8

ISBN 978-1-108-61069-8
science for the Victorian Curriculum
Authors
Evan Roberts
Christopher Humphreys
Victoria Shaw

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Cambridge

Contributors
Jonathan Blair
Erin Checkley
Sarah Chuck
Laura Swann

© Cambridge University Press 2022

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© Evan Roberts, Christopher Humphreys, Victoria Shaw and Cambridge University Press 2019
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First published 2019
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ISBN 978-1-108-61069-8 Paperback
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Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing
but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.
All activities including practicals are a guide only. All activities should have risk assessments conducted, and the activities should be
trialled. The individual needs of students and facility/equipment availability should also be considered before conducting an activity;
appropriate protective equipment and clothing should be worn. While safety has been considered in the writing of all practicals and
activities, Cambridge University Press and the authors and contributors do not accept any responsibility for the information and
instructions contained in the activities and are not liable for any loss or injury resulting from conducting any activity described in
this resource.
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Elders, past and present. Cambridge University Press is committed to honouring Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ unique
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 iii

Welcome

Some bacteria develop resistance to all antibiotics that are commonly used to treat them. This means
that infection by these types of bacteria is a threat to public health. They are also extremely common
and millions of cases are reported annually worldwide. Finding an alternative way to treat these
infections is crucial for everyone.
The research I am currently conducting is concerned with these kinds of bacterial infections. Using
an approach that involves the use of molecules or substances obtained from sharks, we are trying to
develop an alternative way to treat this and other infections caused by bacteria that represent a serious
threat to human health.
I find what I do extremely exciting and rewarding, not only because of everything I have learned
since working in this field, but also because of the satisfaction of knowing that I am trying to do
something to improve the quality of life of many people.

Gabriela Constanza Martinez Ortiz completed a Bachelor of Biology at the National

Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and did her Honours year at the Centre for
Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada (CICESE). After graduating as
the top student of her class she started working at a pharmaceutical company, called
PROBIOMED, in Mexico City. She moved to Melbourne a few years later, to study a Master
of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics at La Trobe University. After completing her Masters
as the top student, she started a PhD at La Trobe University, which she plans to have
completed by the time you are reading this!
Gabriela is also a keen scuba diver, enjoys underwater photography and has an interest
in conservation of ocean environments.

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iv

Contents
Welcome  iii
Authors and contributors  vi
How to use this book  viii
Acknowledgements  xi

Being scientific 
1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and

1 conducting 
1.2 The scientific method: recording, processing and
analysing results 
4

15
1.3 The scientific method: evaluating and communicating  29

Cells 
2.1 Microscopes and cells  41

2 2.2 Organelles 
2.3 Eukaryotic cells 
2.4 Function and malfunction 
51
59
71
STEM: Design a city  82

Organ systems 
3.1 Cells to systems  87
3.2 The human respiratory system  94

3
3.3 Other respiratory systems  103
3.4 The human circulatory system  112
3.5 The human digestive system  121
3.6 Other digestive systems  134
3.7 Organ repair and replacement  144
STEM: Clearing a blocked artery  156

Reproduction 

4
4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals  161
4.2 The human reproductive system  171
4.3 Plant reproduction  176
STEM: Help or hinder seed dispersal  190

Particles 

5
5.1 Atoms and elements  195
5.2 Organising elements  204
5.3 Compounds and mixtures  212
STEM: To mine or not to mine?  226

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 Contents v

Chemical change 

6
6.1 Evidence of physical change  231
6.2 Evidence of chemical change  240
6.3 Investigating reactions  252
STEM: Building a rocket  266

Rocks 
7.1 Rock formation 271

7 7.2 Types of rocks 

7.3 Classifying rocks 
7.4 The mining process 
285
296
304
STEM: Underground bunkers and asteroids  314

Energy 

8
8.1 What is energy?  319
8.2 Energy is conserved  330
8.3 Applications of energy  344
STEM: Wind power  356

Light and sound 

9.1 Light  361

9 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 

9.3 Sound 
9.4 Seeing and hearing 
370
389
401
STEM: Accessible musical instruments  410

Glossary  412
Index  419

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vi

Authors and contributors

Evan Roberts
Evan Roberts is a keen biologist and, prior to teaching, worked in
conservation and environmental management. He has taught in both
public and private schools and is dedicated to instilling his passion for
science into his students. He believes that, just like science, education
should be dynamic, exciting and forever changing to keep up with the
world around us.

Christopher Humphreys
Chris Humphreys is currently Head of Mathematics and Physics
at a tertiary college for international students. He graduated from
Nottingham University in the UK and completed his MSc in Physics
at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. He has over thirty years’
experience as a teacher in state and private schools in the UK, New
Zealand and Australia.

Victoria Shaw
Victoria Shaw has been committed to sharing her love for science
with Year 7–12 students for the past 18 years and previously studied
pharmacology. She was Head of Science at an independent school for a
few years and volunteers as an educator for Wildlife Victoria. She has also
been an assessor for the VCAA and IBO and runs workshops in Biology
and Psychology.

Jonathan Blair
Jonathan Blair graduated from the University of New South Wales with
a Bachelor in Science, majoring in Pharmacology. He has worked in both
research and commercial laboratories, specialising in cardiac regeneration
and vaccine manufacturing, respectively. Jonathan is currently working as
a laboratory technician for an independent school.

Erin Checkley
Erin Checkley has taught Biology, Junior Science and Mathematics at a
Catholic secondary college for the past six years. While completing her
Masters of Education at The University of Melbourne, she developed a
passion for curriculum development, and aims to instil a sense of curiosity
and critical thinking skills in students. She previously worked as a
cardiorespiratory and sports physiotherapist.

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 Authors and contributors vii

Sarah Chuck
Sarah Chuck teaches Science in Years 7–10. She completed a Biomedical
Science degree at Monash University and a Masters of Teaching Practice
at RMIT. During her studies, Sarah worked in a genetics laboratory at
the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, modelling disease in
organisms, such as the zebrafish. She hopes students will also find their
experiences in science to be extremely interesting and rewarding.

Laura Swann
Laura Swann completed Bachelor degrees in Science and Education
at Monash University and has been teaching Years 7–12 for 13 years.
Her passion is teaching Physics, and she also enjoys conducting Physics
lessons with primary and ELC students. She has been an assessor for
the VCAA and hopes to continue inspiring young people to pursue their
interests in science.

Paulo da Silva
Paulo da Silva is a passionate STEM Educator with a varied background
in ICT, Earth Sciences and STEM Curriculum Design. Paulo
encourages students to use their curiosity and creativity to design,
prototype, discover and innovate, in pursuit of the product developments
and ideas of tomorrow. He also vocally campaigns for STEM Education
opportunities for students from low socio-economic backgrounds.

The publisher would like to thank Mark Birney, Isaac Pang, Dr Sydney Boydell, Dr Roger Slade,
Harry Leather, Jan Leather and Ariel Laughlin for their help in reviewing and contributing to
this title.

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viii

How to use this book

Overview of the print book

These are short facts Did you know? These provide quick Quick check
that contain interesting checks for recalling
information. facts and understanding content.

Students are encouraged to Explore! Short activities encourage a Try this

conduct research online to hands-on approach to concepts
find and interpret information. that are currently being covered.

Glossary
definitions of Practical
key terms are
provided next Practical investigations consolidate student
to where the VIDEO WIDGET
key term first learning.
appears in the Videos are found Widgets are found
chapter. in the Interactive in the Interactive
Textbook. Textbook.

These are recent developments in the particular area of Science as a human endeavour
science being covered. They may also show how ideas in
science have changed over the years through human discovery and inventions.

Section questions

Review questions to check students’ understanding and application of the section content.

156 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS STEM activity CLEARING A BLOCKED ARTERY 157 STEM activities encourage
STEM activity: Clearing a blocked artery It is important to note that neither of these
methods actually cleans the plaque away. This is
because blood vessels are fragile, and cleaning
Suggested steps
1 In your group, take some time to discuss ideas
students to collaboratively
come up with design and build
and come up with several possible designs.
the plaque would cause it to dislodge, which is
Background information 2 Build your prototype.
dangerous because it might then completely block
VCSSU094 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113 3 Test the prototype and time how long it takes to
The heart is an incredible organ. It is responsible for a narrower blood vessel, causing a heart attack.
clear the plaque.
pumping oxygen and nutrients around your body,

solutions to problems and

4 Assess whether your prototype was effective and
to every cell. It continues to
Design brief: Design a device and a procedure whether improvements could be made.
pump for your entire lifetime Balloon angioplasty
to clear blocked arteries while trapping the 5 Modify your prototype and test it again.
and you can’t live without
dislodged plaque.
it. Unfortunately, many
Balloon is inserted Suggested materials

challenges.
people around the world in narrowed area
experience heart conditions Activity instructions • model of a blocked artery, created using a tube
that are life threatening. An or a toilet roll tube and Play-Doh
In groups of three or four, you will design a device
example is coronary artery Balloon is inflated, • paperclips
along with the procedure to unblock an artery. As
disease (CAD), a major flattening plaque • string
part of the design brief, your device and procedure
cause of death in Australia. • popsicle sticks
will also need to trap any of the plaque that is
Many heart conditions can • cloth
cleared out.
be treated with medication, • glue
Artery is widened, You can only insert any devices from the top end
and some require surgery. • tape
blood flow improved of the ‘artery’ tube (see Figure 3.98).
Other conditions, such as • cardboard
dilated cardiomyopathy, • paper
Figure 3.96 Angioplasty: a small ‘balloon’ is inflated inside the artery, which pushes Top
CAD and heart-related birth
the plaque aside and widens the vessel.
defects, can only be treated Evaluate and modify
with a heart transplant. A donor heart can
Balloon angioplasty and stent 1 For each model that you created, discuss how
be used from a person who has died and
effectively the model performed. Consider how
has consented to being an organ donor.
long the procedure was and how difficult it was
However, sadly, the number of people on
to carry out. Evaluate how effective the ‘trap’ was
waiting lists for heart transplants is far
Deflated Plaque at catching the dislodged pieces – how much of
greater than the number of donor hearts Artery Closed stent Assumed
balloon the plaque did it catch?
available, and many people die while they blood flow
2 Propose some improvements to your first design
are waiting for a transplant.
and prototype. Test it and compare it to your
Like all our organs, the heart requires
first prototype.
oxygen and nutrients. These are supplied to
Inflated balloon Expanded stent 3 Imagine you had to do this procedure on a real
the heart in blood that comes via the coronary
patient. Discuss the limitations of your model
arteries. When a person has CAD, cholesterol,
of a blocked artery, and how your device and
calcium, fat deposits and other substances
procedure might need to be modified to better
deposit on the walls of their coronary arteries.
reflect real life.
These deposits make the coronary arteries Stent Compresses Increases Figure 3.98 A model of an artery
narrower, reducing the blood supply to the widens artery plaque blood flow
heart, and therefore reducing the supply of Figure 3.97 Many people also have a stent inserted inside the artery
oxygen to the heart muscle. after the artery has been widened by angioplasty. A stent is a small
Two ways of using surgery to overcome tube made of plastic or metal that is inserted into the artery to
this problem of blocked coronary arteries are prevent it narrowing again.
shown in Figures 3.96 and 3.97.

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 How to use this book ix

Overview of the Interactive Textbook (ITB)

The Interactive Textbook (ITB) is an online HTML version of the print textbook powered by the
Edjin platform, included with the print book or available as a separate digital-only product.

Quizzes contain
Definitions pop Worksheets are provided
automarked questions that
up for key terms as downloadable Word
enable students to quickly
in the text documents
check their understanding

Videos summarise,
clarify or extend student
knowledge

Widgets are accompanied

by questions that encourage
independent learning and
observations

10 Chapter 1 SCIENCE SKILLS

Practical 1.1: Self-design

Aim
You will work in groups, allocating each person with at least one role covered in this chapter. Your group will
Practicals are available as a act as a team of consultant engineers, working towards finding a solution to a problem by using the engineering
design loop.
Word document download,
with sample answers and Define the problem/
identify the need

guides for teachers in the Redesign

(as needed)
Online Teaching Suite Research
the problem

Communicate the
design and the process
Engineering
design loop
Brainstorm/develop
solutions
Test and evaluate
prototype

Select the
Build/construct solution
prototype

Figure 1.9 The engineering design loop

When brainstorming, remember these rules.

Focus on quantity – come up with as many ideas as you can.

Encourage wild ideas – don’t put down or criticise ideas that are wild as they may lead to innovative designs.
Record all ideas – have a scribe who can write everything down.
Combine and build ideas – discuss and elaborate on the ideas of other students.
Focus – don’t get off topic!

Design a hand-washing station

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material must not be transferred to another party.
x How to use this book

Workspaces enable students

to enter working and answers
online and to save them. Input
is by typing, handwriting and
drawing, or by uploading
images of writing or drawing.

Self-assessment tools enable

students to check answers,
mark their own work, and
rate their confidence level in
their work. This helps develop
responsibility for learning and
communicates progress and
performance to the teacher.
Student accounts can be linked
to the learning management
system used by the teacher in
the Online Teaching Suite.

Overview of the Online Teaching Suite (OTS)

The Online Teaching Suite is automatically enabled with a teacher account and is integrated with the
teacher’s copy of the Interactive Textbook. All the assets and resources are in one place for easy access.
The features include:
• The Edjin learning management system with class and student analytics and reports, and
communication tools.
• Teacher’s view of a student’s working and self-assessment.
• Chapter tests and worksheets with answers as PDFs and editable Word documents.
• Editable curriculum grids and teaching programs.
• Teacher notes and downloadable Word document guides to Practicals and STEM activities

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 xi

Acknowledgements
The author and publisher wish to thank the following sources for permission to reproduce material:
Cover: © Getty Images / ArtMari
Images: © Getty Images / Monty Rakusen, Chapter 1 Opener / shorrocks, 1.3 / mauro_grigollo, 1.7 / Fernan Federici, Chapter 2 Opener / Dr. Keith
Wheeler, Table 2.1 / Westend61, 2.4 / Rpsycho, 2.6 / Science photo Library, 2.7 / Magda Turzanska, Science PL, 2.10 / Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2.11 /
Bigmouse108, 1.12, 2.13 / ttsz, 2.13, 2.32, 3.39, 3.41, 6.6, 6.12 / Aloysius Leng, 2.14 / SCIEPRO, Science Photo Library, 2.15 (t-l), 2.19 (t-l), 2.20 / Yury
Prokepoenko, 2.15 (b) / Kateryna Kon / Science PL, 2.16 (L), 2.21, 2.23, 2.28, 2.41, 3.2, 3.59 / Ed Reschke, 2.15 (t-r) / Michael Masters, 2.16 (R), /
BSIP, 2.17 / Klaus Vedfelt, 2.17 / Dlumen, 2.19 / yangna, 2.19 / Andrew Merry, 2.20 / ai_yoshi, 2.21 / hidesy, 2.22 / CristianDXB, 2.24 / normaals, 2.26 /
Temet, 2.28 / Ed Reschke, 2.5, 2.14 (t-r), 2.29, 2.33, 3.26, 3.40, 4.31 / Oliver Strewe, 2.30 / image Source, 2.31 / Kevin Wells, 2.36 / Bradley Grove, 2.37
(t) / Arterra, 2.37 (c) / TorriPhoto, 2.37 (b) / Fernando Camino, 2.38 / Astrid & Hanns – Frieder Michler, Science Photo Library, 2.39 (t) / Roland Birke,
2.39 (c) / Luayana, 2.40 / Rachen Buosa, 2.42, 2.43 / Youst, 2.44 / ChesireCat, 2.45 / BSIP / UIG, 2.46 / JGI / Jamie Grill, 2.49 / UIG, 2.50 /
PeopleImages, 2.51 / Fahroni, 2.52 / Andres Brookes, 2.54 / Oliver Ross, 2.55 / J Westrich, 2.56 / Bigmouse108, 2.57 / Alfred Pasieka, Science PL, 2.58 /
Oliver Burston, STEM activity: Design a city (image 2) / Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2.9 / PeterHermesFurian, p.64 / Jeff Rotman, p.101 / temet, 3.38 / fstop123,
p.147 / SuperFroyd, p. 321 / Andrezj Wojcicki / Science PL, Chapter 3 Opener / Pixologic Studio / Science PL, 3.1, 3.58, 3.59, 3.15 / KTS Design /
Science PL, 3.3 / tudmeak, istock, 3.4 / Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler Science PL, 3.6 / S. Kaulitzki / Science PL, 3.7, 3.8 / Sam Diephuis, 3.9 / Jeff
Rotman, 3.11 / Science Photo Library - Leonello Calvetti, 3.11 / Science Photo Library - Leonello CalvettiI, 3.12 / Wetcake, 3.13, 3.14 / Gustavo
Miranda Holley, 3.17 / PhotoAlto / Odilon Dimier, 3.19 / Emil Von Maltitz, 3.20 / David Malan, 3.22 / Dr Jeremy Burgess / Science Photo Library, 3.23
/ Dorling Kindersley, 3.27 / olga_sweet, 3.27 / Paul Starosta, 3.29 / davemhunt photography, 3.33 / Jacobs Stock Photography, 3.33 / Elisa Lara, 3.36 /
Temet, 3.37 / SCIEPRO, 3.43/ Juan Gartner, 3.44, 4.42 / Stocktrek Images, 3.45 / Suedhang, 3.45 / twomeows, 3.48 / Dimitry Ageev, 3.49 / Science PL,
3.50 / Compassionate Eye Foundation, 3.51 / 4FR, 3.51 / MedicalRF.com, 3.53 / Image Source, 3.61 / ake1150sb, 3.62 / Adam Gault, 3.63 / youngvet,
3.64 / Nigel Pavitt, 3.67 / Paul Harizan, 3.68 / Oli Scarff, 3.73 / R. Dirscherl, 3.74 / R. Reinhard, 3.75 / John White Photos, 3.76 / B. Way, 3.78 /
B. Diego, 3.79 / uchar, 3.82 / magicmine, 3.83 / O. Franken, 3.84 / D. Zoo, 3.85 / vshivkova, 3.88 (L) / S. Kaulitzki, 3.89 / M. Vuillermoz, 3.90 / A.
Gault, 3.91 / C. Ryan, 3.92 / ZEPHYR, 3.94 / solar22, 3.96, 3.97 / Lemon_tm, 3.98 / BlackJack3D, Chapter 4 Opener / Sarah Jones (Debut Art), 4.1 /
S Cesareo, 4.3 / Buena Vista Images, 4.4 / S. Gorton, 4.5 / SeaTops, 4.6 / M. Leggero, 4.8 / J. Burton, 4.9 / Sudowoodo, 4.10 / Kaengurus, 4.14 /
C. Howes, 4.18 / Auscape, 4.20 / N. McIntyre, 4.22 / M. Novak, 4.24 / R. Thongbun, 4.28 / sdominick, 4.29 / F. Tanneau, 4.37 / Oksana Osypenko, 4.30
/ P. Gadd, 4.32 / slavadubrovin, 4.33 / Joshua McCullough / K. SeptimiusKrogh, 4.3 / M. Oppenheim, 4.38 / F. Köhntopp, 4.39 / Frank Köhntopp, 4.40 /
FLPA / Bob Gibbons, 4.41 / C. Wojtkowski, 4.41 / K. Summers, 4.43 / T. Vucic, 4.44 / V. Jovanovic, 4.45 / D. Delimont, 4.46 / BBC Universal, 4.47 /
Oxford Scientific, 4.48 / double_p, 4.49 / A. Roberts, 4.50 / D. Torckler, 4.51 / PietroPazzi, 4.52 / A. Alekandravicius, 4.53 / M. Schewe – Behnisch, 4.54
/ MoD Photos , 4.55 / Ogphoto, 4.56 / D. Grizelj, Chapter 5 Opener / M. Fernandez Diaz, 5.5 / nikolos, 5.6 / B. Davies Photosightfaces, 5.7 / Alfred
Pasieka / Science PL, 5.10, 5.12 / ThomasVogel, 5.11 / A. Lambert Photography, 5.13 / WestLight, 5.16 / NurPhoto, 5.19 / A. Au-Yeung, 5.19 / Tom
Merton, 5.19 / pamspix, 5.22 / imagestock, 5.23 / Reda&Co., 5.26 / Toxitz, 5.27 / D. Panteva Photography, 5.28 / J, Banagan, 5.31 / Cavan Images,
Chapter 6 Opener / N. Bodrova, 6.1 / G. Tsartsianidis, 6.1 / N. Langan, 6.1 / Lyubov8, 6.1 /M. Falinski, 6.3 / Tchareon, 6.4 / Tetra Images, 6.8 / E. J.
Bergin, 6.9 / celsopupo, 6.10 / Detlef van Ravenswaay Picture Press, 6.11 / Skittles Candy, 6.13 /Westend61, 6.14 / Kevin Studio, 6.14 / B. Ginsberg, 6.15
/ SheraleeS, 6.16 / fotokostic, 6.16 / Venerala, 6.18 / C. M. Mossop, 6.19 / Ddurrich, 6.20 / H. Shooter, D. Kindersley, 6.21 / V. Kokorin, 6.22 / J. Jordan,
6.23 / DuncanL, 6.24 / X. Han, 6.25 / Seldon Scene Photog. 6.25 / Hero Images, 6.25 / S. Kaulitzki, Sciene PL, 6.26 / M. Brunner, 6.27 / S. Gauldwell,
6.28 / N. Beckerman, 6.30 / Anadolu Agency, 6.31 / explosivekeeper, 6.32 / Saravuth-photohut, 6.33 / NatalieIme, 6.34 / Martyn F. Chillmaid / Science
PL, 6.35 / L. Lauren, 6.36 / PhotoPlus Mag., 6.37 / solidcolours, 6.38 / L. Schulz, 6.40 / 3DScuptor, 6.44 / M. Bottigelli, Chapter 7 Opener / Ross M
Horowitz, 7.1 / Watcha, 7.2 / Mina De La O, 7.3 / Blanchi Costela, 7.3 / 31moonlight31, 7.6 / D. Van Ravenswaay, 7.7 / K. Spencer, 7.9 / Auscape /
UIG, 7.9 / Totajla, 7.11 / QAI Publishing, 7.12 / Stuart McCall, 7.14 / Prisma by Dukas, 7.15 / P. Tanupatarachai, 7.16 / Australian Scenics, 7.17 /
Onfokus, 7.18 / D. Silverman, 7.20 / Science & Society Picture Library, 7.22 / Reload_Studio, 7.24 / ullstein bild, 7.25 / audioworm, 7.26 / Auscape, 7.27
/ VvoeVale, 7.28 / Roco Roldn, 7.29 / milicenta, 7.30 / G. Van der Knijff LP Images, 7.31 / C. Keates, 7.32 / J. Cancalosi, Oxford Scientific, 7.33 /
Dorling Kindersley, 7.34, 7.60 (3-t), 7.61 (4, 9) / J. Seaton Callahan, 7.35 / Andyworks, 7.36 / elnavegante, 7.37 / CLU, 7.38 / Tomek budujedomek, 7.39
/ Inner_Vision, 7.40 / benedek, 7.41 / R. Brook Science PL, 7.42 / T. Grist, Moment, 7.43 / Unidentified, D. Kindersley, 7.43 / Weedesign, 7.43 / by
sonmez, 7.44 / FokinOl, 7.46, 7.61 (1) / A_Pobedimskiy, 7.46 / Krezofen, 7.47 / KatarzynaBialasiewicz, 7.47 / W. West, 7.48 / De Agnotsi, 7.50, 7.61
(10) / Coldmoon _photo, 7.52 / AlasdairJames, 7.52 / jxfzsy, 7.52 / VvoeVale, 7.53 / W. Andrew, 7.54 / UIG, 7.56 / D. G. Houser, 7.57 / okanmetin,
7.57, 7.61 (2) / Moha El-Jaw, 7.57 / g-miner, 7.58 / studiocasper, 7.60 / Tyscon1, 7.60 / VvoeVale, 7.61 (6) / jxfzsy, 7.61 (7) / D. Sambaus / Science PL,
7.61 (11) / Harry Taylor, 7.61 (12) / Arterra, 7.64 / Scientifica, 7.65 / VvoeVale, 7.66 / Givaga, 7.67 / A. Wojcik, 7.68 / mabus13, 7.70 / Monty Rakusen,
7.71, 7.73 / nattanan726, 7.72 / A. Cooper, 7.74 / ClaraNila, 7.78 / sdominick, 7.77 / pixelfit, 7.79 / Holger Leue, 7.80 / S. Standbridge, 7.8 / Tobias Titz,
7.83 / Ted Mead, 7.84 / A. Copson, 7.85 / J. Guerrero, 7.86 / M. Campanella, 7.87 / O. Campbell, Chapter 8 Opener / P. Campbell, 8.2 / S. Bieliński, 8.2 /
Icon Sportswire, 8.1 / M. Ahmed, 8.4 / G. Fatia, 8.4 / Pool, 8.5 / Wladimir Bulgar / SPL, 8.6 / Kristian Dowling, 8.8 / Fernando Flores, 8.9 / Yarra Riviera,
8.10 / J. W. Banagan, 8.10 / M. Dodge, 8.15 / R. Cianfione, 8.14 / Time Life Pictures, 8.16 / M. Gottschalk, 8.16 / A. Scott, 8.17 / N. Killeen, 8.18 / P.
Rovere, 8.20 / Gerenme, 8.22 / Auscape, 8.23 / Yonghao Wu, 8.24 / Kolostock, 8.25 / A. Breakey, 8.29 / H. Kingsnorth, 8.31 / M. Harrington, 8.23 /
nikkytok, 8.376 / CreativImages, 8.38 / sanjeri, 8.41 / R. Cianfione, 8.43 / Jetlinerimages, 8.45 / VW Pics, 8.48 / The Age, 8.50 / IndiaPictures, 8.52 / S.
Barbour, 8.53 / Godong, 8.54 / Carl Court, 8.55 / G. Diaz Melendrez, 8.56 / VvoeVale, 8.57 / Eco Images, 8.58 / Chase Dekker Wild-Life Images, 8.61 /
Sean Gallup, 8.62 / W. West, 8.63 / gumboot, 8.64 / R. Cianfione, 8.67 / Lisa Maree Williams, 8.69 / Education Images, 8.73 / G. Omble, 8.75 / UIA,
8.76, 9.13 / Loop Iages, 8.77 / J. Lamb, 8.78 / Monty Rakusen, 8.79 / Mimadeo, 8.80 / rpeters86, 8.31 / Artsiom, 8.82 / David Giral Photography, 8.32 /
Mads Perch, Chapter 9 Opener / elenabs, 9.2 / MaboHH, 9.3 / sergeyryzhov, 9.3 / P. Chesley, 9.5 / VW Pics, 9.6 / M. Dodge, 9.7 / Construction
Photography / Avalon, 9.9 / K. Nogi, 9.10 / Ute Grabwosky, 9.11, 9.17 / Anadolu Agency, 9.12 / Hulton, 9.14 / Brooks Kraft, 9.15 / helovi, 9.16 / D.
Kindersley, 9.19 / G. Mieth, 9.21 / wander luster, 9.23 / L. Morgan, 9.22 / K. Anna, 9.24 / SOPA Images, 9.27 / Photo 12, 9.28 / Sam Yeh, 9.30 / media
photos, 9.32 / Travelpix Ltd, 9.34 / MyLoupe, 9.37 / B. Machet, 9.44 / MirageC, 9.48 / R. B. Rovillos, 9.49 / J. Frazier, 9.51 / Charles Gupton, 9.52 /
Nigel Killeen, 9.60 / US Dept. of Defence, Science PL, 9.61 / Auscape 9.62 / H. Habbick Visions, Science PL, 9.63 / R. Alexander, 9.66 / S. J. Cohen, 9.67 /
S. Dudelson, 9.67 / Rhythm Magazine, 9.69 / Jupiterimages, 9.70 / MediaProduction, 9.71 / Jennifer_Sharp, 9.73 / A. Khatri’s Photography, 9.74 / Jena
Ardell, 9.77 / MCT, 9.79 / J. Bavosi / Science PL, 9.80 / mikroman6, 9.81 / J. Holmes – King, Science PL, 9.81 / M. Rakusen, 9.82 / F. Cirou, 9.83 /
O. Wirtinger / Corbis / VCG, 9.84 / Kiroyuki Ito, 9.87; © Alamy, PA images, 2.25 / Annelies Leeuw, 3.69 / Nature PL, 4.7 / Minden Pictures, 4.12 /
National Geographic Image Collection, 4.13; © Jarek Tuszyński / CC 3.0 Unported license, 4.27; Courtesy: TNAU, 4.35; Dr. Fred Hossler, Visuals
Unlimited / Science PL, 3.28; © David Zarouk, Ben-Gurion University, 3.65; © Ruth Gosling, 7.13; © Minerals Council of Australia, 7.76; Mini Brains:
EMBO Journal. 2016 .Gabriel E, Wason A, Ramani A, Gooi LM, Keller P, Pozniakovsky A, Poser I, Noack F, Telugu NS, Calegari F, Šarić T,
Hescheler J, Hyman AA, Gottardo M, Callaini G, Alkuraya FS, Gopalakrishnan J. EMBO J. 2016. Reproduced with permission from EMBO & Uni
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2

