 2 + d.

If the denominator of a proper algebraic fraction has a quadratic factor of the form
cx 2 + d that cannot be factorised, the fraction can be split into partial fractions using the
following rule.

KEY POINT 7.5

px + q A Bx + C
≡ +
( ax + b )( cx 2 + d ) ax + b cx 2 + d

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.4

8 + 2x − x2
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x 2 + 2)
Answer
8 + 2x − x2 A Bx + C
≡ + Multiply throughout by ( x − 1)( x 2 + 2).
( x − 1)( x 2 + 2) x − 1 x 2 + 2
8 + 2 x − x 2 ≡ A( x 2 + 2) + Bx( x − 1) + C ( x − 1) (1)
171
Let x = 1 in equation (1):
8 + 2(1) − (1)2 = A(12 + 2) + B (1)(1 − 1) + C (1 − 1)
9 = 3A
A=3
Let x = 0 in equation (1):
8 = 6−C
C = −2
Let x = −1 in equation (1):
5 = 9 + 2B + 4
B = −4
8 + 2x − x2 3 −4x − 2 3 4x + 2
∴ ≡ + 2 ≡ −
( x − 1)( x 2 + 2) x − 1 x +2 x − 1 x2 + 2

Case 4: Improper fractions

If an algebraic fraction is improper we must first express it as the sum of a polynomial and
a proper fraction and then split the proper fraction into partial fractions.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.5

2 x 2 + 5x − 11
Express in partial fractions.
x2 + 2x − 3
Answer
The fraction is improper. Hence it must first be written as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
2
)
x 2 + 2 x − 3 2 x 2 + 5x − 11
2 x 2 + 4x − 6
x−5
2 x + 5x − 11
2
x−5
≡2+ 2
x2 + 2x − 3 x + 2x − 3
x−5
Split the proper fraction into partial fractions:
x2 + 2x − 3
x−5 A B
≡ + Multiply throughout by ( x + 3 )( x − 1 ).
( x + 3)( x − 1) x + 3 x − 1
x − 5 ≡ A( x − 1) + B ( x + 3) (1)
Let x = 1 in equation (1):
−4 = 4B
B = −1
172 Let x = −3 in equation (1):
−8 = −4 A
A=2
x−5 2 1
≡ −
( x + 3)( x − 1) x + 3 x − 1
2 x 2 + 5x − 11 2 1
∴ ≡2+ −
x + 2x − 3
2
x +3 x −1

Application of partial fractions

Partial fractions can be used to help evaluate the sum of some sequences.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.6

1 1 1
Given that the algebraic fraction can be written in partial fractions as − , find the sum of the first
x( x + 1) x x +1
1 1 1 1
n terms of the series + + + + ……… . Hence, state the sum to infinity.
1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 4 × 5
Answer
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = + + + +… + +
1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 4 × 5 ( n − 1) n n( n + 1)
1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1 
=  −  +  −  +  −  +  −  + …+  − + −
1 2  2 3  3 4  4 5  n − 1 n   n n + 1 
1
= 1−
n +1

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

1
As n → ∞, →0
n +1
∴ S∞ = 1

DID YOU KNOW?

The series in Worked example 7.6 is called a telescoping series, because its partial sums only have a
fixed number of terms after cancellation.

EXERCISE 7B

1 Express the following proper fractions as partial fractions.

6x − 2 7 x + 12 15x + 13
a b c
( x − 2)( x + 3) 2 x( x − 4) ( x − 1)(3x + 1)
x −1 6x 2 + 5x − 2 11x + 12
d e f
(3x − 5)( x − 3) x( x − 1)(2 x + 1) (2 x + 3)( x + 2)( x − 3)
2 Express the following proper fractions as partial fractions.
2x 11x 2 + 14x + 5 x2 − 2
a b c
( x + 2)2 (2 x + 1)( x + 1)2 x( x − 1)2
36x 2 + 2 x − 4 3 3x + 4
d e f
(2 x − 3)(2 x + 1)2 ( x + 2)( x − 2)2 ( x + 2)( x − 1)2 173
3 Express the following proper fractions as partial fractions.
2 x 2 − 3x + 2 3x 2 + 4x + 17 2 x 2 − 6x − 9 6x 2 − 21x + 50
a b c d −
x( x 2 + 1) (2 x + 1)( x 2 + 5) (3x + 5)(2 x 2 + 1) (3x − 5)(2 x 2 + 5)
4 Express the following improper fractions as partial fractions.
2 x 2 + 3x + 4 x2 + 3 22 − 17 x + 21x 2 − 4x 3 4x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 7
a b c d
( x − 1)( x + 2) x2 − 4 ( x − 4)( x 2 + 1) 2 x 3 − 4x 2 + 2 x
4x 3 − 9x 2 + 11x − 4 B C D
5 Find the values of A, B, C and D such that ≡ A+ + 2 + .
x 2 (2 x − 1) x x 2x − 1
6 a Factorise 2 x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 2 completely.
x 2 − 13x − 5
b Hence express in partial fractions.
2 x − 3x 2 − 3x + 2
3

7 a Factorise 2 x 3 − 11x 2 + 12 x + 9 completely.

