Factors that determine and control climatic conditions locally, regionally and

globally

These factors can be classified into two.

A. Factors influencing annual cycle of air temperature:

B. Factors influencing precipitation:

A. Factors influencing annual cycle of air temperature:

1.0 Prevailing air masses

An air mass is a large body of air of considerable depth that is relatively homogenous
in terms of temperature and moisture. The areas of the globe where air masses come
from are known as source regions. A source region must have certain temperature
and humidity properties that can remain fixed for a substantial length of time to affect
air masses above it. The sources of air masses are the permanent or semi-permanent
high-pressure zones of the earth’s circulation. Areas of low pressure are regions of
convergent air masses while regions of high pressure are regions of divergence.

The main sources of uniform air masses are:

(a) The Polar Region

(b) The cold continental masses of Eurasia and N. America in winter.

(c) The ‘Horse’ latitude (300) high-pressure cells especially over the oceans in summer
and to a less extent over such large land masses as N. Africa and Australia in winter.
Figure 1. Horse latitudes

Air masses may therefore be described as:

(a) ‘Polar’ or ‘Tropical’ which in general determines their temperature conditions and
through temperature, their capacity for moisture holding.

(b) ‘Continental’ or ‘Maritime’, which in general determines the extent to which their
moisture capacity is realised, i.e. their relative humidity.

The above categorisation identifies four individual kinds of air masses:

(a) Tropical Maritime (mT)
(b) Tropical Continental (cT
(c) Polar Maritime (mP
(d) Polar continental (cP)

Cold air masses

These air masses have their main sources in polar or arctic regions but owing to the extension
of the continental high-pressure cells in winter they may spread far down the interior plains
of the U.S.A and as far south as the Himalayan mountain barrier in Asia.

In their place of origin they are characterised by:

(a) Low temperature due to loss of heat by radiation.

(b) Low specific humidity due to the low moisture capacity of air at low temperature.

(c) Stable stratification due to intense cooling of lower layers and a consequent small lapse
rate.

On leaving its place of origin, a cold air mass begins to be warmed in its lower layers by the
warmer sea or land. This results to;

(a) The lapse rate is steepened, sometimes to such an extent that instability results and
strong ascending current rise.

(b) The humidity increases especially over a warm ocean.

The combination of the above two factors produces cumulo-nimbus clouds and precipitation
in the form of short, sharp showers. Bright intervals occur between showers.

Tropical Maritime (mT)

The sources of this air mass are the sub-tropical anticyclones (high pressure cells), which
persist throughout the year over the oceans at about latitude 30°N and S. In its place of origin
the tropical maritime is characterised by:

(a) High temperatures derived from the warm sea over which they lie.
(b) High humidity in the lower layers since abundant moisture is available and the
capacity of the air for moisture is high at high temperatures.
(c) A fairly stable stratification.

On leaving its place of origin such tropical maritime air as it moves to higher latitudes usually
becomes cooled in its lower layers by contact with the relatively colder sea or land over
which it passes. This results to;
(a) The lapse rate is diminished and even inverted. Stability is thus greatly increased
convection is made impossible and turbulence is greatly reduced.

(b) The cooling of the lower layers with their high specific humidity results in a great
increase in relative humidity and dew point is soon reached.

(c) The combination of these two factors produces fog, or if turbulence is strong enough,
stratus clouds. Cloud cover is continuous and drizzle or steady rain is produced especially if
the air is lifted e.g. Orographically.

(d) Visibility is low because of the high moisture content and because impurities are retained
in the lower layer due to the absence of convection.

Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses

Continental tropical (cT) air masses form during the summer over hot, low-latitude areas (e.g.
Sahara). In africa they blow from the north towards the equator (hamattan winds) cT air masses
are hot and dry. These air masses are very unstable but due to low availability of water vapour,
do not usually produce precipitation. When water vapor is present, thunderstorms form within
these air masses.

Polar Maritime (mP)

Maritime polar (mP) air masses form over the North Pacific and are more moderate than cP.
mP air masses migrate to the east, crossing the Gulf of Alaska, west coast of N America. mP
air masses affect the east cost of N America in the form of northeasters, bringing cold winds
and heavy snowfall to the US northeast.