Chapter 1 Being scientific

Chapter introduction
By now, you know a bit about science as a discipline and the many different fields that scientists work
within. In this chapter, you will be introduced to the scientific method, which is a type of framework for
how science is practised. You will focus on carrying out research and analysing sources of data, learn
how to record and process your own experimental data, and discover how to communicate your scientific
findings to the world.

Curriculum
Identify questions, problems and claims that can be investigated scientifically and 1.1
make predictions based on scientific knowledge (VCSIS107)
Construct and use a range of representations including graphs, keys and models to 1.2
record and summarise data from students’ own investigations and secondary sources,
and to represent and analyse patterns and relationships (VCSIS110)
Use scientific knowledge and findings from investigations to identify relationships, 1.2
evaluate claims and draw conclusions (VCSIS111)
Reflect on the method used to investigate a question or solve a problem, including 1.1
evaluating the quality of the data collected, and identify improvements to the method
(VCSIS112)
Communicate ideas, findings and solutions to problems including identifying 1.3
impacts and limitations of conclusions and using appropriate scientific language and
representations (VCSIS113)

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 3

Glossary terms
bar graph hypothesis primary source
bias independent variable qualitative data
continuous data interpolation quantitative data
controlled variable line graph secondary source
dependent variable nominal data trend
discrete data ordinal data
extrapolation outlier

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4 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

1.1 
The scientific method:
questioning, predicting
and conducting

The scientific method: review

Last year you looked at what science is, lab Remember that the scientific method is a
WORKSHEET
safety, how scientists gather data and how to framework for how to plan, conduct and
use certain pieces of equipment. You were also report on scientific research. The steps in
briefly introduced to the scientific method. the scientific method are shown here.

The scientific method

STEP 1: OBSERVE AND ASK QUESTIONS

Define a good research question that can be tested.

STEP 2: DO BACKGROUND RESEARCH

Conduct some background research on the question. You will also assess the quality and reliability of
your sources of information.

STEP 3: CONSTRUCT A HYPOTHESIS

Construct a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction about the outcome of the experiment. It is an
educated guess that is formulated from your research.

STEP 4: TEST BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

Test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment. You will need to write a method that is fair and
reproducible. It should include both the materials/apparatus used and the procedure in steps.

STEP 5: RECORD AND PROCESS THE DATA

During the experiment, you will collect important data. It might be numerical data or categorical data.
You will display this data in a meaningful way, using graphs, tables or diagrams.

STEP 6: ANALYSE THE DATA

Examine the tables and graphs of data. Analysing data can reveal relationships, trends and patterns.

STEP 7: EVALUATE THE DATA AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS

You will draw valid conclusions that relate to the aim and the hypothesis of your experiment. You
should refer to the data as evidence to support your conclusions.

STEP 8: COMMUNICATE YOUR FINDINGS

Scientists share their findings with the broader scientific community by writing a scientific report
or presenting a scientific poster. Sometimes the conclusions raise more questions, and can lead to
further research.

Figure 1.1 The scientific method

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Section 1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and conducting 5

Asking questions can be about anything, such as: ‘Why do

people prefer red lollies over green lollies?’
Asking questions is the first step in the
or ‘Does listening to music help students
scientific process, as there needs to be a
focus in class?’. Both these questions can
question asked before we can try to find
lead to a possible experiment.
an answer. You probably just google most
questions you have, but the answers you
Brainstorming can be a great way to draw
find online are often the result of a lot of
out all possible questions that might be
scientific research. A question to research
tested.

Why does
What are What is ‘off’ food
bacteria? mould? make you
sick?

How are
Are all Why does
use-by
bacteria food go
dates
the same? ‘off’?
calculated?

How can we
Why can my What makes
make food
dog eat ‘off’ food go ‘off’
stay fresh
meat? faster?
longer?

Figure 1.2 Brainstorming can help you develop questions.

Think of a question you would love to know the answer to. The question Explore! 1.1
could be anything at all.
Use the following question starters to help you:

What would What are the

change if … ? reasons … ?

What if … ? What is the

purpose of … ?

How does this Why does this

work...? happen...?

Figure 1.3 Begin by

thinking of a question.

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6 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Background research 2 Develop questions to answer

Questions you could investigate from the
Now that you have a question to answer, do
inquiry question shown in Try this 1.1
some research to find out what people already
below are:
know about the question. For example, say
1 What is palm oil?
you are investigating the red lolly question.
2 What is palm oil used for?
In nature, red generally indicates that a fruit
3 Who farms palm oil?
is ripe, and green indicates that it is not
4 Where is Indonesia?
ripe. It is more beneficial for animals to eat
5 Why is palm oil farmed in Indonesia?
ripe fruit, and therefore they are attracted to
6 What is the age range of the ‘young
red fruit rather than green fruit. This is one
people’ we are focusing on?
possible explanation for why we are attracted
7 How can farming in another country
to red foods.
affect Australia?
8 What are the effects of palm oil farming?
When you are given a task to research, it
9 How do these effects relate to me?
can seem overwhelming. However, if you
follow the steps below, it can make the
3 Search for sources
whole process much easier.
Often when we have a question, other
people have asked the same question and
1 Identify key words
have conducted some form of research to
find answers.

2 Develop questions to answer A primary source of information is one

that comes from your own
findings and experiments. primary source
a source of information
A secondary source is when that comes from your own
findings or experiments
3 Search for sources of information you search for other people’s secondary source
research and use their a source of information that
comes from someone else’s
1 Identify key words findings. research or findings

A simple technique you can use to break

down a research question is reading with There are many types of resources that you
a pen. See Try this 1.1 for ways to do this. can use to gather secondary data.

Reading with a pen Try this 1.1

While reading about your research question, keep a pen handy.
Underline key words or phrases.
Circle words or phrases you don’t understand.
? Put this next to something that raises a question.
! Put this next to something that surprises you.
Write important thoughts in the margin or around the question.

For example:
How does palm oil farming in Indonesia affect young people? living in Australia?

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Section 1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and conducting 7

sometimes it can be hard to

Library Internet find exactly what you are
News looking for. It can also be
Documentaries
programs hard to decide whether
Research
Newspapers the information you are
journals
reading is actually correct
and free of bias. bias
when a source of information
Information is biased is influenced by personal
if the writer has let their opinion or judgement
Parents Books
B ooks
personal opinion or their own
agenda influence their judgement. For
Teachers example, if you search the website of a
coffee company for information about the
effects of caffeine, you are more likely to
get information that is biased in favour
of drinking coffee – there might be less
information about the negative effects
of caffeine and more about the positive
effects.
Answers
Searching
Figure 1.4 Resources for gathering secondary data
When searching for information, there are
techniques you can use to help refine your
Using the internet search. For example, if you were researching
The internet is an amazing tool filled the question, ‘What are the effects of palm
with lots of information. The problem oil farming?’, you might use the techniques
is, there is so much information that listed in Table 1.1.

Search technique How? Example

Group words together Use quotation marks to group ‘palm oil farming’
search words together
Search for titles or headings Type: intitle: ‘search word’ intitle: ‘farming palm oil’
Search for a file type (see Type: filetype: abbreviation for filetype: pdf ‘palm oil’
Table 1.2 on the following page) file type ‘search word’
Try different spellings Sometimes words are spelled colour (on Australian and UK
differently on US websites, so websites) is spelled color on
try spelling search words the US websites
American way
Try a variety of sources Google is not designed to Google Scholar
bring the most scientific pages Library search engines
to the front of your search, so Worldbook
try other search engines and Databases your school
databases subscribes to
Table 1.1 Search techniques

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8 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Use File type should use that information. The CRAAP

Presentations ppt, pages, key, pez test takes into account the currency,
Images jpeg, psd, png, tiff relevance, authority, accuracy and purpose
Documents pdf, doc, pub of the information.
Table 1.2 Common file types and their uses
When you use the CRAAP test, you give
each of these factors a score out of 10
Secondary sources (where 1 = unreliable and 10 = excellent).
When you find some information, you can Table 1.3 explains how to apply the
use the CRAAP test to check whether you CRAAP test.

Description Score
C Currency: How old the information is /10
• When was the information published or posted?
• When was the last time the information was updated?
• Is any of the information out of date or does it use old terms?
• Do the links work?
R Relevance: How well the information matches what you are researching /10
• Does the information answer your question or link to the topic?
• Who is the information aimed at?
• Is the information worded at an appropriate level for you to understand?
• Have you looked at other sources and compared them with this one?
A Authority: The writer of the information /10
• Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
• Have the authors stated why they are experts? (Dr/Professor/experience)
• What are the author’s qualifications in the topic?
• Is contact information provided, such as a publisher or email address?
• Does the URL reveal anything about the author or the source?
• Is the information linked to a biased organisation?
A Accuracy: How correct or truthful the content is /10
• Where does the information come from?
• Is the information supported by evidence?
• Has the information been reviewed or refereed by an expert?
• Can you verify any of the information by checking another source?
• Is the writing free of emotion?
• Are there spelling, grammar or other errors in the writing?
P Purpose: The reason the information exists /10
• What is the purpose of the information?
• Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
• Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
• Is the information biased?
• Does the writer’s point of view appear objective and neutral?
Total /50 /50
If the source scores:
• below 30, you should not use it
• 30–34, it is OK
• 35–39, it is average
• 40–44, it is good
• 45–50, it is great

Table 1.3 The CRAAP test

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Section 1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and conducting 9

Using the CRAAP test Try this 1.2

The aim of this activity is to research an inquiry question and use the CRAAP test to assess the
usefulness of the resources you find. Use library resources to complete this activity. You are to handwrite your
answers and submit this document for marking. You will be given two lessons in the library to complete this task.
Do not use Google to answer the questions.
1 Define the term ‘adaptation’.
2 Outline one reason why it is important for animals to have adaptations.
3 Copy and complete the table below.

Australian animal Animal 1 Animal 2

characteristics
Common name
Scientific name
Where found in Australia
Description of habitat
Description of adaptation
Type of adaption (behavioural,
physiological, structural)
Outline of how the adaptation
allows the animal to survive in its
habitat

4 Compile a sources list.

a List the search terms you used for searches (at least three terms).
b Name and score three of your sources.
c Identify the best source of information you have accessed.
d Compare the best source to the worst source.

Writing an aim Variables

Now that you have both a question and Next you will need to choose one factor you
some research information, you can are going to change, and one factor you are
formulate an aim for your experiment. An going to measure. These are known as your
aim is a mission statement that tells the experimental variables. The factor
reader of the scientific report what your you change is the independent dependent variable
the variable in an experiment
experiment will be focusing on. This should variable and the one you measure is that you measure
be a short statement, no more than two the dependent variable. Everything independent variable
the variable in an experiment
sentences long. For example, in the lolly else must stay the same, in order that you manipulate, change
or test
experiment, the aim could be written like to ensure that your experiment
controlled variable
this: ‘The aim of this experiment is to find tests what it sets out to test. All a variable in an experiment
that must be kept constant,
out whether people are attracted more to the variables you keep the same are so it does not affect the
red foods than to other colours’. known as controlled variables. dependent variable

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10 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

If you fail to control these variables, they hypothesis is a short statement about the
might affect the dependent variable, which expected effect of the independent variable
would make it not a fair test and might cause on the dependent variable, and it should
you to draw false conclusions. relate back to the aim of the experiment.
You do not need to give a reason for your
In the lolly experiment, the variables are as prediction. Two good ways to set out
follows: a hypothesis are shown in Figures 1.5
Independent variable: colour of lolly and 1.6.
Dependent variable: number of lollies
eaten Points to remember when writing a
Controlled variables: time taken to eat hypothesis:
lollies, type of lolly, starting number of
all lollies. • A hypothesis is a prediction about the
outcome of the experiment.
Writing a hypothesis • It must be written as a statement that
can be tested.
hypothesis You can use the variables
a prediction, or educated guess, • Predict how the independent variable
about the effect that the independent in an experiment to make a
variable will have on the dependent will affect the dependant variable.
variable; a prediction of the outcome prediction – this prediction
• Do not use ‘I think …’.
of an experiment
is called the hypothesis. The

It is hypothesised that as ___________ increases/decreases, the ___________ will increase/decrease.

Choose Choose

Write Write
independent dependent
variable here variable here

For example:
It is hypothesised that as temperature in the backyard (°C) increases, the time taken for
clothes to dry (seconds) will decrease.

Figure 1.5 Setting out a hypothesis: example 1

It is hypothesised that ___________ will ___________ the ___________ .

Insert Insert predicted Insert

independent effect here dependent
variable here (increase or variable here
decrease)

For example:
It is hypothesised that letting people choose between different-coloured lollies
will increase the number of red lollies eaten.

Figure 1.6 Setting out a hypothesis: example 2

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Section 1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and conducting 11

1 Arrange these steps in the order in which they should be done. Quick check 1.1
• Conduct experiment
• Record and process the results (data)
• Ask a question
• Do background research
• Construct a hypothesis
• Analyse the data
• Communicate your findings
• Evaluate the data and draw conclusions
2 Describe the role of an experimental aim.
3 Define these terms:
a Independent variable b Dependent variable c Controlled variables
4 What must a hypothesis contain?

Practical 1.1: Self design

Bouncing ball activity

Background information
In this experiment you will be measuring the bounce height (in centimetres) of different balls. You may use all
the balls in the Materials list, or just a couple. The bounce height is the dependent variable. You will need to
identify the other experimental variables.

Aim
To design an experiment using bouncy balls

Materials
• 1 metre ruler
• bouncy ball
• ping pong ball
• tennis ball

Method
1 Decide what you would like to test, and enter this in the table below as the independent variable. Also
brainstorm three other variables you will need to keep constant, and enter these as your controlled variables.

Independent variable
Dependent variable Ball bounce height (cm)
Controlled variables

2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. Predict how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable.
3 Write detailed step-by-step instructions that explain how to conduct the experiment you have chosen.
Remember to include repeat trials for your independent variable, to make the data you collect more reliable.

Results
Record your results in a table. Use the table below as a guide.

Independent variable Bounce height (cm)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

continued…

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12 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued
Evaluation
1 Explain why you chose the independent variable you focused on.
2 Suggest one more variable you could have controlled.
3 Explain why adding more trials and averaging the results would increase the reliability of the results you
collected.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the effect that your independent variable had on the height of the ball bounce. Begin
your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that …’ . Include: ‘Possible sources of error were …’. Also mention whether
or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that …’.

Writing a method method for making a cake: the baker needs

to know exactly how much flour, sugar and
A method is a detailed description of the
butter to add, in which order to add them,
process involved in an experiment. It is a set
how long to cook the cake for and at what
of step-by-step instructions that will enable
temperature, otherwise the cake could be
anybody to repeat the experiment exactly as
a disaster.
you conducted it.
Points to remember when writing a method:
It is important to be as precise as possible,
1 Write the steps in order.
as this will allow you to identify any flaws in
2 Include safety instruction/s.
your process when you look at your results.
3 Start each step with a verb.
4 Include specific names of equipment
When you are writing a scientific method,
used and quantities measured.
think about how you would write the
5 Outline what results will be measured
and how this will be done.
6 Identify how the results will be
presented.
7 Include the number of repeats that will
be carried out. (Will averages be taken?)
8 Write in third person (no mention of
you/I/we).
When you are writing your method, it is
important to decide how many trials you will
undertake. A reliable and fair experiment
should have at least three trials, so that
these can be averaged to minimise the
Figure 1.7 Always follow the method exactly! uncertainties of measurements in the results.

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Section 1.1 The scientific method: questioning, predicting and conducting 13

You should also consider how many in direct sunlight and in a flame uses four
different levels or situations of the different levels of ‘temperature’, which is
independent variable you want to test. For the independent variable. This experiment
example, timing how long a substance takes is therefore said to have four experimental
to melt in the fridge, at room temperature, conditions.

Practical 1.2

Writing a method to test the strength of shapes

Background
In this experiment, you will be measuring the strength under compression of different shapes of paper. You may
choose any shapes you wish, but they all have to be the same height and made of the same materials (one sheet
of A3 paper).

Aim
To measure the strength under compression of different shapes of paper

Materials
• 3 A3 sheets of paper
• 1 piece of cardboard
• several 50 g masses
• sticky tape
• scissors

Method
1 Define your variables for this experiment and list them in a table. Use the table below as a guide.

Independent variable List the shapes you are testing here

Dependent variable Strength of the shape (how much weight it can support, in grams)
Controlled variables Materials used (1 sheet of A3 paper per shape)
Height of the shape
Method of compression

2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. Predict how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable.
3 Write detailed step-by-step instructions that explain how to conduct the experiment you have chosen.
Remember to include repeat trials for your independent variable, to make the data you collect more reliable.
Here are some possible design ideas.

Figure 1.8 Some possible shapes to use (shown at left) and one way to test their strength
(shown at right)
continued…

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14 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued
Results
Record your results in a table, using the table below as a guide.

Independent variable Dependent variable

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Evaluation
1 What was the strongest shape you tested?
2 Did anyone in the class have a stronger shape?
3 Suggest one more variable you controlled or should have controlled.
4 Explain why adding more trials and averaging the results would increase the reliability of the results
you collected.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the strength of different shapes. Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that …’ . Include: ‘Possible sources of experimental faults were …’. Also
mention whether or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that …’.

Section 1.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the three types of experimental variables.
2 State the purpose of the aim.
3 List three starters you could use to develop a question.

Understanding
4 Explain why variables have to be controlled.
5 Explain the domains a CRAAP test assesses, by copying and completing the table.

Domain What is being assessed?