24 − x
b Hence express in partial fractions.
2 x − 11x 2 + 12 x + 9
3

8 The polynomial p( x ) = 2 x 3 + 5x 2 + ax + b is exactly divisible by 2 x + 1 and leaves a remainder of 9 when

divided by x + 2.
a Find the value of a and the value of b.
b Factorise p( x ) completely.
120
c Express in partial fractions.
p( x )

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

2
PS 9 a Express in partial fractions.
x( x + 2)
b Find an expression for the sum of the first n terms of the series:
2 2 2 2 2
+ + + + +…
1× 3 2 × 4 3 × 5 4 × 6 5 × 7
c Find the sum to infinity of this series.

1 1 1 1
PS 10 Investigate whether the series + + + + … is a telescoping series. If it is a
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 4 × 5 × 6
telescoping series, find an expression for the sum of the first n terms and the sum to infinity.

EXPLORE 7.2

There is another method that can be used to decompose a proper algebraic fraction
where the denominator contains only distinct linear factors. This alternative method
is called Heaviside’s cover-up method. Find out more about this method and use it to
4x 2 + 15x + 29
express in partial fractions.
( x − 2)( x + 1)( x + 3)

7.3 Binomial expansion of (1 + x ) n for values of n that are not

positive integers
174
REWIND

In the Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook, Chapter 6, we learnt that the binomial expansion of
(1 + x ) n, where n is a positive integer is:
 n  n  n  n  n
(1 + x ) n =   +   x +   x 2 +   x 3 + … +   x n
   
0 1  
2  
3  n
and that this terminating series can also be written in the form:

n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
(1 + x ) n = 1 + nx + x + x + … + x n.
2! 3!

The general binomial theorem can be used for any rational value of n . It states that:

KEY POINT 7.6

n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
(1 + x ) n = 1 + nx + x + x + … where n is rational and x , 1
2! 3!

There are two very important differences when n is not a positive integer. These are:

● the series is infinite

● the expansion is only valid for x , 1 .
The proof of the general binomial theorem is beyond the scope of this course.

Consider, however, the following two examples where n is not a positive integer
 n = −3 and n = 1  .
 2

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

( −3)( −4) 2 ( −3)( −4)( −5) 3 ( −3)( −4)( −5)( −6) 4

(1 + x ) −3 = 1 + ( −3)x + x + x + x +…
2! 3! 4!
= 1 − 3x + 6x 2 − 10 x 3 + 15x 4 + …
 1 − 1  1 − 1 − 3  1 − 1 − 3 − 5
1
 1  2  2 2  2  2  2 3  2  2  2  2 4
(1 + x)2 = 1+ x+ x + x + x +…
 2 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 3 5 4
= 1 + x − x2 + x − x +…
2 8 16 128
We can see that in each case the sequence of coefficients forms an infinite sequence.

When x , 1, the binomial series converges and has a sum to infinity (in a similar way to a
geometric series converging for r , 1, where r is the common ratio).

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.7 DID YOU KNOW?

Isaac Newton is
Expand (1 − 3x )−2 in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 3, and credited with the
state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid. generalised binomial
theorem for any
Answer rational power. A
poet once wrote that
Use n = −2 and replace x by −3x in the binomial formula: ‘Newton’s Binomial
( −2)( −3) ( −2)( −3)( −4) is as beautiful as the
(1 − 3x ) −2 = 1 + ( −2)( −3x ) + ( −3x )2 + ( −3x )3 + …
2! 3! Venus de Milo. The
truth is that few people 175
= 1 + 6x + 27 x 2 + 108x 3 + …
notice it.’
Expansion is valid for −3x , 1
1
∴ x , .
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.8

Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 + 2 x 2 )−4 and state the range of values
of x for which the expansion is valid.