(d) Polar continental (cP)

Continental polar (cP) air masses form over large, high-latitude landmasses, such as N Canada
and Siberia. In winter, these locations have short days, low sun angle, and are usually snow-
covered (reflecting more energy). The cold, dry air associated with this air mass is typically
stable.
2.0 Fronts

Fronts are the boundaries or transition zones between air masses at the Earth’s surface. Changes
in temperature, humidity, wind, pressure, visibility, as well as particular cloud and precipitation
patterns are often observed at fronts. There are four main types of fronts. When differing air
masses meet a boundary line or front forms, the process is known as frontogenesis. When the
front breaks down, the air mixes and the front disappear, the process is known as frontolysis.
Fronts are named based on the characteristics of the air mass that is replacing the prior air mass.
For example, if a cold air mass is moving toward a warm air mass, the boundary between them
will be called a cold front because the cold air is effectively replacing the warm air from the
perspective of a stationary point on Earth’s surface.

There are four main types of fronts.

1. Cold fronts
2. Warm fronts
3. Occluded fronts
4. Stationary fronts

Cold fronts

Cold fronts are a transition zone in which the advancing cold air mass replaces a retreating
warmer air mass. Because warm air is less dense than colder air, the cold air stays on the bottom
and warm air is forced to rise above the advancing cold air. This forced lifting results in typical
cloud patterns ahead of a cold front, which include cirrus and cirrostratus clouds. The number
of cumulus clouds in the warm air mass increases as the frontal boundary approaches. Because
the warm air mass is forced to rise, atmospheric instability occurs along the cold front and
results in towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds, which may produce heavy rain and
thunderstorms along the frontal boundary.
Figure 2. A Diagram showing a vertical cross section through a cold front (CC BY-SA 4.0).

A Warm Front

Warm fronts are a transition zone in which the advancing warm air mass replaces a retreating
colder air mass. Advancing warm air is forced to rise above the retreating cold dense air.
Typical cloud patterns which develop ahead of a warm front include the cirrus and cirrostratus
clouds before they thicken and lower-level clouds like altostratus, nimbostratus, and fog near
the frontal boundary is formed. Because the air mass is rising along the warm front, clouds
form and steady precipitation may occur.
Figure 3. A diagram showing a vertical cross section through a warm front (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Occluded fronts

Occluded fronts are a frontal boundary that forms when a cold front catches up to a warm front.
Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, so cold fronts can sometimes catch up to warm
fronts, but not the other way around. Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts because cold
air is denser, meaning there are more molecules of material in cold air than in warm
air.There are two types of occlusions:

Cold occlusions and warm occlusions.

Cold occlusions occur when the advancing cold air mass overtakes the retreating warmer air
mass. The warm air is lifted up from the ground, which makes it hidden, or "occluded."
Figure 4. A Diagram showing a vertical cross section through a cold occlusion front (Public
Domain).

Warm occlusion

A warm front forms when a warm air mass pushes into a cooler air mass. Warm occlusions
occur where cool air that is less static catches up to, and over-rides, colder air that is more
static, forcing up the warm air that was in between.

Warm fronts often bring stormy weather as the warm air mass at the surface rises above the
cool air mass, making clouds and storms. Warm fronts move more slowly than cold fronts
because it is more difficult for the warm air to push the cold, dense air across the Earth's surface.
High clouds like cirrus, cirrostratus, and middle clouds like altostratus ahead of a warm front.

TROWAL = trough of warm air alof

Figure 5. A warm occlusion

 (d) Stationary Fronts

When a frontal system stops moving forward, a stationary front occurs. Stationary fronts may
result from the stalling of either a cold or warm front, and may remain stationary for several
days. When a stationary front starts to move again, it may be either a warm front or a cold one.
The discontinuity of temperatures often weakens and the front simply dissipates. In a stationary
front the weather conditions are fair and stable.