Currency
Is the information fact or opinion? Are the author’s intentions clear?
Is the information free from bias?
Authority Who is the author and are they appropriately qualified?
Accuracy

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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 15

…continued
Applying
6 Explain why a method that includes quantitative measurements should be carried out as accurately as possible.
7 A student wants to see if writing all homework in his diary every day will increase his homework scores. For
one term, he records all homework in his diary daily. In the next term, he does not record any homework. He
compares his homework scores for each term.
Identify the:
a independent variable in this experiment
b dependent variable in this experiment.

Analysing
8 Contrast a primary source of data with a secondary source of data.

Evaluating
9 Erika says her scientific research satisfies the scientific method, because she performed all the steps of the
method. She carried out the following steps:
1 She asked a question.
2 She conducted an experiment.
3 She recorded her data.
4 She analysed her data and created some graphs.
5 She did some background research to explain her data.
6 She came up with a hypothesis.
7 She evaluated the data and found that it supported her hypothesis (she drew a conclusion).
8 She published a report to communicate her findings.
Assess Erika’s claim. Do you agree that she has followed the scientific method? Explain your answer.

1.2 The scientific method:

recording, processing
and analysing results

As you have already learned, the early steps • record the data during and after the
of the scientific method involve asking experiment
a question, doing background research, • process the data by displaying it in tables WORKSHEET
constructing a hypothesis, and designing and graphs
and conducting the experiment to test the • analyse the data by looking for patterns.
hypothesis.
Displaying data in tables
Hopefully, the experiment will yield some
It is a good idea to construct a table before
interesting data. You will need to:
the experiment begins, so you can record
• collect the data during the experiment
the data as you go.

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16 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

All tables have: Once you have recorded your data in a

• a title that describes what is in the table table, it is good practice to write a short
(not ‘Results table’). sentence summarising what the table
• lines ruled in pencil (if on paper) shows, without drawing any inferences
• column headings showing the unit that from your data.
is measured.
Data for all trials should be included in For example, from the table in Figure 1.10,
the table, as well as averages, differences or you could say:
changes (if appropriate to the experiment).
‘The results show that as time (s) increases,
Example of how to set up a table the volume of liquid (mL) also increases.’
An example of a table of data is shown in
Figure 1.9. The title of this table is: Height Evaluating your data
of bubbles produced over time when vinegar Before you pack away the equipment, check
is mixed with bicarb’. your data to make sure you do not have any
gaps or outliers. An outlier
The values in a table should all be written outlier
is a measurement that is an extreme data value that is
to the same number of decimal places very different from the other
very different from the data data, and could be the result
(or significant figures, if appropriate). In of faulty procedure
gathered in your other trials.
Figure 1.10, the table on the left is correct,
If you see an outlier, perform that trial
but the table on the right is wrong, as the
again, as the outlier could be the result of
third value, 139, is not given to the same
faulty procedure.
number of decimal places as the other data.

The dependent variable is placed in the top

row, and results for each trial are shown.

The independent Independent Dependent variable: If multiple trials

variable is placed variable: Height of bubbles (mm)
are recorded, then
Amount of
in the left-hand Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average you should also
bicarb (g)
column. include a column
1.0 89 91 90 90 for the average
2.0 105 104 106 105 value.
3.0 139 141 140 140
4.0 162 165 159 162

Figure 1.9 How to set up a table of data

Time (s)
✓ Volume of Time (s)
✗ Volume of
liquid (mL) liquid (mL)
1.0 89.1 1.0 89.1
2.0 105.2 2.0 105.2
3.0 139.0 3.0 139
4.0 162.5 4.0 162.5

Figure 1.10 Data values in a column should all have the same number of decimal places.

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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 17

1 Identify the mistake in each of the following tables. Quick check 1.2
Table 1 Table 2
Time seconds Temperature Distance Time
0 40°C (km) (s)
60 50°C 1 66.6
120 60°C 2 140.00
180 70°C 3 293.45
4 603.32

2 Construct a table to show the following data.

Max is making toffee. He is using a thermometer to measure the temperature of the sugar. He measures the
temperature after 5 minutes and finds that the temperature of the sugar is 100°C. At 10 minutes it is 108°C, at
15 minutes it is 115°C and at 20 minutes it has reached 122°C.
3 Anna places a bottle of water in a freezer set at different temperatures, and measures how long it takes the
water to freeze at each temperature. She records her results in the table below.
Identify the mistake in the table.

Time to freeze (hr) Freezer temperature (°C)

6 −2
4 −4
3 −6
2 −8

Practical 1.3

Testing paper planes

Background information
In this practical, you will record data from multiple trials in an appropriate results table.

Aim
To test the distance a paper aeroplane can travel when thrown from different heights

Materials
• A4 paper
• measuring tape

Method
1 Define your variables for this experiment using the table below.

Independent variable
Dependent variable
Controlled variables

2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. Predict how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable.
3 Follow the steps shown in Figure 1.11 to produce a paper aeroplane using A4 paper.
continued…

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18 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued

Fold along the dotted lines.

1 2 3

4 5 Fin

Figure 1.11 How to make the paper aeroplane

4 Choose four different heights to throw the paper aeroplane from.

5 Throw the aeroplane from the first height and measure the distance travelled until it hits the ground.
6 Copy and complete the table in the Results section, and use this to record your results.
7 Repeat throwing from this height for two more trials, recording your result each time.
8 Repeat steps 5–7 for each of the four different heights.
9 Average and record the results.

Results
Record your results in the table, and average the data from the three trials for each height.

Independent variable: Dependent variable:

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Evaluation
1 Identify other variables that you should have controlled during the experiment.
2 Identify one variable that you were not able to control, that could have affected your results (one potential
source of error).
3 Suggest two other independent variables that you could change, other than height thrown from.
4 Explain the reason for conducting multiple trials and averaging your results.
continued…

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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 19

…continued
Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the distance a paper plane will fly when flown from different heights. Begin your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that …’ . Include: ‘Possible sources of measurement uncertainties or faults
were …’. Also mention whether or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that …’.

Displaying your data in graphs quantitative data

data values that are numerical in nature
Now that you have raw data from your continuous data
quantitative (numerical) data points that have a value
experiment, it is important to display the within a range; this type of data is usually measured
data in a way that shows any possible discrete data
quantitative (numerical) data points that have whole
patterns or trends that your experiment has numbers; this type of data is usually counted
uncovered. qualitative data
data values that are worded/descriptive/categorical in
nature
The type of graph that is appropriate ordinal data
qualitative (categorical) data where the categories have an
depends on the type of data you have order, e.g. small, medium, large
collected. Quantitative data (numbers) is nominal data
qualitative (categorical) data where the categories have no
classified as either continuous or discrete. order, e.g. male, female
Qualitative data (descriptions or worded
categories) is classified as either ordinal or Quantitative data: continuous vs
nominal. discrete
Quantitative data relates to numbers.
Table 1.4 lists the differences between
continuous and discrete quantitative data.

Continuous data Discrete data

Features Usually measured Usually counted
Takes any value within a range, e.g. Usually takes whole-number values
might have decimal places
Examples Human height Number of plants
If you measured the height (in metres) If you counted the number of plant
of every person in the classroom, the seedlings that grew in an experiment, the
data might look like: data might look like:
1.75, 1.77, 1.8, 1.835, 1.99 … 1, 0, 5, 8, 17 …
The data can be placed in a definitive It is impossible to have 1.39 plants. You
order. can only have whole numbers. The data
Other examples: can be placed in a definitive order.
time, weight, temperature (measured Other examples:
with a thermometer or temperature number of siblings, number of crystals
probe) formed after a chemical reaction

Table 1.4 The differences between continuous and discrete quantitative data

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20 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Line graphs how the data points continue on from one

A scatter plot is a way of displaying how another.
one quantitative variable changes in
response to another quantitative variable, The lines at the side and bottom of a graph
line graph by plotting points. When the points are called the axes. When you transfer data
a type of graph used to
display how a continuous are connected, it is called a line from a table, place the independent variable
quantitative variable
changes over time or in graph. Line graphs are generally used on the x-axis (horizontal axis). The dependent
reference to another variable
with continuous data, as they show variable goes on the y-axis (vertical axis).

Time Speed Car speed

10
(s) (m/s)
0 0.0 8

Speed (m/s)
2 1.4
6
4 2.6
6 4.4 4
8 5.6
2
10 6.6
12 8.2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
14 9.6
Time (s)
Figure 1.12 Note that in this graph, very small crosses have been used to mark the
data points.

Practical 1.4

Pendulum practical
Background information
In this practical, you will gather continuous data and convert it into a line graph.

Aim
To test the effect of string length on the time it takes a pendulum to complete one swing

Materials
• retort stand • protractor
• bosshead and clamp • stopwatch
• 120 cm of string • Blu Tack
• weight for pendulum • graph paper or graphing application such as Excel

Method
1 Define your variables for this experiment and record them using the table below.

Independent variable
Dependent variable
Controlled variables

2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. Predict how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable.
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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 21

…continued
3 Attach the weight to the bottom of the piece of string.
4 Tie the string to the bosshead and clamp attached to the retort stand, and measure 20 cm from the join of the
bosshead to the base of the weight, as shown in Figure 1.13.
5 Using the protractor, hold the string tight at 45 degrees and release the pendulum.
6 Start the stopwatch as soon as you release the pendulum and count three full swings (across and back, as
shown in Figure 1.13.
7 When the pendulum returns for the third time, stop the stopwatch and divide the time by 3.
8 Record the time for one swing in the results table.

Blu Tack

Protractor
Bosshead

String
Retort stand

Starting
position

Table

Half a
Full swing swing
Pendulum

Figure 1.13 Experimental set-up. Left: setting up the pendulum. Right: timing the swing of the pendulum

Results
Copy and complete the table below, to record your results.

Length of Time taken for one whole swing (s)

string (cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
20
40
60
80
100

Use the average from each of your trials to produce a line graph. Remember the following points:
• Plot the independent variable on the x-axis.
• Plot the dependent variable on the y-axis.
• Label each axis with the variable name and the unit of measurement.
• Write a title for the graph.
• Use an even scale (equal spaces between the numbers on the axes).
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22 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued
Evaluation
1 Describe the shape of the line of best fit produced in your graph.
2 Explain whether your results supported or disproved your hypothesis.
3 Identify one way in which this experiment could have been improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the length of a pendulum and the time taken for a swing. Begin your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of measurement
uncertainty and faults with your method. Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that …’ . Include:
‘Possible sources of error were …’. Also mention whether or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that …’.

Qualitative data: ordinal vs nominal (for example, heart rate) changes in

Qualitative data involves categories, scales response to a qualitative independent
or descriptions. This type of data is in the variable (for example, breed of animal).
form of words (rather than numbers). The Categories are listed along the x-axis and
differences between ordinal and nominal numbers along the y-axis.
data are listed in Table 1.5.
Bar graphs have spaces between the
Bar graphs bars – the bars are not positioned next to
bar graph A bar graph (or column graph) each other.
a type of graph used to display
the frequency of a qualitative is a way of displaying how a
variable (category)
quantitative dependent variable An example is shown in Figure 1.14.

Ordinal data Nominal data

Features Categories have a natural order. Categories do not have a natural order.
Examples A chemical reaction is performed and A survey is completed for background
the amount of product produced is research and participants are asked
described as ‘low’, ‘medium’ or ‘high’. to choose their favourite colour from a
Five trials are completed and the data list. The data might look like: blue, pink,
looks like: low, high, medium, low, low. pink, yellow, green, blue.
These categories make sense if they The categories could be displayed in
are displayed in a certain order. any order.
Other examples: Other examples:
month of the year, size of the test gender (male or female), blood type
tube (small, medium, large), the (A, B, O, AB), eye colour (blue, brown,
participant’s response on a scale green)
(strongly agree, agree, neutral,
disagree, strongly disagree)
Table 1.5 The differences between ordinal and nominal qualitative data

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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 23

Animal Heart rate Heart rates of different mammals

800
(beats/min)

Heart rate (beats/min)

Camel 35
600

Horse 41
400
Human 70

Rabbit 210 200

Mouse 670
0
Rat 750 Camel Horse Human Rabbit Mouse Rat
Animal
Figure 1.14 A bar graph and its data table

Guidelines for drawing graphs of values does not go to zero (for example,
• Always use a sharp, dark pencil (if drawing 85–115), then don’t start the axes at zero.
on paper). In this example, you could start the axis
• Usually the independent variable goes on at 80 and continue the numbers to 120.
the x-axis and the dependent variable on If the quantities on both axes go to zero,
the y-axis. Sometimes you may be asked then the origin (where the axes meet)
to plot variables on specific axes in a way should be at (0,0).
that contradicts this rule. • The scale needs to increase evenly,
• Axes should be labelled with the preferably with each grid square used to
quantity being measured and the units. represent multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10. Do
The units should be in brackets after the not have breaks in the scale – for example,
quantity name – for example, time (s) or you can’t show 0 to 20 in intervals of 5
volume (L). and then skip straight to 60.
• Use the full width of the graph paper (if • Data points can be marked with an
drawing on paper) and choose a scale that ‘x’, not a dot, because dots (unless
spreads the data points out over most of surrounded by a small circle) often
the grid. If you are measuring quantities disappear under a line of best fit. If you
where 0 does not mean ‘no quantity’ (for are plotting multiple sets of data on
example, temperature), then you do not the same graph, use different-coloured
have to start the axes at zero. If the range points for each data set.

Practical 1.5

Insulating water
Background information
In this practical, you will gather data in order to produce a bar graph. You will test the effect of foil, paper and
cotton wool as insulating materials, and measure how this affects the cooling rate of water.

Aim
To test the effect of different materials on the cooling rate of water
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24 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued
Materials
• 4 x 250 mL beakers
• kettle
• 4 thermometers
• foil
• cotton wool
• paper
• stopwatch
• elastic band

Method
1 Define your variables for this experiment and record them using the table below. Also include the type of data
that each variable will yield.

Variable yields what

type of data?
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Controlled variables N/A

2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. Predict how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable.
3 Cover the sides of three beakers with either cotton wool, paper or foil, and use elastic bands to secure the
covers in place. Leave one beaker without covering.
4 Place one thermometer in each of the beakers.
5 Boil the kettle and pour 100 mL of boiling water into each of the beakers. Start the stopwatch immediately.
6 Time for 5 minutes using the stopwatch, and then measure and record the temperature of the water in
each beaker.
7 Gather data from two more trials, from other groups in your class. Add these to the results table and calculate
the average temperature after 5 minutes for each insulating material.

Results
Copy and complete the following table to record your results.

Cover material Temperature after 5 minutes (°C)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
Foil
Paper
Cotton wool
No cover

Create a bar graph for the average data in your results table. Put the independent variable (insulating material)
on the x-axis and the dependent variable (temperature after 5 minutes) on the y-axis.

Evaluation
1 Explain why your results supported or disproved your hypothesis.
2 Suggest a reason for using a beaker with no cover material.
3 Suggest a reason for putting your data into a bar graph, rather than just leaving it in a table.
4 Identify potential sources of measurement uncertainties or experimental faults in this experiment.
5 Suggest one way you could improve the experimental design if you were to repeat this experiment in the future.
continued…

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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 25

…continued
Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the insulating properties of the materials you tested. Begin your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ . Include: ‘Possible sources of error were … ’. Also mention whether
or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Analysing data Describing patterns trend

a pattern in a graph
We refer to patterns in graphs as trends. that shows the general
Analysing data involves examining the direction/shape of the
The graphs below show some common
tables and graphs and looking for patterns relationship between
trends you might observe and describe. the dependent and
and relationships. independent variables

Age vs clothing size Amount of water vs time

12
5
10 Amount of water (L)
4
8
Clothing size

3
6
2
4

2 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 Time (h)
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 1.16 This graph shows a steady
Age of child (years)
decrease. You would describe this by
Figure 1.15 This graph shows a steady increase. You would saying, ‘As time (in hours) increases,
describe this by saying, ‘As the age of the child (in years) the amount of water in the tank (in
increases, the size of clothing also tends to increase’. litres) tends to decrease’.

Total number of customers over months Figure 1.17 This graph

3000 shows a rapid increase
that reaches a plateau
(flat line) and then
Number of customers

remains constant. You

2000 would describe this by
saying, ‘Initially during
the first 60 months or
Plateau so, as the number of
1000 months increases, the
number of customers
increases rapidly from
0 to 2000. Then, for the
next 100 months, the
0
0 50 100 150 200 number of customers
remains fairly constant
Number of months
at around 2000’.

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26 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Number of bacteria vs time Figure 1.18 This graph shows an exponential

100 increase. For the first 10 hours, the number
of bacteria increases slowly from 10 000 to

Number of bacteria (thousands)

90
30 000. After 10 hours, the number of bacteria
80 increases more rapidly.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (hours)

Temperature vs time
38.5

38
Temperature (°C)

37.5

37

36.5

36
day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7
Figure 1.19 This graph doesn’t show a clear pattern. There are seemingly random fluctuations over time.

Drawing a line of best fit When drawing a line of best fit, make sure
Once you have plotted your data, you that there are as many points on one side of
may see a pattern (trend) in the results, the line as on the other. You do not need
such as a straight line or a curve. To to join each data point with the line. The
highlight this pattern we can use a curve line of best fit is like an ‘average’ that runs
or line of best fit. Connecting every data smoothly through the middle of the data
point suggests that there are absolutely points and makes the trend obvious.
no errors in the data, whereas a line of
best fit approximates the relationship A line of best fit:
between the two variables. You can also • should be continuous and flow in a
use the line of best fit to predict missing general direction
measurements. If you make predictions • can be straight, curved or any other
inside the data set you originally shape that fits the data points. Do not
interpolation collected, this prediction is called try to draw a straight line of best fit over
using existing data (such as
a line of best fit) within the interpolation can be reliable in data that is clearly curved
original data set to make a
reliable prediction some circumstances, but not always. • should not be forced through a (0,0)
extrapolation Care should be taken. If you predict origin if one is used on the graph
using existing data (such as
a line of best fit) outside the outside the original data set, this • should not be drawn beyond the range
original data set to make a
prediction is called extrapolation of the data points. It can, however, be
prediction
and is less reliable. linked back to the axes with a dotted or
dashed line, as shown in Figure 1.20.
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 Section 1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: RECORDING, PROCESSING AND ANALYSING 27

Reaction start time vs concentration of acid Figure 1.20 A scatter plot with a line of best
fit, drawn in red. Note how the line runs
Predicting in here = interpolation through the ‘middle’ of the data, like an
average. The dotted regions are where the
line has been continued past the original
Time for reaction to start (s)

60 data set. If you use the line in these regions

Line of best fit (for example, to predict the reaction time for
0.1 M acid), then it is extrapolation and is less
Actual data points
reliable.
from experiment

30
Predicting in
dotted regions
= extrapolation

0
0 1 2 3
Concentration of acid (M)

Practical 1.6

Balloon popping
Be careful
Background information
Safety glasses are a
In this practical, you will gather data that can be turned into a scatter graph.
must for this practical.
Aim
To test the effect of number of breaths on the circumference of a balloon

Materials
• balloon • meter ruler
• string • safety glasses
• permanent marker

Method
1 Lie the balloon flat on the workbench. Using the string, measure the circumference at the widest part of the
balloon.
2 Using a permanent marker, draw a line on the balloon to indicate where you took the first measurement.
3 Use one breath to inflate the balloon. Without tying the balloon, measure the circumference along the line you
have already drawn.
4 Repeat step 3, adding more volume to the balloon by one breath at a time, recording your results until the
balloon pops.
5 Use your results to draw a line graph.

Results
Record your results in a table like the one below, then use your results to draw a line graph.

Number of breaths Balloon circumference (cm)

1
2
3
4
5

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28 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

…continued
Evaluation
1 Outline one trend that you observed in your graph.
2 Identify the dependent and independent variables.
3 Identify two controlled variables in this experiment.
4 Suggest possible experimental uncertainties and faults in this experiment.
5 Suggest one way to improve the experimental design, if you were to conduct this experiment again in the future.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the relationship between number of breaths and balloon circumference. Begin your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ . Include: ‘Possible sources of error were … ’. Also mention whether
or not your hypothesis was supported.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 1.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State where units of measurement go, in a results table.
2 List four features of a correctly drawn results table.
3 Recall the term used when a measurement is repeated.

Understanding
4 Explain what to look for when evaluating your data.
5 Describe where the independent and dependent variables should be placed, in a table.
6 Describe where the independent and dependent variables should be placed, on a graph.

Applying
7 Compare qualitative and quantitative data.
8 Compare continuous and discrete data.

Analysing
9 Identify two things wrong with the following table.

Height Bounce height (cm)

dropped Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
1m 20 20 20 20
2m 40.5 41 40 40.5
3m 80 90 85 85

Evaluating
10 Martin had a bag of lollies of different colours. He found that, when he offered them to
friends, he was always left with black lollies. He decided to conduct an experiment to test
people’s favourite lolly colours. He shared a bag that had 20 of each colour and recorded
what was left at the end. From this he worked out how many of each colour had been eaten.
The results are shown in the table.
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 Section 1.3 The scientific method: evaluating and communicating 29

…continued

Lolly colour Number of lollies eaten

Black 4
Green 13
Yellow 18
Red 20

a Suggest the type of graph that should be used to represent this data.
b Identify which column would be used as the dependent variable.
c Identify the independent variable in this experiment.

1.3  he scientific method:

T
evaluating and
communicating

After you have conducted an experiment, • a description of how you could improve
recorded the data in a table and interpreted the experimental method (e.g. use
the data in a graph, it is time to explain different equipment or change the order WORKSHEET
what the data is showing. This is done in of the steps)
the discussion and conclusion sections of a • an explanation of how this would
scientific report. improve either the accuracy (e.g.
measurements with lower uncertainties
Evaluation/discussion lead to more accurate measurement),
The evaluation or discussion section of your the reliability (e.g. more trials would
scientific report is where you outline any improve confidence in the results) or
problems you faced during the experiment the validity (how well the variables were
and offer suggestions for changes to the controlled) of the results.
method.
Here is an example.
Any suggested improvements should
Some students conducted an investigation
include the following information:
into the effect of salt on the boiling point of
• a brief description of the problem
water. They used a thermometer to measure
encountered
the temperature at boiling point after salt
• a description of how the problem
had been added.
affected the results

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30 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

The data collected would be digital and

more accurate, as there would be lower
measurement uncertainties.

Writing a conclusion
A conclusion is a short paragraph in a
scientific report, and should always include
three key ideas:
• what claim can be made from the
experiment regarding the independent
and dependent variables
• the evidence that supports this claim
• an explanation of whether the data
supports or disproves the hypothesis.

Remember, a hypothesis is never right or

wrong. It is only supported or disproven,
which leads to more questions that need to
Description of the problem be answered.

The thermometer did not allow accurate Here is an example.

readings, because the boiling point is
found when the temperature stays the same Stuart conducts an experiment to see if
for a period of time even though more taking his dog Jimmy for more walks reduces
heat is added. Depending on the type of the number of socks Jimmy destroys.
thermometer and the size of the gradations,
it may be difficult to see changes on a Stuart’s hypothesis is: ‘It is hypothesised
thermometer. that the more walks Jimmy has per day, the
fewer socks he will destroy.’
How the problem affected the results
Stuart put his results into a graph and
It was unclear whether the temperature produced a line of best fit, shown in
was staying the same, so the students had Figure 1.21.
to make a judgement about when this
occurred. This judgement could vary from From the graph, Stuart developed the
person to person. following conclusion:

How it could be improved ‘This experiment suggests that there is a

relationship between the number of walks
Using a temperature probe, a data logger or Jimmy has per day and the number of
an electronic thermometer could allow more socks he destroys. The line of best fit of the
accurate measurements. results shows that as the number of walks
per day increased, there was a decreasing
Explanation of how this would improve trend in the number of socks chewed. This
accuracy/reliability/validity supports my hypothesis.’