Answer
Use n = −4 and replace x by 2 x 2 in the binomial formula:
( −4)( −5) ( −4)( −5)( −6)
(1 + 2 x 2 ) −4 = 1 + ( −4)(2 x 2 ) + (2 x 2 )2 + (2 x 2 )3 + …
2! 3!
= 1 − 8x 2 + 40 x 4 − 160 x 6 + …

Expansion is valid for 2 x 2 , 1

1
∴ x ,
2

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.9

x−5
Find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of .
1 + 2x
Answer
x−5
= ( x − 5)(1 + 2 x )−1
1 + 2x
Use n = −1 and replace x by 2 x in the binomial formula:
( −1)( −2) ( −1)( −2)( −3)
(1 + 2 x ) −1 = 1 + ( −1)(2 x ) + (2 x )2 + (2 x )3 + …
2! 3!
= 1 − 2 x + 4x 2 − 8x 3 + …

( x − 5)(1 + 2 x )−1 = ( x − 5)(1 − 2 x + 4x 2 − 8x 3 + …)

= x(1 − 2 x + 4x 2 − 8x 3 ) − 5(1 − 2 x + 4x 2 − 8x 3 + …)

Term in x 3 is x(4x 2 ) + ( −5)( −8x 3 ) = 44x 3.

∴ The coefficient of x 3 is 44.

EXERCISE 7C

176
1 Expand the following, in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3. State the range of values
of x for which each expansion is valid.
a (1 + x )−2 b (1 + 3x )−1 c (1 − 2 x )−4
−3
d 1+ x  e 1 + 2x f 3
1 − 3x
 2
2 1 − 3x 1+ x
g h i
(1 − 4x )2 (1 + 2 x )3 1 − 2x
2 Find the first 3 terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of each of the following expressions.
State the range of values of x for which each expansion is valid.

( )
3
a (1 + x 2 )−3 b 3
1 − 2x2 c 1 − 4x 2
2 + 3x
3 Find the first 5 terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of .
1 − 5x 2
4 Can the binomial expansion be used to expand each of these expressions?
a (3x − 1)−2 b 2x − 1
Give reasons for your answers.

5 Expand (2 x − 1)−3 in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3.

1
6 Show that the expansion of (1 + x ) 2 is not valid when x = 3.
3
PS 7 Given that (1 − 3x )−4 − (1 + 2 x ) 2 ≈ 9x + kx 2 for small values of x, find the value of the constant k.

a b
PS 8 Given that + ≈ −3 + 12 x for small values of x, find the value of a and the value of b.
1 − x 1 + 2x

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

PS 9 When (1 + ax )−3, where a is a positive constant, is expanded the coefficients of x and x 2 are equal.
a Find the value of a.
b When a has this value, obtain the first 5 terms in the expansion.
2
PS 10 When (3 − 2 x )(1 + ax ) 3 is expanded the coefficient of x 2 is −15. Find the two possible values of a.

PS 11 The first 3 terms in the expansion of (1 + ax ) n are 1 − 24x + 384x 2.

a Find the value of a and the value of n.
b Hence find the term in x 3.

7.4 Binomial expansion of ( a + x ) n for values of n that are not

positive integers
To expand ( a + x ) n , where n is not a positive integer, we take a outside of the brackets:
n
( a + x )n = a n  1 + 
x
 a
Hence the expression is:

KEY POINT 7.7

 2 3 
n( n − 1)  x  n( n − 1)( n − 2)  x 
( a + x ) n = a n  1 + n   +
x x
  +   + ⋯  for ,1
 a 2!  a 3!  a a
  177

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.10

Expand (2 + x )−3 in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 and state the range of values of x
for which the expansion is valid.

Answer
−3
(2 + x )−3 = (2)−3  1 + 
x
 2
 2 3 
( −3)( −4)  x  ( −3)( −4)( −5)  x 
= (2)−3  1 + ( −3)   +
x x
+ + …  for ,1
 2 2!  2  3!  2  2
 
1 3 3 2 5 3 
=  1 − 2 x + 2 x − 4 x + … 
8
1 3 3 2 5 3
= − x+ x − x + … valid for x , 2
8 16 16 32

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.11

1 − 3x
Find the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion of .
4−x
Answer
1
1 − 3x − −
1
= (1 − 3x )(4 − x ) 2 Factor the 4 out of ( 4 − x ) 2.
4−x
1
1 −
− 1− x  2 −
1 1
= (1 − 3x )(4) 2
 4 Simplify ( 4 ) 2 to .
2
 − 1 − 3 
1   1  x  2  2  x
2 
= (1 − 3x )  1 + − − + − + …
2  2  4 2!  4
 
 

= (1 − 3x )  1 + x + x + …
1 1 3 2
2  8 128 

= 1 + x + x + …  − x 1 + x + x + …
1 1 3 2 3 1 3 2
2  8 128  2  8 128 

1 3 3 1 45
Coefficient of x 2 is × − × =−
2 128 2 8 256

178

EXERCISE 7D

1 Expand the following, in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 . State the range of values
of x for which each expansion is valid.
a (2 + x )−2 b (5 − 2 x )−1 c 9−x
4 1 + 2x
d 3
3x + 8 e f
(3 − x )3 (2 x − 5)3
2 Find the first 3 terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of each of the following expressions.
State the range of values of x for which each expansion is valid.