3.0 Latitude
Latitude influences the global radiation receipts on the earth surface. This affects the earth’s
temperature distribution. Latitude also influences the pressure pattern, which in turn determines
wind flow and precipitation distribution. Within the equatorial zone i.e. 10o N and S latitude,
the sun throughout the year provides intense insolation, while day and night are of roughly
equal duration. The north tropical zone and south tropical zone spans the latitude belts 10° to
23.5° N and S. In this zone the sun is overhead at solstice, thus a marked seasonal cycle exists,
but is combined with a potentially large annual insolation.

Immediately pole ward from the tropical zones are transitional regions, which are known as
the sub-tropical zones. These zones span the latitude belts 250 to 300 north and south.

The middle latitude zones lying between 350 and 550 north and south latitude represent regions
in which the sun’s path shifts through a relatively large range of noon altitudes, so that seasonal
contrasts due to in incoming solar energy are strong. Seasonal differences in lengths of day and
night exist as compared with the tropical zones.

4.0 Altitude
Apart from its effects on temperature i.e. decrease of temperature with altitude at
an average rate of 6.5°C/km, altitude also cause changes in pressure and rainfall.
Pressure decreases with altitude at the rate of 1mb/10m. This is up to about 1500
m above sea level, after which the rate is reduced until at 4500 m above sea level,
when the rate of decrease is only 1mb/20m.Orographic rainfall is brought about
as a result of rise of moist laden winds over a mountain barrier.

5.0 Land and water masses

Land surfaces are rapidly and intensely heated under the sun’s rays, whereas
water surfaces are only slowly and moderately heated. On the other hand, land
surfaces cool off more rapidly and reach much lower temperatures than water
surfaces when solar radiation is cut off. Temperature contrasts are therefore great
over land areas, but only moderate over water areas. The distance from the coast
or water mass can have a marked effect on temperatures and also on rainfall.
Where prevailing winds blow from a warm sea on to the land they will deposit
precipitation. The amount will steadily decrease moving inland. If there is a cold
ocean current offshore, it is possible that the reverse will occur. The cold current
lowers the temperature of onshore winds so that when they reach the coast they
become colder and therefore relative humidity falls and there is no precipitation.
This is what occurs along the coast of Namibia, creating the Namib Desert.

B. Factors affecting regional precipitation

Factors that affect a region’s precipitation include its latitude, the distribution of
air pressure systems and global winds, and the existence of a mountain barrier.

1.0 Latitude

The warm air over the equator usually contains more moisture than the cold air
over the poles. Precipitation is generally higher near the equator than near the
poles. Many deserts receive almost no rain because they are located within
high-pressure belts. A series of deserts can be found around 30° north and south
of the equator.
2.0 Direction of prevailing winds

The direction of prevailing winds can play an important role in the amount of
precipitation a region receives.
• A coastal region where the wind generally blows from the ocean onto land
will receive a large amount of precipitation.
• If prevailing winds blow from the land toward the ocean, the region will
receive much less precipitation.

3.0 Mountain barriers - location on a mountain can greatly affect the amount
of precipitation. A mountain range can form a barrier to the movement of humid
air. On the wind ward side, the forced uplift of air over the mountain produces
condensation and precipitation. On the leeward side, adiabatic warming of the
air produce hot dry conditions.

4.0 Distribution of air pressure systems

Precipitation is affected by surface pressure patterns. In the tropics and mid

latitudes, low pressures at the surface produce convergence and lifting of air that
produces precipitation. Over the subtropics and Polar Regions, persistent high
pressure patterns produce divergence of air and descent that inhibit the formation
of precipitation
Climatic classification schemes

Climate classification is a tool used to recognize, clarify, and simplify the climatic
similarities and differences between geographic areas in order to help us better understand
Earth's climates.

Climatic classifications are broadly differentiated as either empiric or genetic methods.

Empirical methods make use of observed environmental data, such as temperature, humidity,
and precipitation, or simple quantities derived from them (such as evaporation). In contrast,
genetic methods classify climate on the basis of its causal elements, the activity and
characteristics of all factors (circulation systems, fronts, jet streams, solar radiation, topography
etc.) that give rise to the spatial and temporal patterns of climatic data. Hence, while empirical
classifications are largely descriptive of climate, genetic methods are explanatory. However,
for all practical applications empirical classifications are widely adopted.