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 Section 1.3 The scientific method: evaluating and communicating 31

Socks chewed vs number

of walks per day
6

Number of socks chewed

5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of walks per day
Figure 1.21 Stuart tested his hypothesis and
graphed the results.

Gen conducted an experiment to see if the distance from a window would affect the growth of Try this 1.3
her potted plants.
Gen’s hypothesis was: ‘It is hypothesised that, as distance from the window increases, the growth of the
plants will decrease.’
Gen measured her plants before the experiment, placed them at different distances from the window and
measured them two months later. She then graphed her results and obtained a line of best fit.
1 Develop a conclusion based on Gen’s results.
2 Suggest three controlled variables that Gen would have used, to make this a fair test.
3 Propose two possible causes for the increase in plant height for the plant that was placed 6 m from the window.

Plant height growth vs distance

from window
16
Plant height growth (mm)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from window (m)

Figure 1.22 Gen’s graph

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32 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Communicating your findings An example of a scientific report and a

scientific poster are shown on the following
Two common ways of presenting your
two pages.
findings from an experiment are:
• scientific report
• scientific poster.
Scientific report
Each time you conduct an experiment in
Both forms show all the steps of the science, you should construct a scientific
scientific method, and should include: report. This is a quick and easy way to
• the question document what you have learned, for future
• the aim revision.
• variables (independent, dependent and
controlled) Scientific poster
• the hypothesis If you conduct a special experiment or
• a materials/equipment list develop a research project, it is a good idea
• diagrams of the set-up if necessary to produce a scientific poster. This will still
• the method used contain all the relevant parts of the scientific
• a results section (with tables and graphs) method but it is much more appealing to
• a discussion/evaluation section look at, and will expose a wider audience to
• a conclusion. your findings.

Positives Negatives
May contain more detail May not be very engaging to read
Includes all parts of an experiment Can be complicated for a ‘non-scientific’
person to follow
Does not require additional explanation
(self contained)

Table 1.6 The positives and negatives of a scientific report

Positives Negatives
Can be engaging to look at May take longer to produce
May increase the number of people who will Needs a place to be displayed
learn about your experiment
Includes all the parts of an experiment

Table 1.7 The positives and negatives of a scientific poster

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 Section 1.3 The scientific method: evaluating and communicating 33

Scientific report
Title: Bouncing ball

Aim
To test the bounce height of a ball being dropped from different heights

Variables
Change: Drop height (cm)
Measure: Bounce height (cm)
Controlled:
Use the same ball
Bounce on the same surface
Same person taking the readings

Hypothesis
The ball will bounce higher (cm) when dropped from a taller height (cm).

Equipment
1 tennis ball
1 metre ruler

0
1
2
3
Method: 4
5
Ball
1 Hold the ruler at a right angle to the floor.
6

Metre
2 Drop the ball from the first height and measure
7

stick
8

the height of the bounce.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

3 Record results in the table and repeat two

more times.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each drop height.
5 Average the results gathered from each trial. Floor

Results
Drop height Bounce height (cm)
(cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
100 75 70 80 75
50 30 35 25 30
25 15 25 20 20

Discussion
The person taking the reading was standing. This meant that the measurement was not accurate.
Next time, the person taking the readings should sit on the floor so their eyes are parallel with
the ball and the ruler.

Conclusion
The results support the hypothesis: as the height that the ball was dropped from increased, so
did the height of the bounce.
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 34

Scientific poster
Results
Title: Bounce heights of a bouncing ball dropped at different heights
Drop Bounce height (cm)
height (cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
100 75 70 80 75
Aim
50 30 35 25 30

ISBN 978-1-108-61069-8
To test the bounce height of a ball being Method:
25 15 25 20 20
dropped from different heights 1 Hold the ruler at a right angle to the floor.
2 Drop the ball from the first height and Bounce height at different drop heights
measure the height of the bounce. 100
Trial 1
Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Hypothesis 3 Record results in the table and repeat two

Trial 2
The ball will bounce higher (cm) when more times. 75
Trial 3
dropped from a taller height (cm). 4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each drop height. Average
5 Average the results gathered from 50
each trial.
Variables
25
Bounce height (cm)
Change: Drop height (cm)
Measure: Bounce height (cm)
0

0
Controlled: 100 50 25

1
2
Use the same ball Drop height (cm)

3
4
Bounce on the same surface

5
Same person taking the readings Ball

6
Discussion

7
Metre The person taking the reading was standing.

8
Equipment stick This meant that the measurement was not accurate.

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1 tennis ball Next time the person taking the readings should sit
1 metre ruler on the floor so their eyes are parallel with the ball
and the ruler.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Floor
Conclusion
The results support the hypothesis: as the height that
the ball was dropped from increased, so did the height

© Cambridge University Press 2022

of the bounce.
 Section 1.3 The scientific method: evaluating and communicating 35

Section 1.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Name the part of a scientific report that states whether the hypothesis was supported.
2 Name the part of a scientific report where you can talk about problems you faced and
changes you would make.

Understanding
3 Explain how to draw a line of best fit.
4 Explain why graphs are used.

Applying
5 Compare the use of a scientific report with that of a scientific poster.

Analysing
6 Identify the general trend shown in the graph in Figure 1.23.

Population vs time
1000
900
800
700
Population

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year

Figure 1.23

7 Identify the general trend in the graph shown in

Figure 1.24.
10
Evaluating
Velocity (m/s)

8 Use this table of data to answer the questions below.

Time (s) Temperature (°C)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
60 80 83 82
Time (s) 5
120 63 66 65
180 30 32 65 Figure 1.24

a Calculate the average for the results in the table.

b Identify the outlier in the results.
c Suggest the appropriate type of graph for this data.
d Draw a graph for the data presented above.

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36 Chapter 1 BEING SCIENTIFIC

Review questions

Remembering
1 When conducting background research, what is the difference between a primary source and
SCORCHER a secondary source?
2 List what should be included in a hypothesis.
3 List what should be included in a conclusion.
4 The CRAAP test assesses the quality of a secondary source of information. State what the
letters stand for.
5 Define the terms ‘independent variable’, ‘dependent variable’ and ‘controlled variables’.

Understanding
6 Classify the type of data in each of the following data sets.
a age of students: 12, 13, 13, 14, 12, 18
b name of chemical compounds: copper chloride, lithium chloride, sodium chloride
c heat output: high, low, high, low, moderate, high
d time taken for a reaction to occur (seconds): 8.51, 3.29, 5.59, 1.24, 1.27
e location of a pot plant: full sunlight, partial sunlight, shade, darkroom
7 Explain how a well-constructed bar graph should look.

Applying
8 Students were timed on how long they spent on chapter review questions, and then their exam
score was recorded. The results were graphed and are shown in Figure 1.25.
Exam score vs review time
100

75
Exam score (%)

50

25

0
0 30 60 90
Time spent on chapter
review questions (minutes)
Figure 1.25

a What is the independent variable and what is the dependent variable?

b Analyse the data and identify which data point appears to be an outlier.
c Describe this person’s performance in terms of the independent and dependent variables.
d Describe the pattern evident in the data.
9 Organise these steps of the scientific method into the correct order.
Do background research
Construct a hypothesis
Communicate your findings
Record and process the data into tables and graphs
Ask a question
Conduct an experiment
Analyse the data and look for patterns
Evaluate the data and form conclusions

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 Chapter 1 REVIEW QUESTIONS 37

Analysing
10 Copy and complete the table, to compare the advantages and disadvantages of presenting your
scientific findings in a scientific poster versus a scientific report.

Advantages Disadvantages
Poster
Report

11 Inspect this table of experimental data, and identify two errors in how it has been constructed.

New growth Amount of water provided

in plant (cm) to plant daily
0 0 mL
1 10 mL
3 20 mL
8 50 mL
1 100 mL

Evaluating
12 Estimate values using the scatter plot of data below.

Mass of bandicoot vs time

1000
bandicoots (grams)
Mass of captured

500

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (months)
Figure 1.26

a What were the masses of the two bandicoots captured after 3 months?
b When was a 500 gram bandicoot captured for the first time?
c Draw a line of best fit for the data. Use this line of best fit to predict the mass of a bandicoot
captured after 6 months.
d Propose a reason why there appears to be an increasing trend.

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38

Chapter 2 Cells

Chapter introduction
Everything can be broken down into its smallest components. A house is made of bricks, pipes and
wires; cakes are made of flour, eggs and sugar; and all living organisms are made of cells. Cells are the
basic building blocks of life, meaning that they are the smallest unit that can, potentially at least, carry
out the processes that we know all living things do, such as moving, producing energy, sensing their
environment, growth, repair, excretion and consumption of nutrients. In this chapter, you will explore the
basic components of cells and the many types of cells that can be found in the natural world.

Curriculum
Cells are the basic units of living things and have specialised structures and functions (VCSSU092)
• examining a variety of cells using a light microscope, by digital technology or by 2.1, 2.3
viewing a simulation
• distinguishing plant cells from animal and fungal cells 2.3
• identifying structures within cells and describing their function 2.2
• recognising that some organisms consist of a single cell 2.2, 2.3

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 39

Glossary terms
antibiotic endoplasmic reticulum pluripotent stem cell
bacteria genetic material protist
binary fission Golgi body ribosome
cell membrane mitochondrion unicellular
cell wall mitosis vacuole
chloroplast multicellular
cytosol nucleus

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40 Chapter 2 CELLS

Concept map

Magnification
Microscopes are
Resolution
used
to view cells Field of view

Cells are the building blocks of living things

Defective
Some organisms Some organisms Made up of organelles
function of
cells can cause are unicellular are multicellular with specialised
disease functions

Uncontrolled cell division → cancer

Micro-organisms → infectious disease
Simple / prokaryotic cells

Cell membrane
Genetic material
Cytosol

2.1
2.2
2.3
Complex / eukaryotic cells

2.4
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body

Cell wall
Fungi

Vacuole*
Plant cells

Chloroplast

*some bacterial, protist and animal calls

have vacuoles

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 Section 2.1 Microscopes and cells 41

2.1 Microscopes and cells

The microscope scientists hundreds of years ago, although

the technology used to produce today’s
Throughout this chapter you will explore
lenses is more advanced and enables us to WORKSHEET
cells, their structure and function. However,
see things at higher magnifications.
you would not have been able to learn
this information without the invention
of the microscope. It all began about
The history of the microscope Explore! 2.1
500 years ago, when scientists used hand-
In 1665, Robert Hooke published a book
held magnifying glasses to view small
based on his observations of the microscopic world. He was
macroscopic specimens – these were large
able to do this because he had built a compound microscope
enough to be visible to the naked eye. with a twist-operated focusing mechanism – this had never
Scientists wished to view smaller and been seen before. He further improved the microscope by
smaller specimens, and soon found that placing a water flask beside the microscope to focus light from
using two lenses together enabled them to an oil-lamp onto his specimens to illuminate them brightly.
do so. This discovery led to the invention
of the first light microscope. The light Eyepiece
microscope that you use today in school
is not very different from those used by
Oil Water
lamp flask
The scientist who Did you know? 2.1
Barrel
first discovered
single-celled organisms was Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek. He called these organisms Focusing
‘animalcules’, meaning ‘little animals’. screw
We now call these animalcules ‘micro- Objective
organisms’.
Specimen
holder

Figure 2.2 The Hooke microscope (circa 1660)

1 Find out about the role of each of the following scientists

in the development of the microscope: Robert Hooke,
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Frits Zernike, Marvin Minsky,
Ernst Ruska, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
2 Using A3 paper, draw an annotated timeline showing
who developed what and when.
Figure 2.1 Animalcules

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42 Chapter 2 CELLS

Parts of a microscope Eyepiece

Although some microscopes are more
advanced than others, most of those you
will use at school are light microscopes Revolving nosepiece
that have the same basic components. The Arm Objective lens
microscopes you will use have at least two Stage clip Stage
lenses: the eyepiece lens and the objective
Coarse focus Iris adjustment
lens. They also have a light source, a stage
Fine focus Light source
on which to place specimens, and knobs to
adjust the focus. The monocular microscope
Base
shown here is for use with one eye. Binocular
microscopes can be used with both eyes. Figure 2.3 The parts of a monocular microscope

Parts of the microscope Try this 2.1

Draw up a table with the parts of a Microscope terms
microscope in the left column. Find out the function of each When you use a microscope, you will
part, and put this information in the right column. often encounter special terms. Table 2.1
summarises some key terms.

Term Definition Image

Magnification How much the image
of the specimen or
object is increased in
size (i.e. how much
you are zooming in)

Low Medium High

magni cation magni cation magni cation

Resolution How detailed and

clear the image is
(i.e. how easy it is
to tell two separate
objects apart)

Poor resolution Better resolution Best resolution

Field of view (FOV) How much of the

object you can see
when you look through
the eyepiece

Human flea

Table 2.1 Some key terms used in microscopy

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 Section 2.1 Microscopes and cells 43

Advances in technology Electron microscopes have a magnification

Binocular light microscopes of around 10 million times and very high
Binocular microscopes have an eyepiece resolution. Since the invention of the
for each eye. There are two types: simple electron microscope in 1933, we have been
binocular microscopes have one light path able to observe the structure of extremely
from the specimen, which is split and small objects in high detail. There are now
led to both eyepieces, so each eye has the two types of electron microscope:
same view. The image looks flat (2D). • transmission electron microscope
Stereoscopic (‘stereo’) microscopes, which are (TEM) – the specimen to be viewed
much more expensive, lead two separate light is sliced very finely and the internal
paths from the specimen to each eye, so they structure can be seen
have different views, the image has depth • scanning electron microscope (SEM) –
(3D). This is useful for manipulating or the specimen to be viewed is not sliced,
dissecting specimens, and the magnification and the external surface can be viewed.
does not have to be very large. Unfortunately, electron microscopes are
extremely expensive and all specimens that
Light microscopes are limited in their are observed have to be prepared in a way
usefulness. They can magnify a specimen that kills them.
up to 1500×, which is enough to make a
bacterium visible. However,
bacteria
very small organisms with the resolution at this
prokaryote cells that are
found everywhere and are magnification is not very
the cause of many diseases
high, and so light microscopes
do not enable you to view anything smaller
than bacteria in any great detail.

In order to see things that are smaller than

bacteria, scientists invented a different type
of microscope, called an electron microscope.
This microscope uses tiny particles called
electrons, instead of light, to view an object. Figure 2.4 An electron microscope

Types of microscope Explore! 2.2

1 Do some research into the different types of microscope that are used today:
light microscope, stereo microscope and electron microscope.
2 Copy and complete the following table.

Type of Magnification Resolution Advantages Disadvantages Example of what

microscope can be seen
Monocular light
microscope
Stereoscopic
light microscope
Electron
microscope
The different types of microscope and their characteristics

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44 Chapter 2 CELLS

1 Compare the maximum magnification of the light microscope, the stereo microscope Quick check 2.1
and the electron microscope.
2 State what micro-organisms were originally called.
3 Define the following key terms, in your own words: magnification, resolution, field of view.
4 Name the different types of microscope, in order from most powerful to least powerful.

Using your smartphone as a microscope Science as a human endeavour 2.1

Most cameras on smartphones are not designed to produce
high-resolution microscopic images. Researchers in the USA recently published their work on an attachment
they had designed to place over the smartphone lens to increase the resolution and the visibility of tiny details
of the images they take, down to a scale of approximately one-millionth of a metre. The new attachment uses
artificial intelligence to create the level of resolution and colour required for laboratory analysis.
This attachment could help bring high-quality medical analysis into resource-poor regions, where people do
not have access to expensive technologies. In addition, the attachment can be produced with a 3-D printer, at
less than $100 each.

Practical 2.1

Using a microscope
Aim Be careful
To become proficient in using a microscope Ensure that the microscope is carried
Materials appropriately. Carry it with one hand
• light microscope holding the arm and one hand under
• newspaper the base. Do not use the coarse focus
• scissors knob to cause the objective lens to
• glass microscope slide touch the glass slide and damage it.
• sticky tape

Method
1 Cut one word out of a newspaper.
2 Attach the word to the centre of a glass slide, using sticky tape.
3 Set the lowest magnification or smallest objective lens in place. Turn the coarse focus knob until it is as close
to the stage as it will go.
4 Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and secure it in place with the clips.
5 Using the coarse focus knob, focus on the word.
6 Draw what you can see in the field of view at this lowest magnification. Record the magnification next to your
drawing. In order to calculate the magnification, you will need to multiply the magnification of the eyepiece
lens by the magnification of the objective lens. For example, if the eyepiece is 10× magnification and the
objective lens is 4× magnification, then the overall magnification is 10 × 4 = 40×.
7 Try moving the stage left and right, forwards and backwards, and note what you observe about the movement
of the image.
8 Repeat steps 3–6 for each of the optical lenses. You no longer use the coarse focus knob to focus now; use
only the fine focus knob.
continued…

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 Section 2.1 Microscopes and cells 45

…continued
Results
Your results will consist of:
• your drawings of the field of view using the different objective lenses. Include the magnification of each
drawing.
• your notes about what happens when you move the stage left and right, forwards and backwards.

Evaluation
1 Explain what happened to the word when viewed under the microscope at low magnification.
2 Describe what happened when you increased the magnification using the different objective lenses.
3 Describe what you observed as you moved the slide – did the word go in the same direction as the direction in
which you moved the slide?
4 What did you notice about the orientation of the letters in the word? Were they the right way up? Back to
front? Explain.
5 As the magnification of an image increases, the resolution decreases. State the magnification at which you
would have had the lowest resolution.
6 Explain what happened to the field of view as you increased the magnification of the objective lens.
7 Outline a safety precaution you would use when observing a specimen using the highest magnification
objective lens.
8 Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of using a light microscope.

Cell theory
As you read earlier, a scientist called Robert
Hooke built a compound microscope that
lit up the specimen he was viewing. Because
of this invention, in 1665 he was able to
observe that a dead cork plant appeared to
be made of small blocks. He named these
blocks ‘cells’ because they looked like the
small identical ‘cells’ that monks lived in at
the time.

Nearly 200 years later, after many other

scientists had observed and catalogued many
more types of cells, a cell theory was proposed.

This first cell theory stated that:

• Cells make up all living things.
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all
living things.
• All cells form spontaneously from their
environment, in a similar way to crystals
forming. Figure 2.5 Cork cells as Hooke would have observed them

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46 Chapter 2 CELLS

The third part of this theory we now

Egg cells Did you know? 2.2
know to be incorrect, as cells do not just Cells come in
pop into existence. Modern cell theory many shapes and sizes. The largest cells
states that: in the world are eggs – an unfertilised egg
• Cells make up all living things. is a single cell. Each egg holds the genetic
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all information for the female of the species,
living things. and if fertilised will eventually grow into
• All new cells are produced from existing a new individual. Egg cells are ‘macro’
cells. cells. Macro means that they can be seen
• All cells contain genetic information, with the naked eye – that is, without a
which is passed from cell to cell during microscope.
cell division.

Size of a cell
Cells are extremely small and most cells
cannot be seen with the naked eye. That
is why it was not until the invention of the
microscope, around 350 years ago, that we
even knew cells existed. If you take a look
at your arm you can see skin and hair, but
it is impossible to see the individual skin Figure 2.6 The largest cells in the world are
eggs, and the largest of all is the ostrich egg.
cells. Anything that you need a microscope
to be able to see clearly can be described as
microscopic.

You many wonder why cells come in many

sizes. The main reason is simple: their size
depends on their job. Red blood cells are
flat and small, and carry oxygen in your
blood to different parts of your body. When
mature, they don’t have a nucleus,
nucleus
part of a cell that contains and so there is more space to carry
the genetic material
haemoglobin, a red compound that
holds oxygen. Being flat and small allows
the red blood cells to squeeze through tiny
blood vessels, in order to deliver oxygen
throughout your body. Figure 2.7 Red blood cells

1 Name the largest cell in the world. Quick check 2.2

2 Compare the terms ‘micro’ and ‘macro’.
3 Explain why cells come in many shapes and sizes.

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 Section 2.1 Microscopes and cells 47

Cell size Try this 2.2

In science, it is important to use appropriate units when measuring different objects. You
would not measure the size of a bedroom in kilometres, or the size of an ant in metres. Therefore, when you
measure cells, it is important to use a very small unit. This is usually a micrometre (µm). A micrometre is
1000 times smaller than a millimetre (mm).

×100 ×10 ×1000

m cm mm µm

/ 100 / 10 / 1000

Figure 2.8 Conversions needed for different measurements

Using Figure 2.8, convert the cell sizes below into millimetres (mm) or micrometres (µm).

Cell type Size (mm) Size (µm)

0.0065

Figure 2.9 Red blood cells

100

Figure 2.10 Plant cells on leaf surface

0.05

Figure 2.11 Sperm cells

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48 Chapter 2 CELLS

Practical 2.2

Estimating size
Be careful
Aim
Ensure that the microscope is carried
To use a microscope to estimate the size of objects
appropriately. Carry it with one hand
Materials holding the arm and one hand under
• light microscope the base. Do not use the coarse focus
• transparent ruler knob to cause the objective lens to
• sesame seeds, poppy seeds, salt crystals, fennel seeds touch the glass slide and damage it.
• glass slides

Method
Part 1: Calculating size
1 Estimate the size of each of the objects using your naked eye, and record your estimate in the results table
(shown in the Results section).
2 Using a ruler, attempt to measure each object to the closest millimetre (mm), and record your measurement
in the table.
3 Place the transparent ruler on the stage of the microscope.
4 Starting on the lowest magnification, focus on the ruler.
5 Measure the diameter of the area you can see under the microscope (field of view) using the ruler. Record this
measurement in the field of view (FOV) table (shown in the Results section).
6 Calculate the FOV size in micrometres (µm) by multiplying the measurement in millimetres you recorded in
step 5 by 1000.
7 Calculate the FOV for each of the higher magnifications, by repeating steps 4–6.

Part 2: Estimating the size of the object

8 Place your first object or specimen on a glass slide and then place the slide on the stage of the microscope.
9 Focus on the object using the lowest magnification objective lens.
10 Estimate how many of those objects would fit in a straight line across the middle of the FOV. For example,
perhaps 20 poppy seeds look like they would fit across the centre in a line.
11 Divide the total FOV size that you have already calculated (in Part 1) by the estimated number that will fit
across the FOV. For example, if in Part 1 you found the FOV at the low magnification was 10 mm, which you
converted to 10 000 µm, then your calculation would be 10 000/20 = 500. That is, each poppy seed is 500 µm
in size.
12 Record your estimated size for the specimen in the results table.
13 Repeat steps 8–12 for each object.

Results
Copy the two tables below and use them to record your results.