( )
5
a (2 + x 2 )−2 b 3
8 − 3x 2 c 3 − x2

3 Expand (1 − 2 x ) 3 8 − 2 x in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 .

4 a Expand (2 − x )−1 and (1 + 3x )−2 giving the first 3 terms in each expansion.
b Use your answers to part a to find the first 3 terms in the expansion of (2 − x )−1(1 + 3x )−2, stating the range
of values of x for which this expansion is valid.
1 5
PS 5 The first 3 terms in the expansion of ( a − 5x )−2 are + x + bx 2 .
4 4
Find the value of a, the value of b and the term in x 3 .

PS 6 In the expansion of 3 + ax where a ≠ 0 , the coefficient of the term in x 2 is 3 times the coefficient of the term
in x 3. Find the value of a.

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

−1
7 a Find the first 4 terms in the expansion of  1 +  , where
2 2
PS , 1.
 x x
−1 −1
b Show that  1 +  ≡ 1+  .
2 x x x
≡
 x x+2 2  2
−1
x
1 +  , where
x x
c Find the first 4 terms in the expansion of , 1.
2  2 2
d Explain why your expansions are different.

EXPLORE 7.3

1
1 Given that f( x ) = , discuss why f( x ) can be written in each of
(1 + x )(1 + 2 x )
the following ways:
(1 + x)−1 (1 + 2x)−1

f(x) [1 + (3x + 2x2)]−1

2(1 + 2x)−1 − (1 + x)−1

2 Use the binomial theorem to expand each of these three expressions in

ascending powers of x, up to the term in x 3.
179
3 Discuss with your classmates which method you would prefer if you were
asked for:
a a linear approximation for f( x )
b a quadratic approximation for f( x )
c a cubic approximation for f( x ).

7.5 Partial fractions and binomial expansions

One of the most common reasons for splitting a fraction into partial fractions is so that
binomial expansions can be applied.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.12

10 x + 1
Given that f( x ) = , express f( x ) in partial fractions and hence obtain the expansion of f( x ) in
(1 − 2 x )(1 + x )
ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3. State the range of values of x for which the expansion is
valid.

Answer
10 x + 1 A B
≡ + Multiply throughout by (1 − 2 x )(1 + x ).
(1 − 2 x )(1 + x ) 1 − 2 x 1 + x
10 x + 1 ≡ A(1 + x ) + B (1 − 2 x ) (1)

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

Let x = −1 in equation (1):

−9 = 3B
B = −3
1
Let x = in equation (1):
2
3
6= A
2
A=4
10 x + 1 4 3
∴ ≡ − ≡ 4(1 − 2 x )−1 − 3(1 + x )−1
(1 − 2 x )(1 + x ) 1 − 2 x 1 + x
Expanding (1 − 2 x )−1 gives:

( −1)( −2) ( −1)( −2)( −3)

(1 − 2 x ) −1 = 1 + ( −1)( −2 x ) + ( −2 x )2 + ( −2 x )3 + …
2! 3!
1 1
= 1 + 2 x + 4x 2 + 8x 3 + … valid for −2 x , 1 i.e. − , x ,
2 2
Expanding (1 + x )−1 gives:

( −1)( −2) 2 ( −1)( −2)( −3) 3

(1 + x )−1 = 1 + ( −1)x + x + x
2! 3!
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + … valid for x , 1 i.e. − 1 , x , 1
180

10 x + 1
∴ = 4(1 + 2 x + 4x 2 + 8x 3 + …) − 3(1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + …)
(1 − 2 x )(1 + x )

= 1 + 11x + 13x 2 + 35x 3 + …

1 1
The expansion is valid for the range of values of x satisfying both − , x , and −1 , x , 1
2 2

−1 1 0 1 1
−
2 2

1 1
Hence, the expansion is valid for − ,x, .
2 2

EXERCISE 7E

7x − 1
1 a Express in partial fractions.
(1 − x )(1 + 2 x )
7x − 1
b Hence obtain the expansion of in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3.
(1 − x )(1 + 2 x )

5x 2 + x
2 a Express in partial fractions.
(1 − x )2 (1 − 3x )
5x 2 + x
b Hence obtain the expansion of in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3.
(1 − x )2 (1 − 3x )