Empirical classification schemes

The empirical approach to climate classification uses observed effects of climate (climatic
elements).

1.0 Köppen’s classification

The most popular empirical classification is given by Wladimir Köppen, in 1900 and several
revised versions thereafter. Koppen’s scheme used certain critical values of temperatures of the
warmest and the coldest months and of rainfall of the wettest and the driest months. His climatic
divisions generally coincide with vegetational divisions. Koppen (1936) divided the world
climate into the following 5 (6) principal groups.

The significant aspect of Koppen’s classification scheme is that it uses measurable and visible
physical, elements like temperature and precipitation and their combined interaction with
vegetation as the basis of classification. Koppen’s scheme uses letter symbols to denote various
characteristics, which is practical and convenient. However it ignores other factors, such as
cloudiness, wind, rainfall intensity, currents and, above all, the air masses which form the basis
of modern climatology. It is also difficult to explain the existence of different vegetation types
within the same climatic division and similar vegetation types in different climatic divisions.

A. Tropical rainy climate - Temperature of the coolest month does not exceed 18 0C
Af - Tropical rainforest (equatorial climate): Warm Temperature throughout with. mean value
exceeding 27°C, abundant rainfall (annual average 250 cm), suitable for luxuriant vegetation.
Prevails over Amazon basin, Zaire basin and south-east Asia.

Aw - Tropical savanna: Mean annual temperature 23°C, wet summers (due to convectional
rainfall) and dry winter with annual rainfall 160 cm. Floods and droughts are common.
Vegetation is tropical grassland or savanna with scattered deciduous trees. Prevails over
Sudan, Veld plateau and the tropical grasslands of Australia.

Am - Monsoon type: Seasonal reversal of winds, associated with alternate periods of rainfall
and drought with a short dry season.. This climate is experienced over the Pacific coast of
Colombia, Guinea coast of west Africa, south-east Africa, south and south-east Asia and
northern Australia.

As - Dry summer: A rare climatic type prevailing over some rainshadow areas along eastern
coast of southern India in Tamil Nadu and Orissa that remain dry during summer monsoon
and receive winter rainfall from retreating monsoons.

B. Dry climates - Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation and constant water deficiency
is experienced.

Bwh - Desert (Low Latitude) Climate: Sub-tropical high pressure region with mean annual
temperature is 38°C and scanty and erratic rainfall. Vegetation varies with the soil type. This
climate is experienced over southwest USA, north Africa (Sahara), west Asia, Thar desert,
and central Australia.
Bwk - Mid-Latitude Deserts: These climatic conditions prevail over Takla Makan (China)
and Gobi desert (Mongolia) and are similar to the low- latitude desert conditions.

Bsh and Bsk - Semiarid and Steppe: Mean annual temperature is around 21°C and rainfall a
meager 30 cm. These regions are dry due to an interior location and absence of mountain
barriers across the path of prevailing winds. These climatic conditions prevail over in the
deep interiors of landmasses, such as Eurasia and North America.

C: Humid mesothermal/Warm temperate rainy - Mild winters; mean temperature of

coldest month is below 18°C but above -3°C and that of the warmest month is above 10°C.

Cfa - Humid subtropical or China type climate: Hot and humid summer and mild winter with
average annual temperature is 20°C and well distributed rainfall (100 cm). Hurricanes and
typhoons are common. Prevails within 25° to 45° latitude on east coast in both hemispheres
e.g., south-east USA, southern Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, and south-eastern Africa, eastern
coastal belt of Australia, eastern China and Japan.

Cfb - Marine west European climate: Characterised by on shore oceanic influences, short
cool summers, mild winters with average annual temperature around 10°C and. and rainfall is
140 cm. Weather is variable and unpredictable. Prevails between 45° latitude and 65° latitude
on west coast in both hemispheres e.g., Western Europe, narrow coastal belt in North and
South America, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand.