Magnification FOV size (mm) FOV size (µm)

(eyepiece lens × objective lens) (mm × 1000)

Field of view (FOV) table

continued…

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 Section 2.1 Microscopes and cells 49

…continued

Object Estimated size Measured size Number of FOV diameter Estimated size
(Part 1) (Part 1) times it would size of object
fit across the (FOV/ number
FOV of times object
fits across)
Sesame seed
Poppy seed
Fennel seed
Salt crystal
Results table

Evaluation
1 Compare your observed, measured and magnified estimated size results.
2 Explain how you could increase the accuracy of your results.
3 Sometimes FOV is calculated using a mini-grid instead of a ruler. A mini-grid has extremely thin lines that can
show µm. Suggest why a mini-grid would produce more accurate results than a ruler when estimating size.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim about using a microscope to estimate size. Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that the size of an object … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your brief
summary with: ‘The results show that … ’. Include: ‘Possible sources of error were … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 2.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the term ‘microscopic’.
2 State the modern cell theory.
3 Name what each of the following parts of the microscope does.

Part Job
Stage
Eyepiece
Objective lens
Coarse focus knob
Fine focus knob

Understanding
4 Outline the structure and function of a red blood cell.
5 Summarise the advantages of using:
a a monocular light microscope
b a stereo microscope.
continued…

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50 Chapter 2 CELLS

…continued
6 Outline the contribution of Robert Hooke to our understanding of the cell.
7 Fill in the magnification of the microscope when using the following objective lenses:

Eyepiece Objective lens Magnification of specimen

× 10 × 10
× 10 ×5
× 10 × 80

Applying
8 Suggest the reason that different units are used to measure different-sized objects.
9 A nanometre (nm) is 1000 times smaller than a micrometre (µm). Generally, a virus is around
0.0225 µm in size. Calculate this size in nanometres.
10 Summarise why it is important to turn the coarse focus knob until it is as close to the stage
as it will go, before putting the slide on the stage. (Think about the safety notes).
11 Copy and complete the following table.

Size
Specimen
Nanometres (nm) Micrometres (µm) Millimetres (mm)
Atom 0.1
Bacterium 1
Virus 35
Animal cell 10
Chicken egg 50

Analysing
12 Distinguish between a TEM and an SEM.
13 Demonstrate how you would determine the size of a cell.
14 Classify the following specimens into three groups: those that can be seen easily with the
naked eye; those that can be seen with a light microscope; and those that can be seen only
with an electron microscope. (Some might belong in more than one group.)
plant cell (100 µm)
frog egg (1 mm)
red blood cell (7 µm)
phytoplankton (2 µm)
chicken egg (50 mm)
virus (35 nm)
bacterium (1 µm)

Evaluating
15 Create a detailed set of step-by-step instructions for a Year 7 student, on how to use a
microscope safely.
16 Justify the statement ‘the development of microscopes has changed our understanding
of cells’.

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 Section 2.2 Organelles 51

2.2 Organelles

All cells 1 Define these Quick check 2.3

Everything that we classify as living is terms and
WORKSHEET
made up of one or more cells. People, include examples of each: unicellular,
trees, fish and mushrooms are made up of multicellular.
many different cells working together, and 2 List the three components of all cells.

are known as multicellular. These cells

depend on each other and cannot survive
alone. Organisms in the kingdoms Bacteria,
Organelles
Protista and Archaea are
multicellular
made of many cells made of single cells, and are Simple and complex cells
unicellular referred to as unicellular. All cells can be grouped into two main
made of just one cell
Each of these single cells categories: prokaryote (simple) and eukaryote
cell membrane
the barrier that separates carries out all the processes (complex). Prokaryotes are unicellular,
the inside of the cell from the
external environment needed to stay alive, by while eukaryotes can be unicellular or
genetic material itself. Generally, unicellular multicellular. These two categories of cell
the code that allows the cell
to produce copies of itself organisms are quite simple type are based on the structures found
and to regulate the functions
within the cell and are similar to some of the inside each cell. As you read earlier, all
cytosol oldest forms of life found on cells have a membrane, cytosol and genetic
the water-based mixture
that fills the cell, containing Earth, whereas multicellular material. Eukaryotic cells are more complex
different molecules large
and small; many chemical cells are specialised and much and may also have many membrane-bound
processes that happen within
a cell occur in the cytosol
more complex. structures, including a nucleus, that carry
out specific functions. The term ‘prokaryote’
All cells, no matter how simple, contain the means ‘before (pro) nucleus (karyon)’. VIDEO
same three components: The specialised structures inside cells are What three
components
• a cell membrane known as organelles, because they are like do all cells
have in
• genetic material ‘mini’ organs with specific jobs, such as the common?
• cytosol. brain, stomach and heart.

Cell membrane

Genetic
material

Cytosol
Figure 2.12 All cells, no matter
how simple or complex, contain Figure 2.13 Eukaryotic cell (left) vs prokaryotic cell (right). Can you identify the cell
these three components. membrane, genetic material and cytosol in each cell type?

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52 Chapter 2 CELLS

Prokaryotes vs eukaryotes Try this 2.3

For the following list of organisms, identify which are examples of prokaryotic cells and which
are examples of eukaryotic cells.
Mushrooms Archaea Cyanobacteria Tapeworms
Grass Potatoes Fruit flies Escherichia coli

The cell city Nucleus

Although all cells contain the structures The nucleus is a large structure that holds
described previously, only complex the genetic material of a cell. It is like
eukaryotic cells contain the specialised the brain of the cell and controls all its
membrane-bound organelles that you are functions. In a city, the nucleus would be
going to read about in this section. It is the top level of government, which keeps all
helpful to think of the cell as a city. A city the plans and blueprints and makes all the
has many needs, and each organelle caters important decisions.
for those needs. This idea is developed
further in the STEM task for this chapter.

Figure 2.14 Imagine the cell as a busy city. Figure 2.15 Top left: Graphic representation of a nucleus. Top right:
an electron microscope image of a nucleus within a plant cell.
Bottom: The nucleus makes all the major decisions for the cell city.

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 Section 2.2 Organelles 53

Genetic material A DNA molecule is shaped like a twisted

The genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic ladder, and this shape is called a double helix.
acid (DNA), is found in every cell. DNA In the cell city, DNA would be the plans and
is the coded information that makes you blueprints which the top level of government
who you are and tells every cell what to do. uses to keep everything running smoothly.

Figure 2.16 Left: Graphic representation of a DNA molecule. Right: Senators in discussion in a Federal Parliament

Cell membrane
The Moon Did you know 2.3
and back! The cell membrane is a thin double layer of
We have trillions of cells in our body and molecules that separates the inside of the
each one contains DNA. If you lined up the cell from its external environment, and
DNA from all your cells, it would reach to the controls what enters and leaves the cell. The
Moon and back approximately 1500 times! cell membrane is like a protective border
around the cell city, controlling who enters
and leaves.

Figure 2.17 The cell membrane (shown at left) provides ‘border security’ for the cell.

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54 Chapter 2 CELLS

Practical 2.3

Modelling membrane activity

Aim
To model the movement of substances across a cell membrane

Materials
For the class:
• 2 litres of bubble solution (1800 mL water, 200 mL dishwashing liquid, 60 mL glycerol)
Per group:
• 4 straws for frame
• shallow tray
• 20 cm cotton thread
• clean straw
• 30 cm string

Method
1 Create a square frame using four straws, as shown in
Figure 2.18.
2 Pour bubble solution into the shallow tray.
3 Place the straw frame into the solution.
Figure 2.18 How to construct
4 Lift the straw frame out of the solution gently, to create a your square straw frame
bubble layer across the inside of the frame.
5 This bubble layer represents the cell membrane.

Dry hand
6 Have one of your group members place their dry hand through the bubble membrane.
7 Record your observations of this in the results table.

Hand covered in bubble solution

8 Form the bubble membrane again (repeat steps 2–5).
9 Cover one hand with bubble solution and slowly pass the hand through the bubble
membrane and back out.
10 Record your observations of this in the results table.

Cotton hole
11 Form the bubble membrane again (repeat steps 2–5).
12 Create a small loop (2 cm diameter) in the cotton thread by knotting the thread.
13 Soak the cotton thread in the bubble liquid.
14 Carefully place the cotton loop into the membrane bubble.
15 Use a pencil or pen to pop the bubble membrane inside the cotton loop.
16 Record what you observe in your results table.
17 Pass the pencil through the bubble membrane hole you have created.

Double bubble
18 Using a clean straw, gently blow into the bubble solution.
19 Slowly lift the straw out of the solution, continuing to blow, to create a large single bubble.
20 Slowly return the straw to the bubble solution at the base of the bubble, and try to create a
smaller bubble inside the bigger one.
21 Record what you observe in your results table.
continued…

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 Section 2.2 Organelles 55

…continued
String (dividing a membrane)
22 Knot together both ends of the string, to create a circle.
23 Place the string in the bubble solution and slowly remove it, to create a bubble membrane
in the centre.
24 With a partner, hold both sides of the string circle and twist in opposite directions, to create
a ‘figure eight’.
25 Now you have created two isolated bubble membranes. Pop one of the membranes and
record your observations.

Results
Record your observations in the following table.

Observations
Dry hand
Hand covered in bubble solution
Cotton hole
Double bubble
String

Evaluation
1 Explain your observations when your dry hand passed through the membrane bubble.
2 Membranes are self-repairing. Using your observations of the hand covered in bubble
solution, describe how you modelled this ability.
3 Cell membranes have some large openings to allow bigger molecules to move into and out
of the cell. Explain how you modelled this feature.
4 Some organelles use small membrane ‘bubbles’ to transport materials into and out of the
cell. Using your observations, suggest why materials needing to be transported through a
cell membrane must be packaged inside their own membrane.

Cytosol
Cytosol is a water-based mixture of small Using the city analogy, we would say the
and large molecules that fills the cell. In cytosol makes the city to be like Atlantis,
eukaryote cells, it refers to the liquid outside or a coral reef – it is an underwater city.
the organelles. Although it appears mostly The water fulfills the same functions for
transparent in a light microscope, it has a the cell city that the air does for us.
very complex structure, with regions that
vary greatly in concentration and viscosity, Ribosomes
so parts of it may resemble jelly. Many of Ribosomes are very small ribosome
a structure in a cell that
the chemical reactions that cells require structures that ‘read’ the codes sent produces protein from amino
acids
to function take place between molecules to them in the genetic material
dissolved in the water of the cytosol, and produce proteins that the cell needs
controlled by enzymes that may form very to create structures and carry out different
complex structures. Many nutrients and functions. Ribosomes would be the
other materials may be factories of the cell city, producing bricks,
stored in the cytosol. cars and different tools for the city to use.

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56 Chapter 2 CELLS

Mitochondria
mitochondrion Mitochondria are where sugars from
a structure in a cell that
converts the energy from food are turned into energy, in a
food into the form needed
by the cell process called cellular respiration. The
output is a substance called ATP,
the cell’s fuel, that is then used to power its
chemical reactions and movement. Cells use
this energy for many tasks, such as moving
things into and out of the cell, growth,
repair and reproduction. The mitochondria
can therefore be thought of as the power
station of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum
endoplasmic reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
a network of tubes within
a cell that transports large folded membrane attached to the
substances inside the cell
nucleus. Many ribosomes are located
along the ER, and its main job is to transport
the proteins made at the ribosomes around
the cell. The name ‘endoplasmic reticulum’
might sound complicated but it is just a
description of what it does: endo (inside),
plasmic (cytoplasm), reticulum (network).
Figure 2.19 Top: Graphical representation of a
The ER is basically a highway that connects mitochondrion (left image) and an electron
and delivers proteins to different parts microscope image of mitochondria (right image).
of the cell. Bottom: The mitochondria ‘burn’ fuel (sugar) to
generate power (as ATP molecules, not electricity)
for the cell.

Figure 2.20 Left: Graphical representation of the endoplasmic reticulum around the outside of the nucleus.
Right: The endoplasmic reticulum is the highway network of the cell city.

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 Section 2.2 Organelles 57

Golgi body bodies are like the post office of the cell.
Golgi body The role of the Golgi They place proteins into small sacks of
a structure in a cell involved
in transport between the body is to fold and package membrane, called vesicles (postal vans), and
inside and outside of the cell
the proteins made by the send them out of the cell to other parts of
ribosomes, for export from the cell. Golgi the body.

Figure 2.21 Left: Graphical representation of a Golgi body. Right: Golgi bodies act as the postal system of the cell city.

Organelles Try this 2.4

Draw up a table with three columns. List all the organelles covered in this section in the left
column. Give a description of their role in a cell in the middle column, and provide a simple picture or diagram in
the right column.

1 State the terms used for simple and complex cells. Quick check 2.4
2 Define the term ‘organelle’.
3 Copy Figure 2.22 and label the following organelles: cell membrane, cytosol, nucleus
VIDEO
(includes genetic material), ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, mitochondria.
What
organelles do
all eukaryotic
cells contain?

Figure 2.22 Diagram of a eukaryotic cell, ready

for you to label it

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58 Chapter 2 CELLS

The cell’s internal scaffolding Explore! 2.3

Eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton.
A cytoskeleton is a structure that helps the cell
maintain its shape and internal organisation.
It also provides mechanical support that enables
things to move around inside the cell.
1 Research and summarise the roles of the
following structures within cells: microtubules,
intermediate filaments, microfilaments. These
are tricky terms to understand and explain, so
keep your answer simple.

Figure 2.23 A graphical representation of a microtubule

A new cell structure discovered Science as a human endeavour 2.2

In 2015, scientists published their research about a cell structure
that they had discovered. The brilliant thing about this discovery is that it could help scientists understand why
some cancers develop. The structure is called ‘the mesh’ and it helps to hold cells together. This discovery has
changed biologists’ understanding of the cell’s internal scaffolding.

Section 2.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 List three organelles found in all cells.
2 List three organelles found in all eukaryotic cells (not including the three from Question 1).

Understanding
3 Explain the function of the nucleus.
4 Outline why the Golgi body can be thought of as the post office of the cell.
5 What am I?
a I produce energy in the form of ATP for cells.
b I am a barrier between the inside and the outside of cells, and I control who enters
and leaves.
c I am a water-based mixture that fills the cell, and many chemical processes happen
within me.
d I make proteins using the code in the genetic material of the cell.

Applying
6 Compare the function of the cell membrane with that of the nucleus.
7 Summarise the role of the ER and the Golgi body.

Analysing
8 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular, using examples.

Evaluating
9 Different cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Suggest a reason why muscle cells
contain more mitochondria than skin cells do.
10 Give a reason why cells would contain many ribosomes.

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 59

2.3 Eukaryotic cells

All eukaryotic organisms have many of the pluripotent stem cells. Once a stem cell has
same organelles as each other. Eukaryotes differentiated into a specialised cell, such as
can be found in the kingdoms Animalia, a nerve cell, it can only ever replicate into WORKSHEET
Plantae, Fungi and Protista. In this section, another cell of the same type.
you will look at the differences between the
cells of animals, plants, fungi and protists. Stem cells don’t only exist in pluripotent stem cell
a cell that is able to develop
embryos. You still have some stem into many different types
of cell
cells in your body today that are ready
to turn into any type of cell you need. They
can be found in different tissues around
your body and are activated by certain
triggers, such as an injury. For example, if
you cut yourself, stem cells below the layers
of your skin turn into skin cells to help
replace the damaged cells. This replacement
is not always perfect and, if the damage is
too extreme, it can leave a scar.

Figure 2.24 Plants and fungi living together

Animal cells
Animal cells contain all the organelles
you learned about in the previous section.
However, the numbers of organelles in a
cell may vary, depending on what type of
animal cell it is. Multicellular organisms like
yourself are made up of many different types
of specialised cells. Each of these different
cell types has a specific job that allows your
body to function properly. All the cells in
your body start off as one cell, the fertilised
egg, and then this cell differentiates into all
the specialised cells around your body.

Cells that have the potential to turn Figure 2.25 Olympic coach Justin Grace showing
into any other type of cell are called his scars following liver transplant surgery

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60 Chapter 2 CELLS

Neurons
Blood cells

Liver cells

Cardiac cells

Muscle cells

Fat cells Stem cells

Epithelial cells Bone cells

Intestinal cells
Figure 2.26 One cell becomes many types of cells, in a process known as cell differentiation.

Stem cell therapy Explore! 2.4

Because stem cells are able to turn into
any type of cell, they have the potential
to be used in treating and curing many
types of diseases and conditions. These
treatments are known as stem cell therapy or
regenerative medicine. Liver
Lungs
1 Find out about the blood cancer called
leukaemia.
2 Investigate how stem cell therapy is used
to treat leukaemia, and summarise your Genitalia
findings.

Heart

Kidney
Figure 2.27 A stem cell can replicate and become
any one of the 200+ types of cells in the body. Brain

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 61

Exciting uses of stem cells Science as a human endeavour 2.3

Late in 2018, the results of two exciting research projects were
published by scientists in Europe. First, in Germany, scientists succeeded in generating beating heart muscle
cells from stem cells. Their work may provide a new approach for the treatment of heart attacks. Second, in
Sweden, scientists developed a faster method of generating functioning brain cells from embryonic stem cells.
The new method reduces the time required to produce the cells from months to two weeks, and may help in the
treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia.

Figure 2.28 Stem cells may help in the treatment of heart and neurodegenerative diseases.

1 List the Quick check 2.5

organelles
that are found in animal cells.
2 Multicellular organisms are often
made up of specialised cells. What
does the term ‘specialised cells’ mean?
3 Use the term ‘differentiation’ to explain
how specialised cells form.
4 Describe what stem cells are and their
use in medicine.

Plant cells
Plants are different from all other eukaryotic
organisms in many ways. Most noticeably,
they do not need to move in order to search
for food, because they can make their own
food in the process you met in Year 7 called
photosynthesis. This difference means that
plants have some organelles that animals and
fungi lack. The special organelle in plants Figure 2.29 Plant cells: the green blobs are chloroplasts.
that carries out photosynthesis is Also note the thick cell wall that surrounds each cell.
chloroplast
a structure in a plant cell called a chloroplast. Chloroplasts
that contains chlorophyll
contain a green pigment called Chloroplasts are found in plant cells that are
chlorophyll, and this pigment captures exposed to light (e.g. leaf cells) but not in
the Sun’s light and makes plants green. cells of the roots.

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62 Chapter 2 CELLS

Figure 2.30 Eucalyptus trees can only grow as tall as they do because of the rigid cell wall that surrounds each of their cells.

Because plants do not need to move, they lack cells become flaccid, and so the plant cannot
a skeleton and muscles, but they still need to hold its shape. Animal cells also contain
be able to support their weight so they can vacuoles, but they are much smaller and are
cell wall
grow tall, towards the light from the mainly used for storage of nutrients. The
a rigid structure that Sun. This is why plant cells have a cell cells of some fungi, protists and bacteria may
surrounds each plant cell,
shaping and supporting wall. The cell wall is a rigid structure also have vacuoles.
the cell
that surrounds each cell (sitting outside
the cell membrane) and provides shape and
support for the plant. The cell wall is made of
a substance called cellulose.

Plant cells also contain an organelle called a

vacuole vacuole. This organelle stores water
a structure in a plant cell
that stores water and and other nutrients for the plant. It
nutrients
also works with the cell wall to help
support the plant and give it shape. If you
have ever forgotten to water your plants at
home, you might have noticed that they
droop and wilt, becoming floppy, and if not
Figure 2.31 A thirsty plant: the vacuoles are no longer full
watered will start to die. This is because the of water and so they cannot help to support the plant in
vacuoles in each cell are losing water, the standing upright.

1 Name the organelles in a plant cell that an animal cell does not have. Quick check 2.6
2 Explain why plant cells have each of these ‘extra’ organelles.

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 63

Distinguishing animal cells these multicellular organisms have different

from plant cells structures and functions.
You have seen that animal cells and plant WIDGET
In addition, it is generally easy to identify Eukaryotic
cells have many organelles in common,
plant cells under the microscope, because organelles
as they are both eukaryotic cells that have
the cell wall usually gives them a shape
many processes in common. However,
with rigid straight lines and a thick outline,
you have also learned about the additional
whereas animal cells have a less uniform
organelles that plant cells have, because
shape and a much thinner outline.

Golgi body Mitochondrion

Golgi body Cell membrane

Endoplasmic Ribosome
Cytosol reticulum
Nucleus Vacuole
Mitochondrion

Ribosome Nucleus Chloroplast

Cytosol

Cell membrane
Endoplasmic Cell wall
reticulum
Figure 2.32 Animal cells and plant cells have many organelles in common, but because of their different
structures and functions, there are also some different organelles.

Figure 2.33 Left: Animal (oesophagus) cells at ×100 magnification. Right: Plant cells at ×100 magnification

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64 Chapter 2 CELLS

Making a wet mount Try this 2.5

When you want to observe cells under a microscope, you need to prepare
what is called a wet mount. Let’s practise using pond water.
Use a pipette to place a drop of pond water in the centre of a glass slide. Then gently lower
a cover slip onto the water, as shown in Figure 2.34. If the cover slip drops too quickly, it can
trap air bubbles and then you won’t be able to see your specimen as easily. Use a tissue or
blotting paper on the edge of the cover slip to soak up any extra liquid.
Note: Some specimens may be dry and so you would need to add a drop of water. Some may
be transparent, so you would need to add a stain instead of water.

Figure 2.34 Lowering the cover slip slowly is very important when preparing a wet mount.

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 65

Practical 2.4

Observing cells under a microscope

Be careful
Aim Ensure that the microscope is
To observe the characteristics of plant and
carried appropriately. Carry it with
animal cells
one hand holding the arm and one
Materials hand under the base. Do not use
• light microscope • iodine solution the coarse focus knob to cause the
• glass slides and cover slips • ripe and unripe bananas objective lens to touch the glass
• toothpick • prepared animal slides slide and damage it. No food items
• onion and celery are to be consumed.

Method
1 Prepare wet mounts:
a Peel a translucent (see-through) piece of tissue from the onion.
b Place the piece of onion tissue on a glass slide and add a drop of iodine solution.
c Cover the slide with a cover slip, using your wet mount technique.
d Repeat steps a–c for the celery.
e Use the toothpick to collect some ripe banana cells and smear them as thinly as you can across a
glass slide.
f Add a drop of iodine solution and then cover with a cover slip.
g Repeat steps e–f for the unripe banana.
2 Observe the cells: starting with the microscope on the lowest magnification, turn the coarse focus knob until
it is as close to the stage as it can go. Place on your first slide and focus using the coarse focus knob. Once
focused, turn to the next objective lens. Use only the fine focus knob to focus now. Once focused, move to the
highest magnification and again focus using the fine focus knob.
3 Draw a diagram: using a pencil, sketch diagrams of an onion cell, a celery cell, a ripe banana cell, an
unripe banana cell, and four animal cells from the prepared slides. Label all the organelles you can see,
using a ruler and labels at the side of the diagram. Record the name of the specimen, the magnification the
drawing was drawn at, and determine the cell size.

Results
Your results will be in the form of four plant cell diagrams and four animal cell diagrams.

Evaluation
1 Explain why stains are needed.
2 Compare the onion and celery cells: what similarities and differences did you observe?
3 Compare the ripe and unripe banana cells: what similarities and differences did you observe? Can you
explain the differences?
4 What characteristics did you observe in the plant cells? In the animal cells? What did they have in common?
Explain why there are differences.
5 Were the plant and animal cells all the same size? If there are differences, can you explain why?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding this experiment. Begin your statement with: ‘This experiment suggests that plant and
animal cells … ’.
2 Support your claim by using your observations. Begin your summary with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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66 Chapter 2 CELLS

Practical 2.5

Making a model: 3D cell

Aim
To create a 3D model of a plant cell and an animal cell using the materials provided

Materials
• black beans
• white beans
• ping pong balls
• zip lock bags
• red food colouring
• green food colouring
• takeaway food container
• poppy seeds
• balloons
• glue and tape

Method
1 Look at the materials your teacher has provided for you and decide what you are going to use to represent
each part of the plant cell and the animal cell.
2 Copy and complete the table below to indicate how each organelle is going to be represented in your model.
3 Construct your 3D model of the cell.
4 Explain to the class and your teacher how your model represents all the parts of a cell.