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

7 x 2 + 4x + 4
3 a Express in partial fractions.
(1 − x )(2 x 2 + 1)
7 x 2 + 4x + 4
b Hence obtain the expansion of in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 .
(1 − x )(2 x 2 + 1)

19 − 7 x − 6x 2
4 a Express in partial fractions.
(2 x + 1)(2 − 3x )
19 − 7 x − 6x 2
b Hence obtain the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion of .
(2 x + 1)(2 − 3x )

21
5 a Express in partial fractions.
( x − 4)( x + 3)
24
b Hence obtain the expansion of in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2.
( x − 4)( x + 3)

6x 2 − 24x + 15
6 a Express in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 2)2
6x 2 − 24x + 15
b Hence obtain the expansion of in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2.
( x + 1)( x − 2)2

181

Checklist of learning and understanding

Partial fractions
● Case 1: If the denominator of a proper algebraic fraction has two distinct linear factors, the
px + q A B
fraction can be split into partial fractions using the rule ( ax + b )( cx + d ) ≡ ax + b + cx + d
● Case 2: If the denominator of a proper algebraic fraction has a repeated linear factor, the
px + q A B
fraction can be split into partial fractions using the rule ≡ +
( ax + b )2 ax + b ( ax + b )2
● Case 3: If the denominator of a proper algebraic fraction has a quadratic factor of the form
cx 2 + d that cannot be factorised, the fraction can be split into partial fractions using the rule
px + q A Bx + C
≡ +
( ax + b )( cx 2 + d ) ax + b cx 2 + d
● Case 4: If an algebraic fraction is improper we must first express it as the sum of a polynomial
and a proper fraction and then split the proper fraction into partial fractions.

Binomial expansion of (1 + x ) n for values of n that are not positive integers

n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
● (1 + x ) n = 1 + nx + x + x + … for x , 1.
2! 3!
Binomial expansion of (a + x ) n for values of n that are not positive integers
 n( n − 1)  x 
2
n( n − 1)( n − 2)  x 
3 
( a + x ) n = a n  1 + n   +
x x
●   +   + …  for , 1.
 a 2!  a 3!  a a
 

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3

END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE 7

1 Expand (1 − 2 x )−4 in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3, simplifying the coefficients. [4]

2 Expand 31− (6x ) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 3, simplifying the coefficients. [4]

Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q1 June 2011

3
−
3 Expand (2 − x )(1 + in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2,
2x ) 2
simplifying the coefficients. [4]
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q2 November 2016
1 + 3x
4 Expand in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 2, simplifying the coefficients. [4]
(1 + 2 x )
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q2 June 2013
1
5 Expand in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 , simplifying the coefficients. [4]
1 + 3x
10
6 Expand in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2, simplifying the coefficients. [4]
(2 − x )2
1
7 Expand in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2, simplifying the coefficients. [4]
4 − 5x
12 A B C
8 Express in the form + + . [4]
x 2 (2 x − 3) x x2 2x − 3
182 8x 2 + 4x + 21 A Bx + C
9 Express in the form + 2 . [4]
( x + 2)( x 2 + 5) x+2 x +5
7 x 2 − 3x + 2
10 Express in partial fractions. [5]
x( x 2 + 1)
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q3 June 2013
9x 3 − 11x 2 + 8x − 4 B C D
11 Given that ≡ A+ + 2 + , find the values of A, B, C and D. [5]
x (3x − 2)
2
x x 3x − 2
4x 2 − 5x + 3
12 Express in partial fractions. [5]
( x + 2)(2 x − 1)
2
13 Show that for small values of x 2 , (1 − 2 x 2 )−2 − (1 + 6x 2 ) 3 ≈ kx 4 , where the value of the constant k
is to be determined. [6]
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q3 June 2015
4x + 12
2
14 Let f( x ) = .
( x + 1)( x − 3)2
i Express f( x ) in partial fractions. [5]

ii Hence obtain the expansion of f( x ) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2 . [5]
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q8 June 2016

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 Chapter 7: Further algebra

2x2 − 7x − 1
15 Let f( x ) = .
( x − 2)( x 2 + 3)
i Express f( x ) in partial fractions. [5]

ii Hence obtain the expansion of f( x ) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2 . [5]
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q7 November 2013
3x
16 Let f( x ) = .
(1 + x )(1 + 2 x 2 )
i Express f( x ) in partial fractions. [5]

ii Hence obtain the expansion of f( x ) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3. [5]
Cambridge International A Level Mathematics 9709 Paper 31 Q8 November 2010

183

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