Cs - Mediterranean climate: Warm and dry summer (mean temperature 20°C- 27°C) due to
sub-tropical high pressure conditions, mild winter (temperature 4°C to 10°C). with rainfall
from low pressure cyclones (annual rainfall 40 cm- 60 cm). Prevails within 25° and 45°
latitudes on west coasts in both hemispheres—over central California, central Chile,
Mediterranean region, southern South Africa, southeastern and southwestern Australia.

D: Humid microthermal or Cold forest climates: - Severe winters, temperature of the

coldest month is below -3°C and warmest month, above 10°C.

Df - Cool east coast climate: Hot and humid summer (mean temperature 25°C), influenced by
tropical maritime air masses, cold winter (mean temperature -4°C to 0°C), . variable
precipitation - convectional rainfall during summer and snowfall in winter. Prevails between
45° and 65° latitude on east coasts, over north-eastern USA, Korea, Japan, northern China.

Ds - Taiga climate: Short summer (temperature between- 10°C and 15°C), long and cold
winters and low precipitation as influenced by continental polar air masses. Prevails over the
belts from Alaska to Newfoundland and from Norway to Kamchetka peninsula sub-Arctic
region. ‘Taiga’ actually refers to the softwood coniferous forest cover.

Dw - Continental type climate: Short and cool summer (temperatures 10° to 21°C), long and
cold winters (temperatures below 0°C) and variable rainfall mostly during summers and
snowfall during winter. Prevails in deep interiors of the continents between Taiga and the
mid-latitude deserts over Poland and the Baltic states, Russian plains, northern states of USA
and the southern states of Canada.

E: Polar climates: - Temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C. There is no warm
season.

ET - Tundra Climate: Experienced over coastal fringes of the Arctic Ocean. Short, cool
summer, long, cold winter and meager precipitation that limitTaiga vegetation.

Ef - Ice Cap: Areas permanently covered with snow. Average temperature of the warmest
month is below 0°C. These conditions occur over the poles and the interiors of Greenland.

H: Highlands climate - Prevails over the mountainous regions of Andes, Alps and the
Himalayas. Vegetational zoning from foothills upwards is similar to latitudinal change. High
insolation, low temperature, low pressure, high precipitation and larger diurnal ranges at
higher altitudes.

2.0 Thornthwaite’s rational classification

The main limitation of Koppen’s classification is the lack of rational basis for selecting
temperature and precipitation values for different climatic zones. Thornthwaite’s (1948)
improved the classification by introducing water balance concept. He compared the potential
evapotranspiration, PET (defined as the amount of water that could evaporate and transpire
from a vegetated landscape without restrictions other than the atmospheric demand) with
precipitation and computed ‘moisture index’ which considers the water surplus (s) and water
deficit (d) which occur in different seasons in most places. Water surplus means seasonal
addition to sub soil moisture that is being used by the crop at a reduced rate of transpiration
during deficit period.

Thus, the climate of a place is defined on the basis of

(i) Potential evapotranspiration i.e. the combined loss of moisture from vegetation
surface as evaporation and transpiration and ,
(ii) Seasonal variation of effective moisture and
(iii) Average annual thermal efficiency.

100 × 𝑠
Ih = Humidity index
𝑛

100 × 𝑑
Iα = aridity index
𝑛

Where,

s = Monthly water surplus calculated as the sum of the monthly differences between
precipitation and potential evapotranspiration when precipitation is greater than
evapotranspiration

d = Monthly water deficit calculated as sum of monthly values of potential evapotranspiration

for those months when precipitation is less than evapotranspiration
n = Water need

The Thornthwaite’s moisture index is a dimensionless index varying from +100 to -100
representing climate conditions from humid to arid respectively. It is derived by subtracting
his aridity index from his index of humidity.

𝑆 𝐷
Im = Ih – Iα =100 (𝑃𝐸 − 𝑃𝐸)

Table 2. Moisture derived climatic types

Symbol Climate type Moisture index Broad group

A Per humid 100 and above Moist climate
B4 Humid 80-100
B3 Humid 60-80
B2 Humid 40-60
B1 Humid 20-40
C2 Moist sub-humid 0-20
C1 Dry sub-humid -20-0 Dry climate100 and
D Semi arid -40- -20 above
E Arid -60 - -40

Genetic climatic classification

Genetic classifications are based upon real mechanisms that form the different climates. They
not only characterize climatic types, but also explain the causes of peculiarities arising in
regional climatic patterns.