Results

Plants Animals
Cell Material used Cell Materials used
Nucleus Nucleus
Cell membrane Cell membrane
Mitochondria Mitochondria
Ribosomes Ribosomes
Golgi body Golgi body
Endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum
Cytosol Cytosol
Large vacuole Small vacuoles
Chloroplast
Cell wall

Table summarising the materials you will use for constructing each of your model cells

Evaluation
1 Explain why models are used in science.
2 Assess two strengths and two limitations of your model.
3 Propose a way to make your model more accurate.

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 67

Fungi you only really notice a fungus when it

develops a fruiting body when conditions
Fungi are similar to both plants and animals,
are perfect. This fruiting body can be seen
and most are multicellular, but they also
as a mushroom or a toadstool, a truffle
have their own unique cell wall. Fungi are
or a puffball. This is why you often see
heterotrophs, like animals, which means they
mushrooms appear soon after heavy rainfall.
have to digest other organisms in order to gain
The fungus makes these fruiting bodies to
nutrients. Fungal cells therefore don’t have
produce spores in order to reproduce.
chloroplasts like plant cells do. They do have a
cell wall, but it is made of chitin, not cellulose. Figure 2.37 Fungi: (top) toadstool, (middle)
chanterelle mushrooms, (bottom) puffball
Nucleus Cytosol

Chitin cell wall

Cell Mitochondion
membrane
DNA Golgi body

Figure 2.35 Diagram of a fungal cell

Fungi and Did you know? 2.4

beetles
The cell wall of fungal cells is made of
chitin, and this is the same chitin that
makes up the exoskeleton of insects such
as beetles.

Figure 2.36 Beetle exoskeletons and fungal cell

walls are made of the same substance: chitin.

The main body of a fungus is called the

mycelium; this is a large network of small
filaments, called hyphae, that can stretch
for over 10 kilometres! You don’t often
see hyphae, as they are very small, and

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68 Chapter 2 CELLS

Practical 2.6

Observing mould
Be careful
Aim
Ensure that the microscope is carried
To observe the structure of citrus mould under
appropriately. Carry it with one hand
a light microscope
holding the arm and one hand under
Materials the base. Do not use the coarse focus
• prepared slides of a mould sample knob to cause the objective lens to
(preferably citrus) touch the glass slide and damage it.
• microscope

Method
1 Focus the microscope onto the mould, starting on the lowest power.
2 Draw the observed specimen, remembering to estimate size and record the magnification.

Figure 2.38 Citrus mould, a type of fungus

Results
Drawing of your specimen, including magnification and an estimate of size.

Evaluation
1 Describe the structure of the mould.
2 Identify whether the mould is unicellular or multicellular.
3 Are all the cells you are observing identical? What does this suggest?
4 Often some fruit in a fruit bowl can go mouldy while other fruit is not affected. Suggest a
reason for this.

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 Section 2.3 Eukaryotic cells 69

1 State whether Quick check 2.7

fungi are
prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
2 Name the organelle that fungal cells
have that animal cells do not.
3 Contrast the cell wall of a plant with
the cell wall of a fungus.
4 Explain the function of the cell wall.

Protists
Protista is a kingdom that consists solely of
unicellular organisms that are eukaryotic.
This means they contain the organelles that
you learned about in the previous section.
However, scientists have changed the
classification of many of these organisms
several times, because they display
protist characteristics of both plants
a unicellular, eukaryotic
organism that is part of the and animals. All protists
kingdom Protista
need to live in a moist
environment and so are very common in
most aquatic environments. If you look at a
sample of pond water under the microscope
in the warmer months of the year, you will
likely see many types of protists, such as
euglena, rotifers, amoebas and paramecia.
Each of these types of protists is slightly
different in structure, depending on their Figure 2.39 Protists: (top) amoeba, (middle) rotifer,
function. (bottom) Euglena

Section 2.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State the organelle involved in photosynthesis.
2 Name the three key differences between plant cells and animal cells in terms of their
organelles.
3 List three examples of protists.
4 Define the term ‘specialised cells’ and provide examples.

Understanding
5 Outline the two parts of a plant cell that provide support and explain how they work
together.
6 Explain why fungi are known as heterotrophs.
7 Summarise the steps you need to take when preparing a wet mount.
8 Stem cells are currently of massive interest to scientists. Research why this is the case,
using what you have learned about their use in therapy and other medicinal applications.
continued…

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70 Chapter 2 CELLS

…continued
Applying
9 a Name the organelles labelled A to E in the eukaryotic cell shown in Figure 2.40.

Figure 2.40 Eukaryotic cell

b What type of cell is shown in Figure 2.40? Explain your answer.

10 Identify where you are most likely to find protists.
11 Explain how the shapes of various cells help them to carry out their function within the body. You may like to
refer to red blood cells, sperm cells and muscle cells.

Analysing
12 a Draw a Venn diagram to compare an animal cell to a fungal cell in terms of the cell’s structure and organelles.
b Draw a Venn diagram to compare a plant cell to a fungal cell in terms of the cell’s structure and
organelles.
13 Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic cells, and belong to the Fungi kingdom. A student conducted an experiment
to test the effect of temperature on the activity of yeast, which will produce a gas when added to a solution of
sugar in water. The student placed 2 g of yeast and 10 g of sugar into a glass apparatus full of water, designed
to trap any gas produced in a narrow closed vertical tube at the top. The amount of gas can be measured
by the height of the column of gas that collects in the tube. They did the experiment three times with the
apparatus containing water at three different temperatures, and measured the height of the column of gas
produced after 1 minute.

Temperature (°C) Height of column of gas produced in the tube (mm)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
10 60 64 62 62
30 102 98 100 100
60 20 14 17 17

a Using the student’s results, assess the effect of temperature on yeast function.
b Identify the optimum temperature for yeast.
c Suggest the effect that an even higher temperature, such as 100°C, would have on the yeast being tested.

Evaluating
14 Justify this statement: ‘Fungi are all around us but you can’t always see them.’
15 Propose reasons why humans need muscles and a skeleton, whereas plants do not.

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 Section 2.4 Function and malfunction 71

2.4 Function and malfunction

Cell division
At the start of this chapter you learned
WORKSHEET
about cell theory. The development of cell
theory was made possible by the invention
of the microscope, which allowed scientists
to observe and prove certain characteristics
that all cells display. One of the most easily
observable parts of cell theory is that ‘all
cells come from pre-existing cells’. This is
mitosis referring to cell division, when
the type of cell division in
which one cell divides into one cell splits to form two new
two cells that are exactly
the same
identical cells, called daughter
binary fission cells. The scientific term for
a mode of asexual
reproduction by bacteria,
this process in eukaryotes is
where genetic information
is copied and the cell splits
mitosis. In prokaryotes, it is
in half known as binary fission.

Figure 2.42 A cut heals because mitosis occurs,

creating new cells to replace the damaged ones.

Skin Did you know? 2.5

You lose about 40 000 skin cells
every minute of every day. This means that, over a lifetime,
Figure 2.41 A simplified representation of mitosis: one cell you will lose at least half of your body weight in skin cells.
forms two new daughter cells
Have you ever wondered where dust comes from? Most of
the dust in your house is made up of your dead skin cells.
Why do cells divide?
No wonder mitosis happens a lot!
Mitosis happens for a number of reasons:
repair, growth and reproduction.

Repair a single cell, which was a fertilised egg.

If you cut your skin or break a bone, your By the time you become an adult, you
body can close the wound or set the bone will be made of around 37.2 trillion cells.
over time. This happens because millions A massive amount of cell growth occurs
of new cells are produced to replace the before you are born and in your first few
damaged cells. Some cells in your body, years of life, but you will still be growing
such as your red blood cells and skin cells, until your late teens. This means your
need to be replaced regularly. bone cells need to reproduce in order for
you to get taller, your muscle cells need
Growth to keep up with your bone cells, and your
In order to grow, your body needs to nerve cells need to grow in order to extend
make more cells. You first started out as throughout your body.

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72 Chapter 2 CELLS

Reproduction
Unicellular organisms such as bacteria
remain one cell their entire life. They
don’t undergo cell division for growth and
repair, because their whole body is just one
cell. The only reason bacteria divide is for
reproduction. This form of reproduction
is known as binary fission and involves
the bacterium splitting in half to produce
an identical copy of itself. Because this
process does not require a mate and is fairly
simple, bacteria can reproduce around
every 30 minutes. This means that, in one
Figure 2.43 Plants need to grow too, and so their day, a single bacterial cell could become
cells also undergo mitosis. 140 737 488 355 328 cells.

Figure 2.44 Bacteria, under the right conditions, can reproduce very quickly by binary fission.

Cancer Explore! 2.5

Cancer is a disease of the body’s cells. Cells normally grow and multiply
in a controlled way, but if there is a change in someone’s genetic
material, this control can be lost. Cancer is the term used to describe
uncontrolled cell division. Because cancerous cells can arise from almost
any type of cell, there are about 100 different types of cancers.
1 Research and define the terms ‘benign’ and ‘malignant’.
2 Select a type of cancer to investigate – for example, prostate, breast,
bowel, skin, lung. Summarise the cause, prevention and treatment of
the chosen cancer.
Figure 2.45 Doctor checking a mole for
signs of skin cancer

Cervical cancer Science as a human endeavour 2.4

You may have seen in the news in late 2018 that Australia is on
track to be the first country in the world to eliminate cervical cancer.
This prediction has been credited to the introduction, a decade
ago, of the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination program for
schoolchildren. The Cancer Council NSW has shown that, if vaccination
and screening levels are continued, rates of diagnosed cervical cancer
will drop.

Figure 2.46 HPV vaccination

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 Section 2.4 Function and malfunction 73

1 Cell division is a normal process that occurs in your body. List the three reasons Quick check 2.8
it occurs.
2 Explain why skin cells need to divide regularly.
3 What is the name of the process that bacteria undergo to reproduce?
4 Describe a disease that results from a malfunction of the normal process of cell division.

Micro-organisms didn’t know that diseases came from

micro-organisms and that the air is full of
Micro-organisms are organisms that are
micro-organisms. Before this time, people
so small they can only be viewed using
believed that mould on bread appeared
a microscope. Bacteria, some fungi and
spontaneously – this theory is known as
some protists are examples of such small
spontaneous generation.
organisms. As you know, most bacteria
(such as those in your intestines) and fungi
A scientist known as Louis Pasteur was a
(such as the yeast used to make bread) are
microbiologist who used microscopes to
harmless and can actually benefit us in some
study the microscopic world. He conducted
way. However, some are dangerous. ‘Germ’
a series of experiments proving that food
or ‘pathogen’ is the general term used to
went off because it was contaminated by
refer to a micro-organism that can cause a
micro-organisms in the air. His experiments
disease or infection. When you go to the
led him to invent pasteurisation, which is
toilet you probably wash your hands straight
the process of heating food or drink to a
away. This is because you were taught
high enough temperature to kill any micro-
from an early age that washing your hands
organisms, before sealing it. This drastically
kills germs. This might seem like common
increases the shelf life of foods and prevents
sense, but until about 150 years ago, people
the spread of disease.

4°C Heated 72°C Cooled 4°C

Cold water
Hot water

Heating section Cooling section

Fresh
milk in
Pasteurised
milk out
Figure 2.47 The process of pasteurisation

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74 Chapter 2 CELLS

Observing ‘friendly’ bacteria under the microscope Try this 2.6

Using your microscope and wet mount preparation skills, look at some bacteria under the
microscope. You will need the stain called methylene blue, and a sample of yoghurt or probiotic drink containing
live bacteria strains. Look at the size and structure of the bacterial cells, and consider how similar/different they
are to eukaryotic cells like plant and animal cells.

Practical 2.7

Modelling pasteurisation
Be careful
Aim Ensure benches are
To test the effect of temperature on the growth of bacteria cleaned and hands are
Materials washed before leaving
• probiotic drink • tripod, heatproof mat, the laboratory.
• 4 agar plates pipe clay triangle
• sterile swabs • sticky tape
• evaporation dish • disposable gloves
• Bunsen burner

Method
Part 1: Boiled probiotic
1 Place 10 mL of probiotic drink into the evaporation dish.
2 Heat to boiling point using a Bunsen burner.
3 When the mixture starts to boil, turn off the heat.
4 Dip the sterile swab into the heated mixture and spread the mixture over
the agar sheet, as shown in Figure 2.48 and explained below.
Swabbing technique
When you use the sterile swab, gently rub the swab over the agar in tight
lines to start with, and then slowly spread the lines apart as you move Figure 2.48 How to rub the swab over
down the agar plate. the agar

5 Place the lid on the plate and, with 2 to 4 pieces of sticky tape, tape down opposite edges of the plate.
6 Label the agar plate. Write your group name, date, and the independent variable. Keep your writing small,
and write around the outside edge of the agar plate.
7 Place the agar plate in the incubator with the agar side up, at 30 degrees, for two days.

Part 2: 30 degree probiotic

8 Dip a new sterile swab into the original probiotic mixture (unboiled).
9 Swab an agar plate as you did previously.
10 Seal the agar plate with sticky tape around the outside and label the agar plate underneath.
11 Place the agar plate in the incubator with the agar side up, at 30 degrees, for two days.

Part 3: Refrigerated probiotic

12 Repeat steps 8–10 and place the agar plate in the refrigerator for two days.
13 Identify the following variables in your experiment: independent variable, dependent variable and controlled
variables.
14 Write a hypothesis or prediction about how each condition will affect the growth of bacteria.
15 After two days, remove the agar plates from the incubator and refrigerator, and count the number of colonies
that you can see on the agar plates. A colony should look like a slightly raised round dot on the agar plate.
continued…

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 Section 2.4 Function and malfunction 75

…continued
Results
Copy and complete the table, to record your results.

Probiotic treatment Number of bacterial colonies

Boiled
Kept at 30°C
Refrigerated

Summary of the experimental results

Evaluation
1 Did your results support or disprove your hypothesis? Explain your results for each treatment.
2 Suggest two ways that your results could be useful for controlling bacterial growth.
3 Propose another independent variable that could have been tested, to expand on your results.
4 Consider whether you had a control in this experiment. If so, which treatment was the control? Explain
your answer.
5 Describe three possible sources of error and suggested improvements for this experiment.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding this experiment. Begin your statement with: ‘This experiment suggests that
temperature … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your
summary with: ‘The results show that … ’. Also include: ‘Possible sources of error were … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Following on from Pasteur’s experiments, By following simple hygiene practices,

other scientists used microscopes to help humans are living much longer and
them link micro-organisms to disease. healthier lives. Some ways in which you
This led to the realisation that washing our can prevent the spread of micro-organisms
hands, cleaning our homes and cooking and prevent diseases from passing from one
food properly can limit the spread of person to another are:
disease. 1 Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue
or your elbow pit when you sneeze.
2 Wash your hands regularly, especially if
you cough or sneeze into your hands.
3 Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth
after touching contaminated surfaces such
as hand rails or door handles.
4 Do not share drink bottles or cutlery
with other people unless the bottles or
cutlery are clean.
5 Quarantine – this is when a sick
person is kept away from the healthy
population, to prevent the illness from
spreading. If your doctor has ever told
Figure 2.49 Washing hands can prevent the spread you to stay home from school, that is a
of micro-organisms. form of quarantine.

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76 Chapter 2 CELLS

Disease
When someone says ‘disease’ it might
seem obvious what they mean. However,
a disease can be many things: it can be a
viral, bacterial or fungal infection, it can be
inherited from your parents, or it can be a
condition that develops over time due to
your environment. That is why we say that
a disease is any condition that negatively
affects the normal functioning of any part
of a living thing. Because this definition
is very broad, we classify diseases into two
Figure 2.50 Always sneeze into a tissue. categories: infectious and non-infectious.

Having a deeper understanding of cells allows

Touching your face is one of Did you know? 2.6 us to understand and treat many diseases.
the easiest ways to allow micro-
organisms into your body. On average people touch their In the past, if you were very sick and had to
face around 2000 times per day. See how many times you go to the doctor, you many have been given
touch your face in the next 20 minutes – it may shock you! antibiotics. Antibiotics kill most of the
bacteria they come into contact antibiotic
a medicine or chemical that
with, but do not harm the cells can destroy harmful bacteria
in the body or limit their
of your body. growth

Figure 2.51 How many times do you touch your face?

Figure 2.52 Antibiotics kill most of the bacteria

they come into contact with.
1 Define the following terms: Quick check 2.9
pathogen, micro-organisms, Before the invention of modern antibiotics,
pasteurisation. there were limited ways to treat bacterial
2 Explain the link between the three terms in Question 1. infections, so if you had a cut that was
3 Why is it better to sneeze into your elbow and not into infected, you had two choices. You could
your hands? either try the limited treatments, wait and
hope that the infection got better and did

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 Section 2.4 Function and malfunction 77

scientist Howard Florey shared the Nobel

Prize with Alexander Fleming and one other.

Today we have developed many other types

of antibiotics. Some work in the same way
as penicillin, and others slow or prevent the
reproduction of bacteria, which gives the
body’s immune system a better chance to
deal with the infection itself.

Figure 2.53 Infected mouth ulcer

not spread, or you could cut that part of

your body off, to prevent the infection from
spreading to the rest of your body.

Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered

the first antibiotic effective against a wide
range of bacteria in 1928, when he was
growing some bacteria in a laboratory. The Figure 2.55 Sometimes rest is all your body needs,
bacteria became contaminated with a mould to help heal itself.
from some fruit, and he noticed that the
mould was killing the bacteria. This led to It is important to remember that antibiotics
the discovery of the first antibiotic, called only work on bacteria. If you are infected
penicillin. Penicillin works by breaking by a virus or some other type of micro-
down the cell wall of bacteria, which causes organism, taking antibiotics will not cure
the cells to burst and die. For his work on you. In fact, taking antibiotics when you
developing penicillin and being the first to don’t need them can kill all the good
use it to treat an infection, the Australian bacteria in your digestive system, and in the
long term can help to create bacteria that
are resistant to antibiotics.

Figure 2.54 Testing antibiotics Figure 2.56 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a very real threat.

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78 Chapter 2 CELLS

Fighting antibiotic-resistant bacteria Science as a human endeavour 2.5

According to the World Health Organization, around 700 000 people
die every year as a result of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria cannot be killed using antibiotics.
In 2017, scientists in the UK and Germany published the findings of their discovery: a new way of targeting the
processes that bacteria carry out. This discovery could lead to the development of new antibiotics and help
overcome antibiotic resistance.

1 State the definition of ‘disease’. Quick check 2.10

2 State the categories of disease.
3 Name a type of antibiotic.
4 Describe how antibiotics work.

Practical 2.8

Fungi-fighting bacteria
Background information
Some bacteria produce an antifungal substance – this is a substance that can kill fungi. Soil is a good source of
antifungal bacteria, and so your aim in this experiment is to test the effectiveness of different soil dilutions on the
growth of fungi.

Aim
To test the effectiveness of different soil dilutions on the growth of fungi Be careful
Ensure benches
Materials
are cleaned and
• 4 dilutions of soil: 10% (1 g soil), 20% (2 g soil), 30% (3 g soil) and 40% (4 g soil) with
hands are washed
water added up until the 10 mL mark for each dilution
before leaving the
• yeast solution (1 tablespoon yeast in 250 mL warm water)
laboratory.
• 1 agar plate per group
• sterile swab
• 4 plastic pipettes
• sticky tape
• disposable gloves

Method
1 Identify the independent and dependent variables for this experiment.
2 Using the variables you identified in step 1, write an experimental hypothesis or prediction to be tested.
3 Draw a cross on the bottom of the agar plate, creating four quadrants.
4 Thoroughly swab the agar plate with the yeast solution, horizontally and then vertically, to get full coverage.
5 Using a pipette, place a few drops of each soil dilution in each quadrant and label the agar plate lid.
6 Allow time for the drops to be fully absorbed into the agar.
7 Cover the agar plate with the lid and with 2 to 4 pieces of sticky tape, tape down opposite edges of the plate.
Label the outside edge of the plate on the agar side.
8 Place in an incubator at 30oC for two days.
9 Observe the growth of the yeast in each quadrant and record the results.
continued…

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 Section 2.4 Function and malfunction 79

…continued
Results
Record your results in the table below.

Soil dilution (%) Amount of yeast growth as a % of the quadrant

Evaluation
1 Did your results support or disprove your hypothesis? Explain.
2 Suggest an application in real life for your findings.
3 Identify three variables you controlled in this experiment. Explain the importance of each of these controlled
variables.
4 Identify sources of error in this experiment, and suggest ways in which the experiment could be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding this experiment. Begin your statement with: ‘This experiment suggests that soil … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Begin your
summary with: ‘The results show that … ’. Also include: ‘Possible sources of error were … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 2.4 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the term ‘mitosis’.
2 State the three reasons that cells divide.
3 Why are antibiotics only useful in treating bacterial infections?

Understanding
4 Explain how bacteria reproduce.
5 Sometimes cells are described as clones. Explain what this means.
6 Demonstrate the difference between infectious and non-infectious diseases, using examples.

Applying
7 Summarise the process of pasteurisation, illustrating how it is beneficial to humans.
8 Identify the reasons why you should never remove the sticky tape from your agar plates after
carrying out an experiment investigating bacteria and its antifungal properties.
9 Explain in what way cancer relates to the control of cell division.

Analysing
10 Distinguish between malignant and benign cancer.
11 Compare how the development of different microscopes has led to our current understanding
of cells.

Evaluating
12 ‘Pasteurisation has led to improved human health.’ Assess the truth of this statement.
13 Design an experiment that investigates hand washing. Your aim is to determine the effectiveness
of washing hands on preventing bacterial growth. You may like to begin by identifying your
independent and dependent variables, and consider using agar plates for this task.

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80 Chapter 2 CELLS

Review questions

Remembering
1 Of the four kingdoms – Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protist – which consist of unicellular organisms
SCORCHER
and which consist of multicellular organisms?
2 Name two examples of protists.
3 Name three types of specialised cells.
4 Name the common components of the monocular light microscope.

Understanding
5 a What is the role of the following organelles in the cell?

Organelle Role in the cell

Nucleus
Cytosol
Golgi body
Ribosomes

b Copy the cell diagram below, and label the organelles listed in part a.

Figure 2.57 Eukaryotic cell

c Is the cell shown in part b a plant cell or an animal cell? Explain how you know.
6 Identify the role of the mitochondria in cells and why they are so important.
7 Identify the type of cell that can turn into any other type of cell.

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 Chapter 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS 81

8 Place the following microscope instructions in order by numbering the steps in the left column.
Step 1 has been done for you.

Step Description
Check that the iris adjustment is open
Draw a diagram
Return to low magnification objective lens
Centre your specimen slide on the stage
Rotate the objective lenses until the low magnification lens is in place
Turn on the power
1 Carry microscope with two hands to the bench
Carry microscope with two hands back to the cupboard
Turn off the power and let the lamp cool
Using coarse focus knob, focus away from the slide
Lower the lowest magnification objective lens until it is close to the stage
Swing a higher magnification objective lens into place
Remove cover and plug in the microscope
Unplug the microscope, pack up and place on cover
Use only the fine focus knob

Applying
9 After going on holiday, you come home to find that all your plants are wilted. Explain why this
has occurred, referring to parts of the cell.
10 Identify two disadvantages of the electron microscope.
11 Identify the type of microscope that needs to be used to view objects smaller than a cell.
12 a Use ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to complete the table below, which summarises the organelles that are
found in each cell type.

Animals Plants Fungi

Nucleus
Cell wall
Large vacuole
Cytosol
Cell membrane
Chloroplast

b Classify animals, plants and fungi as unicellular, multicellular or both.

Analysing
13 Peroxisomes are small organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Their job is to break down waste in
the cell. Using the ‘cell as a city’ model, suggest an appropriate analogy for peroxisomes.
14 Contrast the terms ‘resolution’ and ‘magnification’.
15 Draw a Venn diagram that compares prokaryote cells (such as bacteria) to eukaryotic cells
(such as plant and animal cells).

Evaluating
16 Create a flow diagram to describe the process involved in a stem cell transplant for leukaemia.
17 Evaluate the use of models when explaining the structure of the cell.

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82 Chapter 2 CELLS

STEM activity: Design a city

Background information
VCSSU092 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
All living things, from humans to dogs, trees and
bacteria, are made up of cells. Cells are the smallest
unit of life and are so small that you cannot see
most of them without a microscope. While some
two identical cells. Unicellular organisms reproduce
organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of only
by mitosis, and multicellular organisms use mitosis
one cell, multicellular organisms can be made up of
for growth and repair.
trillions of cells. Cells work together to form organs,
Analogies are often used in science to explain,
which work together to form body systems (e.g.
in simple terms, how processes work. An analogy is
respiratory, circulatory), which are vital in working
a comparison with something familiar. The way in
together to form complex multicellular organisms.
which organelles in a cell function together can be
Although cells are small, they are complex. For
compared with the way in which the components of
example, today we use microscopes to see inside
a city work together to make the city function well.
a cell and observe even smaller components of the
Cities all need to have structures and processes
cell, called organelles. These organelles all have
in place, to manage functions such as transport,
different functions and work together to keep the
sanitation, utilities, housing, construction and food
cell alive. Cells also reproduce via a process called
production. There also needs to be a governing
mitosis, in which each cell divides and produces
body that oversees all these activities.

Figure 2.58 A cell can be compared to a city.

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 STEM activity DESIGN A CITY 83

Suggested materials/presentation
Design brief: Design a city using cells as a model
format
Activity instructions • Poster
• PowerPoint
Your task is to design a city, based on the structure • Video
and functions of a cell. Your model should address
some of the challenges that we face in modern cities Evaluate and modify
(e.g. transportation, overcrowding). You will first
need to think about all the major organelles and their 1 Analyse the solutions you have come up with,
functions, and then try to relate them to a feature and comment on how achievable they would be
of a city. For example, the mitochondria are often in the real world today.
described as being like the power plant of a cell. 2 Explain any problems that might be encountered
Once you have determined all the analogies, when implementing your solutions in the real
brainstorm some of the major challenges faced by world today. What types of technologies could
people living in modern cities. Research the ways in be incorporated into your solutions (e.g. artificial
which a cell might solve the various challenges you intelligence, renewable energy)?
have come up with, and put together a presentation 3 Evaluate the effectiveness of your analogies by
illustrating your solutions. examining what features of how a city works are
This is an opportunity to be creative. Your different from how a cell works. For example,
presentation could include sketches or diagrams, if you have mentioned that chloroplasts are
and should it propose solutions to a number of like solar panels, explain how the process of
problems encountered in modern cities. photosynthesis is different from the process of
converting light energy into electricity.

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84

Chapter 3 Organ systems

Chapter introduction
You are a large and complex multicellular organism. You eat, move, sleep, think, breathe and fight
disease every day, and you can only do this because of all the different types of cells and tissues in your
body. Throughout this chapter, you will learn about how the cells, tissues and organs in your body work
together to allow you to function effectively. You will also explore how scientific advances have allowed
humans to repair and replace parts of the body.

Curriculum
Multicellular organisms contain systems of organs that carry out specialised functions that enable
them to survive and reproduce (VCSSU094)
• examining the specialised cells and tissues involved in structure and function of 3.1
particular organs
• describing the structure of each organ in a system and relating its function to the 3.2, 3.4, 3.5
overall function of the system
• identifying the organs and overall function of a system of a multicellular organism 3.2, 3.4, 3.5
in supporting life processes
• comparing similar systems in different organisms, for example, digestive systems 3.3, 3.6
in herbivores and carnivores, respiratory systems in fish and mammals

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 85

Glossary terms
alveoli enzyme pharynx
anus ethical plasma
aorta function platelets
artery gall bladder rectum
atrium guard cells saliva
bile haemoglobin sinoatrial node
bolus herbivore sphincter
bronchi ileum stomata
bronchioles jejunum structure
capillaries lenticels tissue
carnivore mechanical digestion trachea
cellular respiration neuron vein
chemical digestion organ vena cava
chyme organ rejection ventricle
diaphragm organ transplantation villi
duodenum pancreas xenotransplantation

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86 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Concept map

3.1
Damaged organs require
repair or replacement for 3.2
continued survival.
3.3

3.4

Systems Many multicellular organisms are 3.5

composed of various specialised
cells that are organised into tissues, 3.6
organs and organ systems.
3.7

Gas exchange in
humans occurs
in the lungs.

Gas exchange in
Respiratory plants occurs via
system the stomata.

Gas exchange
in fish occurs in
the gills.

Circulatory
system

Organs differ in
Digestive function and length
system according to what the
organism eats.

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 Section 3.1 Cells to systems 87

3.1 Cells to systems

Specialised cells
Humans are animals, and our cells contain
WORKSHEET
a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
mitochondria and all the other organelles
discussed in the previous chapter. Even
though most of our cells contain the same
basic components, the different types of
specialised cells within our bodies all have
certain features or structures
structure
the shape of an object that allow them to perform a
function specific function. A structure
the job that an object does
is any physical part of an
object, and a function is an activity that the
structure helps the object to complete.
Figure 3.1 Neurons are shown on the left, and on the right is the main
organ of the nervous system, the brain.
All the cell types in your body begin as
unspecialised stem cells. As the cells grow Red blood cells
and develop, they differentiate, forming Red blood cells transport oxygen to all the
over 200 different types of cells that are you. cells in your body. These blood cells have
These cells then replicate to produce more to pass along tiny blood vessels and so they
copies of each type of specific cell. are flat and have a bi-concave shape, like a
flexible disc or a donut.
Neurons
Nerve cells or neurons allow all the parts of
your body to work together, by transferring
neuron signals to and from your brain
a nerve cell
to each part of your body via
the nervous system. Nerves are important
because they allow us to interact with the
world around us via our senses. Neurons are
long, thin cells that connect to each other
via their highly branched ends. They have
long axons, which are specialised to carry
electrical signals over long distances, at very
fast speeds. The longest nerve cell in your
body stretches from the bottom of your
spine to your big toe. Figure 3.2 Red blood cells travelling through a blood vessel

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88 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

When they reach maturity they do not have cells also have many mitochondria at
a nucleus, which gives them extra room the top of the tail, to provide energy for
to carry oxygen around the body. As they fast movement.
do not have a nucleus, they cannot undergo
cell division, and so all red blood cells are
produced in the bone marrow. Your red
blood cells are replaced every 120 days.

Sperm cells
Sperm cells carry half the genetic
information of a normal human cell.
Their purpose is to combine with an egg
cell in a process known as fertilisation,
which is the first step of reproduction.
This means that the sperm cells have to
be able to move. That is why they have
a specialised tail, called a flagellum,
which beats in a corkscrew motion and Figure 3.3 A sperm tries to penetrate an egg. Note
allows the sperm cell to swim. Sperm its long whip-like tail.

1 How many different types of cells are there in the human body? Quick check 3.1
2 What are unspecialised cells called?
3 List one structural feature of each of the following cell types:
a Neuron
b Red blood cell
c Sperm.

Practical 3.1

Specialised cells
Aim Be careful
To observe specialised cells under the microscope Ensure that you
carry the microscope
Materials appropriately. Carry it
• compound microscope with one hand holding
• transparent ruler the arm and one hand
• prepared slides of blood under the base. Do not
• prepared slides of neurons make big changes in
• prepared slides of blood vessels magnification, so the
Method glass slide does not get
damaged.
Estimating the field of view
1 Place the transparent ruler on the stage of the microscope.
2 Starting on the lowest magnification, focus on the ruler.
continued…

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 Section 3.1 Cells to systems 89

…continued
3 Measure the diameter of the area you can see under the microscope (field of view) using the ruler.
4 Record this measurement in the field of view (FOV) table.
5 Calculate the FOV size in micrometres (µm) by multiplying by 1000.
6 Calculate the FOV for each of the higher magnifications by repeating steps 2–5.

Estimating the size of the object

7 Place your first prepared slide on the stage of the microscope.
8 Focus on the object using the lowest-power lens.
9 Estimate how many of the cells will fit in a straight line across the middle of the FOV.
10 Divide the total FOV size that you have already calculated by the estimated number that will fit across the FOV.
11 Record your estimated size for the object in the results table.
12 Draw a scientific drawing of the cell you are observing.
13 Repeat steps 8–12 for each slide.

Results
Copy the following tables and use them to record your observations and measurements.

Magnification FOV size (mm) FOV size (µm)

(ocular lens × objective lens) (mm × 1000)

FOV table

Cell Scientific Number of times FOV diameter Estimated size of object

drawing and cell would fit (FOV/number of times
magnification across the FOV object fits across)
Blood
Neuron
Blood vessel
Results table

Evaluation
1 Describe how the size of each of the cells you observed benefits its function.
2 Assess the accuracy of your estimated sizes.
3 Suggest a way of improving your size estimates.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this activity regarding the size of cells and how this relates to their function?
Begin your sentence with: ‘This activity suggests that …. ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The observations reveal that … ’ and
remember to include possible sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that …. ’.

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90 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Levels of organisation
Cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ systems. An example is
shown in Figure 3.4.

Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism

Example:

Neuron Nerves Brain Nervous system Human

Figure 3.4 The nervous system is an example of cells being organised into an organ system.

Cells its surroundings. Humans are multicellular,

A cell is the basic unit of life. Every living and are composed of many specialised types
organism is made up of at least one cell. of individual cells that carry out specific
Unicellular organisms are made up of only functions. Because of this, the cells inside
one cell and this cell interacts directly with your body cannot gain nutrients and get rid
its environment. This means that the cell of wastes without the help of other cells.
can absorb nutrients from the substance it This is where tissues, organs and organ
is on or in, and excrete waste directly into systems come into play.

Respiratory system Nervous system

Skeletal system Digestive system

Person (organism)

Circulatory system Muscular system

Figure 3.5 A multicellular organism such as a human is composed of many specialised cells, which are
organised into tissues, organs and organ systems.

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 Section 3.1 Cells to systems 91

Tissues
When a group of cells of the same type
work together in a body, we call them a
tissue. One of the most
tissue
a group of cells performing obvious tissues in animals is
the same function
muscle tissue. These groups
of cells contract and relax in order to
generate movement by the animal. Muscle
tissues require lots of energy, and so each
cell has many mitochondria to carry out
cellular respiration and provide that energy.
Muscle cells also have a good supply of
blood, to deliver oxygen and glucose for
cellular respiration and to remove waste
products such as carbon dioxide. Other
types of tissue include lung tissue, liver
tissue, and connective tissues such as Figure 3.7 The human brain is a complex organ composed of neurons,
tendons and ligaments. Even blood is blood vessels and other cells.
considered a tissue.
The largest organ in the human Did you know? 3.1
body is actually our skin. On
average, skin weighs around 2.7 kg and, if stretched out,
would cover over 1.5 square metres. If you look closely at a
small area of skin – say, the palm of your hand – you will see
tiny holes, called pores. What you can’t see is that there are
over 6 metres of blood vessels, thousands of nerve endings
and hundreds of tiny glands secreting oil onto your skin.
The skin cells themselves are replaced every 10–30 days,
which means that, on average, we each get through around
900 complete skins in a lifetime.

Figure 3.6 A high-magnification photograph of human cardiac Practice Science as a human endeavour 3.1
(heart) muscle, seen through a light microscope. Note that makes
each of the long, thin muscle cells has a purple nucleus.
perfect
In late 2017, a research team from the University of
Organs
Minnesota used 3D printers to produce lifelike artificial
A group of different tissues working organs for training surgeons to practise on. While the use
together to perform a specific function is of models and computer simulations in surgical training is
called an organ. The brain is one of the not new, these fake organs are much more realistic, as they
organ most important organs in perfectly mimic the anatomical structure, look and feel of a
a group of tissues working
together to perform a
the body and is made up patient’s organ. It is even possible to embed soft sensors in
function of different nerve tissues them, to give the surgeons feedback about their technique,
that make up the grey and white matter. with the aim of minimising surgical errors and improving
There are also many blood vessels that flow patient outcomes.
through the brain.

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92 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Organ systems How many human organ Try this 3.1

A group of different organs working systems can you name?
together is called an organ system (or body Brainstorm with a partner and make a list.
system). The structures of the system each A helpful starting point might be to think
perform distinct processes or functions. of organs in the body and then classify
Your digestive system is one of the most them according to what organ system they
diverse organ systems in your body, with belong to.
around twelve main organs, such as the
mouth, stomach, liver, pancreas and
intestines, along with many other smaller Organisms
organs and glands that help to break down
A group of organ systems working together
food and absorb nutrients into your body.
supports a living being, called an organism.
Each day, we eat food, breathe air and
excrete waste products from our bodies.
The many organ systems in our bodies
work together in integrated ways to detect
and respond to changes and complete the
processes required to keep us alive.

Figure 3.9 A couple show an ultrasound image of

Figure 3.8 The human digestive system is essentially a their unborn baby. It is amazing to think that inside
long tube from the mouth to the anus. Many accessory this tiny organism (within another organism!) all
glands assist in the digestive process. the body’s essential organ systems are developing.

1 Place the following structures into the correct level of Quick check 3.2
organisation, from largest to smallest.
cell, organ system, organism, organ, tissue
2 Why don’t unicellular organism have organs?
3 Name five components of the human digestive system.
4 What is a tissue?

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 Section 3.1 Cells to systems 93

Plants are people too! Explore! 3.1

Well, not exactly, but they are eukaryotic organisms, just like us. This means their cells have
complex membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus. We tend to think that, because plants are usually
sessile (stationary), they are less complicated than animals, but plants also have specialised cells that are
organised into tissues, organs and organ systems.
Research one plant of your choice and list one example of each of the levels of organisation:
Cell:      Tissue:      Organ:      Organ system:      Organism:

Levels of organisation study mate Try this 3.2

Step 1 Hold a piece of A4 paper in ‘portrait’ (upright) orientation.
Step 2 Fold it in half vertically – from left to right.
Step 3 Cut the front page only into six horizontal sections, and label the front of these six flaps ‘organelle, cell,
tissue, organ, organ system, organism’ from the top down.
Step 4 On the back of each flap, add the definition of each of the six levels of organisation.
Step 5 On the back page of the brochure, add some examples of each of the six levels of organisation.
When you look at the front of the brochure, you should see the names of the levels of organisation.
As you open each flap, you should see the definition and examples.

Section 3.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State the function of red blood cells.
2 State one structure of a nerve cell that allows it to complete its function.
3 Define the term ‘tissue’.

Understanding
4 Explain how the sperm cell’s tail relates to its function.
5 Explain why multicellular organisms need multiple specialised cell types working together to
function properly.

Applying
6 Sketch some simple diagrams that model the difference between a cell, a tissue, an organ
and an organ system.
7 Choose which of the following statements are correct.
A An organ is composed of different types of tissue.
B A tissue is composed of only one type of cell.
C If you look at a tissue under the microscope, you will see many different organs.

Analysing
8 Compare and contrast a sperm cell and a red blood cell.
9 Categorise the following terms as either cells, tissues, organs, organ systems or organisms:
liver, neuron, sperm, dog, digestive, human, eucalyptus, brain, muscle, blood.

Evaluating
10 A new organism is discovered, and a study of its internal anatomy reveals that nutrients
enter via a hole and are transported through a long tube into a storage area, before being
excreted through a sphincter. Justify whether this is evidence of a tissue, an organ or an
organ system.

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94 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

3.2 The human respiratory

system

Breathing vs respiration Freedivers Did you know? 3.2

You can probably hold your breath for While you or
WORKSHEET I might be able to hold our breath under
about a minute, maybe two, but after that
your body forces you to take a huge gulp of water for about 30 seconds, people who
practise freediving can hold their breath
air. This is because the cells in our bodies
for more than 20 minutes! Freedivers
need a constant supply of fresh oxygen,
do not use equipment like scuba gear.
in order to produce energy and function
Instead, they have developed techniques
cellular respiration efficiently. Cellular respiration is
a process that occurs inside such as hyperventilation, which allows
the mitochondria, where the process that happens inside the
them to reduce the concentration of
oxygen and glucose react
to form carbon dioxide and
mitochondria in our cells, which carbon dioxide in their blood. Special
water, producing useable turns glucose and oxygen into useable breathing exercises aim to increase
energy
energy. The process also produces the their lung capacity, and their bodies
waste products of carbon dioxide and water. are adapted to dealing with prolonged
If you stop breathing, you are preventing periods of low oxygen. In 2012, German
oxygen entering your body and therefore freediver Tom Sietas held his breath
depriving your cells of oxygen. under water for 22 minutes and 22
seconds, breaking the Guinness World
Record by 22 seconds.
Key idea
To summarise: breathing is a physical
process, respiration is a chemical process.

Figure 3.11 Freediving in the ocean

Figure 3.10 When you breathe out on a cold day, you can see your warm
breath start to condense in the cold air.

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 Section 3.2 The human respiratory system 95

The respiratory system released through your nose and mouth

because the pressure has increased in
The main job of the organs in the
the lungs.
respiratory system is to get oxygen into
your body cells and release the waste
product carbon dioxide into the air. The
respiratory system works very closely with
the circulatory system, which transports Nasal
cavity
the oxygen you breathe in and removes
the carbon dioxide you breathe out. Epiglottis Pharynx

Larynx
Big breath in!
When you breathe in (inhale), a large
Trachea
muscle at the base of your ribs, called the
Bronchus
diaphragm diaphragm, contracts and
a dome-shaped muscle Lung
that separates the chest pulls down. At the same Bronchiole
and abdominal cavities; it
contracts to cause us to
time, the intercostal muscles Alveoli
inhale between your ribs contract,
moving the ribs upwards and outwards. Diaphragm
This reduces the pressure in your lungs
and draws air in through your mouth and
nose as the pressure outside is higher than
in the lungs. As you breathe out (exhale),
the diaphragm relaxes and air is passively Figure 3.12 Structure of the human respiratory system

Air inhaled Air exhaled

Chest expands Chest contracts

Lung
Ribcage Diaphragm
Diaphragm relaxes

Diaphragm
contracts

Figure 3.13 The movements of the chest during inhalation and exhalation

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96 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Diaphragmatic breathing Try this 3.3

Diaphragmatic breathing involves paying close attention as you breathe, in a slow and
controlled way. It is commonly used during mindfulness activities and meditation. Let’s have a try!
Step 1 Find a comfortable position where you are standing up straight against a wall, or seated in a chair with
your feet flat on the floor. Close your eyes.
Step 2 Relax your shoulders. Place your hands over your stomach, around the level of the base of your ribs.
Step 3 Close your mouth and begin to breathe in and out slowly through your nose. Notice how, when you
breathe in, your stomach seems to swell under your hands and your rib cage expands upwards and
outwards. As you breathe out, you can feel the diaphragm relax and your ribs sink back in.
Step 4 Practise breathing in and out through your nose, in a slow and controlled way. Pay attention to the noise
of your breath, and try to notice the sensation as the air enters and exits your nose. If you are aware of
any tension you are holding in your body, for example in your shoulders, try and relax, and breathe out
the tension with each exhalation.
Practising diaphragmatic breathing is a great way to refocus and allow yourself to be present in the moment. It
can slow your heart rate, boost oxygen levels and even reduce blood pressure.

Mouth and nose Trachea and bronchi

The two main openings to your respiratory The trachea is a wide tube with thick
system are your mouth and your nose. It is protective rings of cartilage that keep
best to breathe through your nose, as the it open. You can feel the rings if you
function of your nose is to warm up and feel your throat. Warm, moist air from
moisten the air coming into your body, filter the nose and mouth enters the lungs by
out any particles via the hairs in your nasal travelling down the trachea. The structure
cavity and also stimulate your sense of your lungs is very similar
bronchi
pharynx of smell. If you close your mouth and to a tree. The trunk of the the two branches of the
the throat region where airways that split off the
the nasal cavity and oral exhale, the air will be directed out tree is the trachea, and this trachea, one main left
cavity meet, leading into the bronchus to the left lung and
trachea through your nose. This is because the large tube splits into two one main right bronchus to
trachea nose and the mouth are connected in a smaller tubes called bronchi, the right lung
the tube that carries air
down to the lungs; also region called the pharynx, which leads
known as the windpipe
to the trachea or windpipe.

Snoring Explore! 3.2

Snoring can be an annoying habit and
can prevent people from getting a good night’s rest. You
snore because parts of your throat relax and vibrate as you
breathe once you’re asleep. However snoring can also be
a symptom of bigger medical problems. Do some research
into why snoring occurs and what can be done to stop it.
Your research should answer the following questions.
1 What are some risk factors for snoring (things that
increase your likelihood of snoring)?
2 Which structures in the respiratory system are involved
in snoring?
3 Snoring can be a warning sign of a medical condition
Figure 3.14 This drawing of the lungs shows the
called sleep apnoea. Describe this condition.
blue central trachea dividing into the left and right
4 What treatments are available to reduce snoring? bronchi. The orange bronchi then branch into
bronchioles.

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 Section 3.2 The human respiratory system 97

which are similar to branches and lead intercostal muscles relax, the carbon
into the left and right lungs. The bronchi dioxide-rich air is released back out
then branch into smaller through your nose and mouth.
bronchioles VIDEO
smaller branching tubes and smaller tubes called Describe what
that branch off the two large
bronchi and lead to the bronchioles, which are happens in an
alveolus
alveoli
similar to small twigs.

Alveoli
When the air gets to the end of the
smallest bronchiole, it enters small sac-
alveoli like structures called alveoli.
the tiny sacs at the end of
bronchioles in the lungs; the The alveoli are only one cell
site of gas exchange with
capillaries
thick and are surrounded
capillaries by a net of very small blood
the smallest blood vessels,
one cell thick, and the site of
vessels, called capillaries.
gas exchange with cells This is where gas exchange
occurs: oxygen diffuses out of the
alveoli and into the capillary (into the
bloodstream). Carbon dioxide moves in
Figure 3.15 Gas exchange occurs between the alveoli and the
the opposite direction, from the capillary capillaries. The oxygenated blood is returned to the heart, and the
into the alveoli. As the diaphragm and carbon dioxide-rich air is exhaled.