1.0 Flohn’s classification scheme

This classification recognises seven climatic types on the basis of global wind belts and
precipitation characteristics. The table below shows the climatic classification under this
classification.
Table 3. Flohn’s climatic types

2.0 Strahler’s classification

This classification divides world’s climates into three major divisions - the low latitude
climates, the middle latitude climates and the high latitude climates. These three divisions are then
subdivided into 14 climatic regions to which is added highland climates having altitude as the
dominant control. The criteria used in this classification scheme are the character of the dominant
air masses and the precipitation characteristics. The classification is as follows:

I Low latitude climates- controlled by equatorial and tropical air masses

(a) Wet equatorial
(b) Trade wind equatorial
(c) Tropical desert and steppe
(d) West coast desert
(e) Tropical wet –dry

II Middle latitude climates- controlled by tropical and polar air masses

(a) Humid subtropical
(b) Marine west coast
(c) Mediterranean
(d) Middle latitude desert and steppe
(e) Humid continental

III High latitude climates- controlled by polar and arctic air masses
(a) Continental sub artic
(b) Marine sub artic
(c) Tundra
(d) Ice cap

(e) Highland climates – are found in major highland areas of the world where altitude is the
dormant control of climates.

3.0 Budyko’s classification

This classification of climate is based on the energy balance. The classification is
based on values of the radiational index of dryness (Id) defined by the equation of
the form:

Rn
Id = 𝐿𝑟

Where Rn is the amount of radiation available for evaporation from a wet surface
assumed to have an albedo of 0.18, L is the latent heat of evaporation and r is the
mean annual precipitation.

The value of the radiational Index of dryness (Id) is less than 1 in humid areas and
greater than 1 in dry areas. Using this index the following five major climatic types
were recognized by Budyko.

Table 4. Budyko’s climatic classification

Climate change and implications

Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to
define Earth’s local, regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of
observed effects that are synonymous with the term. Changes observed in Earth’s climate
since the early 20th century are primarily driven by human activities, particularly fossil fuel
burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere, raising
Earth’s average surface temperature. These human-produced temperature increases are
commonly referred to as global warming. Natural processes can also contribute to climate
change.

(a)Natural causes of climate change

The earth’s climate is grossly influenced and changed through natural causes such as ocean
current, volcanic eruptions, the earth’s orbital changes and solar variations.

i) Ocean current
The oceans have been shown to be the major component of the climate system. Ocean
currents move vast amounts of heat across the world. Wind push horizontally against the sea
surface and drive ocean current patterns. Interactions between the ocean and atmosphere can
also produce phenomena called El- Nino which occurs every 2 to 6 years. The oceans play
an important role in determining the atmospheric concentration of CO2. Changes in ocean
circulation may affect the climate through the movement of CO2 into or out of the
atmosphere.

ii) Volcanic activities

Volcanic eruptions are known to throw out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water
vapour, dust and ash into the atmosphere. It is known that large volumes of gases and ash can
influence climate patterns for years by increasing planetary reflectivity, causing atmospheric
cooling. Tiny particles called aerosols are produced by volcanoes. Because these reflect solar
energy back into space, they have a cooling effect on the earth’s surface

iii) Earth’s orbital changes

The earth makes one revolution around the sun once a year, tilted at an angle of 23.50 to the
perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons, more tilt means warmer
summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters. Slow
changes in the earth’s orbit lead to small but climatically important changes in strength of the
seasons over tens of thousands of years.

iv) Solar variation

The sun is known to be the source of energy for the planet’s climate system. Although the
sun’s energy output appears constant from an everyday point of view, small changes over an
extended period of time can lead to climate changes. It has been speculated that a portion of
the warming in the first half of the 20th Century was due to an increase in the output of solar
energy. As the sun is the fundamental source of energy that is instrumental in climate system,
it would be reasonable to assume that changes in the sun’s energy output would cause climate
to change. But studies by Crowley (2000) and Paehler (2007) have shown that if this were so
it would be expected to see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. On the
contrary, the cooling was observed in the upper atmosphere, a warming at the surface and in
the lower parts of the atmosphere. This was shown to be due to greenhouse gases capturing
heat in the lower atmosphere.

v) Cloud’s contribution
Perkins (2010) reported that global satellite analysis supported by climate models have
revealed that cloud cover promote warming because as earth’s average temperature rises,
clouds will accelerate global warming by trapping more heat. Dessler (2010)
analyzed satellite data gathered between 2000 and 2010 to estimate the short-term variations
in the amount of visible and infrared radiation emitted to space. He made an allowance by
subtracting influences such as earth’s surface reflectivity and the heat-trapping effect of
atmospheric water vapour as well as how clouds affected the planet’s radiation balance as a
function of temperature over the decade. The result showed that clouds enhance warming by
trapping on average, an extra 0.54 watts per square metre for every 10C rise in global average
temperature.

Human causes of climate change

In the industrial era, human activities have contributed to increased concentrations of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In addition, human activities contribute to climate
change by altering the concentration of aerosols and clouds cover. The greatest contributor to
greenhouse gases is the fossil fuel that releases CO2 into the atmosphere. The impact of
human activities on the climate is much higher than that of natural processes. The principal
components as a result of human activity, which plays an important role for climate change
are
(i) Carbon dioxide (CO2), resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels for transport, heating,
cement production, deforestation.

(ii) Methane (CH4) - a result of agricultural activities, natural gas distribution, waste disposal
etc

(iii) Nitrogen oxides (N2O) - are emitted as a result of nitrogen fertilization and
burning of fossil fuels.

Figure 7. The atmospheric concentration of major greenhouse gases in the last 2000 years
Climate change and critical global environmental changes

• Warming temperature of the earth’s surface and the oceans: The earth has
warmed at a rate of 0.13° C per decade since 1957, almost twice as fast as its
rate of warming during the previous century.

• Changes in the global water cycle (‘hydrologic’ cycle): Over the past century
there have been distinct geographical changes in total annual precipitation, with
some areas experiencing severe and long-term drought and others experiencing
increased annual precipitation. Frequency and intensity of storms increases as
the atmosphere warms and is able to hold more water vapor.

• Declining glaciers and snowpack: Across the globe, nearly all glaciers are
decreasing in area, volume and mass. One billion people living in river watersheds fed by
glaciers and snowmelt are thus impacted.

• Sea level rise: Warmer water expands, so as oceans warm the increased volume of water is
causing sea level rise. Melting glaciers and snowpack also contribute to rising seas.

• Ocean acidification: Oceans absorb about 25% of emitted CO2 from the
atmosphere, leading to acidification of seawater.

 Loss of biodiversity and nature

In the ocean, the increase in water temperature is putting pressure on ocean life. The
Great Barrier Reef, where the coral population is in shallow water, has recently declined
by up to 50%. The ocean heat that caused large damage to the Great Barrier Reef in 2016
would have been highly unlikely before the time of the industrial revolution around 200
years ago, but is now likely to happen around 1 in every 3 years on average in today’s
climate. The Current ocean conditions haven’t existed in at least the last 65 million years.
There is also evidence of climate change affecting nature on land, with many species of
plants and animals shifting to new areas due to warming.
These global changes result in what we experience as changes in our local
weather and climate:

 Greater variability, with “wetter wets”, “drier dries” and “hotter hots”
 More frequent and severe extreme heat events
 More severe droughts
 More intense precipitation, such as severe rains, winter storms and
hurricanes
 Higher average temperatures and longer frost-free seasons
 Longer wildfire seasons and worse wildfires
 Higher average temperatures and longer frost-free seasons
 Longer wildfire seasons and worse wildfires
 Loss of snowpack and earlier spring runoff
 Recurrent coastal flooding with high tides and storm surges
 More frequent and severe floods due to intense precipitation and spring
snowmelt
 Worsening air quality: Higher temperatures increase production of ozone (a key
contributor to smog) and pollen, as well as increasing the risk of wildfires.