Practical 3.2

Modelling the pressure changes in the lungs

Aim
To model how contraction of the diaphragm creates negative pressure inside the lungs

Materials
• plastic bottle, 500 mL or 1 L
• straw
• 2 rubber bands
• 2 balloons
• putty
• scissors
• sticky tape

Method
1 Tie a knot in one of the balloons and then cut off about a quarter of the other end.
2 Cut the bottle in half and only use the top half.
3 Put sticky tape around the cut edge of the bottle.
4 Stretch the cut balloon over the cut bottle opening, and secure in place with an elastic band and sticky tape.
5 Put a straw into the second balloon and use an elastic band to hold them together.
6 Place the straw with balloon attached through the neck of the bottle and seal the hole with putty.
7 Pull down on the bottom balloon covering and describe what you observe.
continued…

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98 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued

Figure 3.16 Experiment set-up. Breathing in: pressure in the lungs is lower than the atmosphere, so
air flows in. Breathing out: pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmosphere, so air flows out.

Results
Draw your model of the lung in your book and label each of the parts that represents the following structures:
lungs, ribs, diaphragm, trachea, mouth.

Evaluation
1 Describe the flow of air when you pull down on the balloon at the bottom of your model.
2 Explain what happens to the balloon lung when you push the balloon at the bottom of your model upwards.
3 Create a story board that explains how your model reflects the function of the respiratory system.

Conclusion
What similarities can you draw between your model and the actual human respiratory system? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This activity demonstrates that … ’.

Asthma Science as a human endeavour 3.2

Asthma is a chronic lung condition that involves
inflammation of the airways, tightening of the bronchioles
in response to certain triggers, and hypersecretion of
mucus in the airways. People who suffer from mild asthma
might feel slightly tight in the chest when they exercise
or breathe in cold air, but some severe sufferers must
take medications such as steroids every day to treat the
inflammation.
A recent development has seen asthma patients
benefitting from using an antibody that has previously
been used to treat eczema (an inflammatory skin condition
that causes dry, itchy rashes). The antibody appears to
block a protein that causes some of the inflammation in
Figure 3.17 An asthma sufferer uses a reliever medication
the airways, and results in improved lung function in the (an inhaler or puffer) to open up their airways.
participants and less reliance on steroid medications.

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 Section 3.2 The human respiratory system 99

1 Define the main function of the respiratory system. Quick check 3.3
2 Describe what happens to air as it passes through the nose.
3 Arrange these terms in order so that they represent the direction of airflow during
inhalation: alveoli, pharynx, nose/mouth, bronchus, trachea, bronchiole.
4 Explain how the diaphragm is involved in breathing in and out.

Your lungs float! Did you know? 3.3

Each of your lungs contains around 300 million alveoli, which you can
imagine as tiny balloons. When ‘inflated’, the lungs are the only organ in the human body that
can float on water.

Gas exchange in animals amount of gas that comes into contact

Deep in the lungs, the alveoli are the site with the animal’s blood.
of gas exchange in humans and other • a moist surface that gases dissolve into
species that have lungs. But some members before they enter or leave the body. This
of the animal kingdom have developed makes the process of diffusion much
very different specialised structures for easier for gases.
gas exchange, such as gills in fish, skin in • a thin surface and small barrier between
frogs and tracheoles in insects. All these the inside and the outside of the body.
structures share common features to allow This means that the gas has to travel a
for efficient function. These features are: smaller distance.
• a very large surface area. This is usually • a transport system near these structures,
achieved by folding or layering many such as blood vessels, to transport the
small cells together, which increases the gases to all parts of the body.
The alveoli in our lungs have all the
features listed above, which makes them an
extremely efficient gas exchange surface.
Airflow

Their surface area is so large that if you

were to pop your alveoli open and spread
them out flat, they would cover 18 table
tennis tables. That is a lot of surface area for
gas exchange, squeezed into your chest.

CO2 O2
1 Recall the Quick check 3.4
site of gas
w exchange in the lungs.
C api flo
lla r y b l o o d 2 State three gas exchange structures
found in the animal kingdom.
Figure 3.18 Gas exchange between the alveolus
and the capillary. Note the direction of diffusion as
3 What is the advantage of having a
oxygen enters the bloodstream and carbon dioxide moist surface for gas exchange?
leaves the bloodstream.

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100 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Practical 3.3

The products of breathing

Aim
To demonstrate the products found in exhaled air

Materials
• air pump
• straw
• conical flask
• glass Petri dish
• bromothymol blue
• water

Method
Bromothymol solution
1 Add 50 mL of water to a conical flask.
2 Add a few drops of bromothymol blue and record the colour in the ‘Observations before’ column of your
results table.
3 Using a pump and a straw, blow air slowly through the solution for 30 seconds.
4 Record your observations in the ‘Observations after’ column.
5 Using your breath and the same straw, blow air slowly through the bromothymol solution for 30 seconds,
being careful not to suck up any of the solution.
6 Record your results in the ‘Observations after’ column.

Petri dish
7 Using a pump, blow air directly over the Petri dish.
8 Record any changes in the results table.

Air source Bromothymol solution Petri dish

Observations Observations Observations Observations
before after before after
Pump
Exhaled

9 Using your breath, exhale directly over the Petri dish.

10 Record any changes in the results table.

Results
Evaluation
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, it becomes acidic. Bromothymol blue turns from blue to green/yellow
when it is exposed to acid.
1 Using the information above and the results you collected, explain your bromothymol blue before and after
results.
2 State the independent variable (the one you changed and tested) in this experiment.
3 Discuss your observations of the Petri dish portion of the practical, and relate your findings to the products of
respiration.
4 Identify two potential sources of error in this experiment.
5 Limewater turns from translucent to opaque when exposed to carbon dioxide. Using this information, explain
one way you could improve the experiment if you repeated it in the future.

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 Section 3.2 The human respiratory system 101

Frog business Explore! 3.3

Life began in the oceans, and gills were the first form of respiratory organ. As animals began
to move onto land, a new gas exchange surface was needed. Evidence of this gradual change from aquatic life to
terrestrial (land) life is present in amphibians today. In amphibians such as frogs, newts and salamanders, there
are several ways in which gas can be exchanged. Unlike mammals and birds, amphibians are cold blooded. This
means that their level of respiration can be lower, compared with a warm-blooded animal, and so their cells need
less oxygen to function properly.
1 Tadpoles spend all their time in water. Find out how they get oxygen, and explain how the features of gas
exchange (thin, moist surface etc.) relate to this process.
2 As tadpoles transition into adults, the process they use to gain oxygen changes. Explain how it changes.
3 Find out what ‘cutaneous respiration’ is and how it relates to a frog getting oxygen. Link this information to
the features that gas exchange surfaces exhibit.

Figure 3.19 A frog keeping its nostrils above water to breathe Figure 3.20 A frog with an extended buccal cavity

Modelling an animal respiratory system Try this 3.4

Using whatever materials you can find (suggestions: plastic bags, string, sawdust, bucket,
rubber tubing), construct a model of an animal’s respiratory system.

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102 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Section 3.2 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Name the gas that is absorbed into the body by the respiratory system.
2 Name the gas that is removed from the body by the respiratory system.
3 State the correct name for the ‘windpipe’.

Understanding
4 Describe the features necessary for effective gas exchange.
5 Explain how the parts of the respiratory system are similar to a tree.
6 Outline the functions of each of the following parts of the respiratory system:

Structure Function
Alveolus
Trachea
Nose
Bronchiole

Applying
7 Summarise the movement of the diaphragm during inhalation and exhalation.
8 Identify how the structure of the alveoli facilitates gas exchange.
9 A person suffers a spinal cord injury at a level that paralyses their diaphragm. What effect
would this have on their ability to breathe?
10 Construct a flow chart showing the route taken by an oxygen molecule, starting from the air
in your classroom and finishing in a body cell.

Analysing
11 Contrast the term ‘breathing’ with the
term ‘respiration’. Respiratory rate vs treadmill speed
12 The graph in Figure 3.21 shows a 50
person’s respiration rate when resting
Respiratory rate (min)

40
and when exercising.
a What was the person’s respiration 30
rate at rest?
b What was their respiration rate at the 20
maximum treadmill speed?
10
c Infer why their respiration rate
increased during exercise. 0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Evaluating Treadmill speed (km/h)
13 Suggest why it is better to breathe
through your nose than through Figure 3.21

your mouth.
14 Cystic fibrosis is a disease that causes over-production of mucus in the airways and can
be life-threatening if the person catches a cold or the flu, resulting in a chest infection.
Suggest a reason why a build-up of fluid in the lungs can be harmful, and why the person
may experience shortness of breath.

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 Section 3.3 Other respiratory systems 103

3.3 Other respiratory systems

Respiratory systems in plants

are mainly on the underside of the leaf, and
Gas exchange is important for all living they control the entry and exit of gases from
WORKSHEET
organisms, including plants. Plants carry out the plant. Guard cells in the stomata enable
cellular respiration as well as photosynthesis, them to open and close.
and so they need organs that allow their guard cells
internal structures to exchange gases with The guard cells of stomata contain cells on either side of a
plant stoma that control gas
the environment. The main gas exchange large vacuoles that, when filled with exchange by opening and
closing the stoma
organ in plants is the leaf. It is in the leaf water, hold the stomata pores open.
that plants take up carbon dioxide (one of However, when the plant begins to dry
the reactants in photosynthesis) and release out in periods without rain, or in high
oxygen (a waste product of photosynthesis). temperatures or low humidity, the vacuoles
inside the guard cells empty out and the
Each plant has many leaves, in the same cells become floppy or flaccid. This closes
way that your lungs have many alveoli. the stomata pores and reduces the amount
Leaves are usually flat, which increases the of water vapour lost through the leaf. Plants
surface area not just for light absorption need to allow gases to move in and out,
but also for gas exchange. but they also need to minimise the loss of
stomata
tiny pores (holes) in leaves Each leaf has tiny mouth- water vapour through the stomata. It is a
that allow entry/exit of gases
such as oxygen and carbon like structures, called balancing act, and plants do an amazing job
dioxide
stomata. The stomata (especially those that live in the desert).

Guard cell

Guard cell

Stoma

Figure 3.23 Swollen guard cells have forced open this stoma, allowing
Figure 3.22 Leaves are like lungs for a plant. gases to enter and exit the leaf.

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104 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Practical 3.4

Stomata lab
Be careful
Aim
Carry the microscope appropriately,
To observe plant stomata using a compound
with one hand holding the arm and
microscope, and estimate their size
one hand under the base. Do not make
Materials big changes in magnification, so that
• leaves the glass slide is not damaged.
• compound microscope
• transparent ruler
• sticky tape
• glass slide
• transparent nail polish

Method
Calculating FOV and estimating the size of the object
Refer to Practical 3.1 for the methods of calculating the size of the field of view and estimating the
size of the object.

Creating a stomata slide

1 Either pick three leaves from a walk around your school grounds or choose from leaves
provided by your teacher.
2 Identify the top and bottom of the leaf.
3 Use the nail polish to paint a thin layer of varnish on a small section of the bottom side of
the leaf.
4 Allow the polish to dry completely.
5 Place the sticky tape over the dry polish and pull off.
6 Place the sticky tape with the polish impression onto a microscope slide, and use the
compound microscope to focus on the stomata impression.
7 Focus on the highest possible magnification and sketch an image of the stomata. Use the
FOV calculations to estimate the size of the stomata.
8 Repeat for each leaf.

Results

Magnification FOV size (mm) FOV size (µm)

(ocular lens × objective lens) (mm × 1000)

FOV table
continued…

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 Section 3.3 Other respiratory systems 105

…continued

Plant Sketch, magnification and size estimate

Evaluation
1 State the estimated size of a stoma.
2 Outline how you could improve the reliability of your estimate.
3 Explain why different plants are likely to have a different number of stomata.
4 Suggest a reason why some stomata are open while others are closed.
5 Suggest one possible source of error in this experiment.
6 Suggest one way to improve this experiment if you were to repeat it in the future.

Figure 3.24 One stoma open and two stomata closed

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106 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Modelling stomata with a balloon Try this 3.5

1 Using a twist balloon, blow it up and fold it in half but do not tie a
knot in the end.
2 Keeping the balloon folded, allow some air to escape slowly from
the balloon.
3 Notice how the two sides of the balloon begin to come together.
This is similar to what happens in the stomata as they lose water. By
closing the stomata, the plant is able to limit water evaporation and
save water.

Inflated folded Deflated folded

balloon balloon

Figure 3.25

Thirsty plants Science as a human endeavour 3.3

At present, agriculture consumes 90% of the world’s fresh water,
in order to irrigate (water) crops. Scientists have found a way to genetically alter crops so that they are only
able to partially open their stomata. This means the plants lose less water vapour when they open their stomata
to gain the carbon dioxide they need to carry out photosynthesis. In a study conducted on tobacco plants, the
modification improved crop water use by 25% but did not affect the yield of the crops – that is, the same amount
was produced. Tobacco plants are easier to genetically modify, but now the research team hope to apply their
discoveries to food crops.

Although the stomata on leaves do a great

job of providing gases for the leaves, other
parts of the plant need to respire, using
oxygen. The thick woody parts of trees,
such as the branches, stems and trunks
lenticels have structures called lenticels. You
small slits on trunks or
branches of trees that allow
can often see these in the bark –
gas exchange they look like small dots or stripes.
Lenticels allow the thick woody parts of the
plant to exchange gases with the air.

1 Name the Quick check 3.5

structures in
leaves that allow gas exchange.
2 List three environmental factors that
could cause stomata to close.
3 Explain the process involved in closing
the stomata.
4 Identify how plants conduct gas
Figure 3.26 The small horizontal slits in this tree
exchange through their trunks. trunk are lenticels. You may have seen these on
trees but not known what they are.

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 Section 3.3 Other respiratory systems 107

Respiratory systems in fish that can be exchanged between the fish

and the water around it. Each filament
Lungs cannot function under water, and
also contains individual capillaries that
gills do not function on land. However,
increase the blood’s exposure to the
both these structures take in oxygen from
water around the fish, and this increases
the surroundings and excrete carbon dioxide
the amount of oxygen that the fish
from the body.
can absorb.
It might seem strange to think of water
Because the gills are very delicate, they are
containing gases such as oxygen and
protected by a hard shield known as the gill
carbon dioxide, but it does. These gases are
cover, which has an opening at one end to
dissolved in the water, just like sugar can
allow water to flow out.
dissolve in water. Interestingly, colder water
can contain more dissolved oxygen than
warmer water does.

Most fish respire through their gills,

which are on either side of their head,
near the mouth. The sections of gills look
very similar to feathers and are called
filaments. Filaments are like the alveoli in
your lungs. They provide a large surface
area, to maximise the amount of gas

Lamella

Filament

Gill arch Gill raker

Figure 3.27 The highly folded inside of fish gills
maximises the surface area available for gas
exchange. Figure 3.28 The complex structure of fish gills

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108 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Counter-current flow Explore! 3.4

Fish also have another way of increasing the level of diffusion in their gills, known as counter-
current flow. This process maximises the exchange of gases, because a guiding rule for diffusion is: the bigger
the difference between the concentration of a gas in two areas, the faster diffusion occurs.
1 Research what counter-current flow is and explain how it works.
2 Draw a picture to demonstrate counter-current flow in a fish gill.

Axolotls Did you know? 3.4

You may think axolotls have a super stylish headdress, but it actually has a very
important job. It is their gills!

Figure 3.29 The gills of an axolotl stick out from the side of its head to
maximise gas exchange with the surrounding water.

1 True or false: warm water holds more dissolved oxygen than cold water. Quick check 3.6
2 State the gases that fish need to exchange with their environment.
3 Outline the features of gills that allow efficient gas exchange.
4 List three ways in which gills speed up the diffusion of gases into and out of a fish.

Practical 3.5

Fish dissection
Be careful
Aim
Carry the microscope
To observe a fish dissection and view gills under a microscope
appropriately, with one hand
Materials holding the arm and one hand
• dissection microscope • dissecting scissors under the base. Do not make big
• Petri dish • probe changes in magnification, so the
1 • small knife
• fish per class glass slide does not get damaged.
2 • disposable gloves
continued…

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 Section 3.3 Other respiratory systems 109

…continued
Method
Retrieving the gills
1 Your teacher will make incisions with dissecting scissors, as shown in Figure 3.30.

Incision 1

Incision 3
Incision 4
Incision 2

Figure 3.30 External incisions

This will expose the internal anatomy of the fish.

2 Your teacher will identify the structures shown in Figure 3.31.

Backbone
Kidney
Swim bladder Brain

Gills

Gonads Intestine Heart

Liver
Stomach

Figure 3.31 Internal organs of the fish

Organ Feature
Heart The heart of a slow-moving fish is small, the heart of a fast-moving fish is large.
Liver A large organ located near the heart. Produces many digestive liquids and stores some
vitamins and nutrients.
Gonads Sex organs, male or female. Some species have both types of gonads in one fish.
Kidneys Two kidneys, located near the spine, regulate water levels in the body.
Gills The aquatic version of lungs. Each gill arch holds many hundreds of filaments, which are
feather-like structures with a large surface area.

Structural features of each organ

continued…

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110 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued
3 Your teacher will cut open the gill arch to expose the gills. You will be able to see that the gills are stacked on
top of each other.
4 Your teacher will cut the gill arches and pass one to each group.

Gill
laments

Gill
arch

Gill
rakers
Head Tail

Figure 3.32 Observe the structures: gill filaments are the site of gas exchange; gill rakers are
appendages along the front edge of the gill arch; gill arches support the gills.

Observing the gills

5 Take one of the gill filaments that your teacher has cut from the fish and place it in a Petri dish. Observe the
structure of the gill filaments – each filament has many plates, called lamellae.
6 Add a small amount of water to the Petri dish and observe how the gill filaments and lamellae separate when
they are in water.
7 Use a dissecting microscope to focus on the structure and draw a sketch.
8 Notice that there is a yellow/red sticky substance on the gills. This is a protective mucus similar to the mucus
in your lungs.

Evaluation
1 Name the organ involved in water regulation in fish.
2 The insides of humans are protected by skin. What structure do fish have?
3 Explain what you observed when you added water to the gill arch.
4 Using your observations, suggest why fish cannot ‘breathe’ out of water.
5 Identify how you might improve this practical if you were to repeat it in the future.

Conclusion
1 What conclusion can be made from this activity regarding the structure of fish gills and how this relates to
their function? Begin your sentence with: ‘This activity suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather to support the conclusions you have drawn? Begin your brief summary with:
‘We observed … . Therefore … ’.

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 Section 3.3 Other respiratory systems 111

Super crab! Science as a human endeavour 3.4

The invasive green shore crab has surprised
researchers by demonstrating that it uses its gills
not only for obtaining oxygen, but also for getting
nutrients. Because crabs have a hard shell, it was
assumed that they obtained their nutrition by eating
food and digesting it. However, crabs have been
observed to absorb amino acids (which make up
proteins) through their nine sets of specialised gills.
This might explain why crabs are able to thrive in
tough environmental conditions.

Figure 3.33 The green shore crab

Section 3.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the term ‘gas exchange’.
2 List three gas exchange structures found in nature.
3 State the location of stomata.

Understanding
4 Explain how stomata open and close.
5 Outline the reason for lenticels on a tree.
6 Summarise how surface area is maximised in gills.

Applying
7 Identify the conditions likely to promote high levels of dissolved oxygen in water.
8 Graph the following data to produce a line graph showing the amount of dissolved oxygen
(in milligrams/litre) in fresh water and sea water at different temperatures. Use temperature
as the independent variable (on the x-axis of the graph) and dissolved oxygen (mg/L) as the
dependent variable (on the y-axis of the graph). Use different coloured lines for fresh water
and sea water.

Water temperature (°C) 0 10 20 30 40 50

Dissolved oxygen in fresh water (mg/L) 14 11 9 8 7 6
Dissolved oxygen in sea water (mg/L) 12 9 7 6 5 5

Analysing
9 Compare the structure of the lungs to the structure of a tree.
10 Contrast the structure of human lungs with the structure of frog lungs.

Evaluating
11 Imagine a world where plants ceased to exist. Outline the impact this would have on
humans in terms of the gases that we each require and produce when breathing.

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112 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

3.4 The human circulatory

system

The partner of most of the organ systems

in the body is the circulatory system. This
WORKSHEET is a transport system that moves oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, immune cells, waste
and heat throughout the body, in one
continuous loop, for your entire life. Without
the circulatory system, none of the other
organ systems would be able to function.

Heart
The heart is a powerful muscular pump.
It has one job: to maintain pressure in
your circulatory system, which moves the
blood around your body. It generates high
Figure 3.34 The heart is the main organ of the
pressure, which pushes blood out of your circulatory system.
heart into the arteries. Blood continues
moving because of muscles around the Once in your heart, blood is ready for
veins putting pressure on the veins. Blood is recirculation. Your heart does this by
pushed towards the heart because valves in contracting and relaxing about 60–90 times
the veins prevent back-flow. per minute.

Testing your heart rate Try this 3.6

Your heart rate responds to the oxygen requirements of your body. For each
of the following test conditions, follow the procedure below and record your
heart rate (in beats per minute) in the table. You will need a stopwatch.
Find your pulse by gently pressing two fingers over your radial artery
(on the soft side of your wrist, slightly off centre towards the thumb).
Count the number of beats you feel in 15 seconds, using the stopwatch,
and then multiply by 4 to find your heart rate in beats per minute (bpm).
Test your pulse under the following conditions, then copy and
complete the table.
Figure 3.35 Feeling for the radial pulse
Test condition Heart rate (bpm)
Lying down
Sitting
After jogging for 3 minutes

Graph your data as a bar chart, and answer the following questions.
1 During which test condition was your heart rate:
a at its highest b at its lowest?
2 For each answer you gave to Question 1, propose a reason why this was the case.

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 Section 3.4 The human circulatory system 113

Your heart is located near the centre of your Unlike other muscles in your body, the
chest, and it is about the same size as when heart contracts (beats) without having to
you form a fist with your hand. It is made up receive instructions from the brain. This
of four main sections: the right atrium and is because it has a natural pacemaker,
left atrium (top parts called the sinoatrial node, in sinoatrial node
atrium a natural pacemaker that
one of the two upper chambers of the of the heart), and the the wall of the right atrium. The controls the heartbeat and
heart, the left atrium and right atrium is located in the wall of the
right and left ventricles sinoatrial node sends an electrical right atrium
ventricle
one of the lower two chambers of the (v-shaped bottom part signal throughout the heart, causing
heart, the left and right ventricles
of the heart). it to contract.

To upper Figure 3.36 The human heart and

body its major vessels, chambers and
Aorta valves. The heart is labelled as it
Superior sits in your chest, but it is drawn
vena cava Pulmonary as if it were visible to someone
artery facing you. This is why the left
To To ventricle is located on the right-
right left hand side of the diagram.
lung lung

From
left
From lung
right
lung
Left
Right atrium
atrium
Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve

Right
Left
ventricle
ventricle

Inferior vena
cava

VIDEO
From lower Semilunar Semilunar Describe how
the heart
body valve valve chambers
To lower contract
body

The human circulatory system is like a

Red or blue? Did you know? 3.5
double pump: the left side sends blood out When you look at your wrist, you
to the body, and the right side sends blood might be tempted to think that your veins are blue. The light
to the lungs. Let’s follow the path of a red passing through our skin makes our veins look blue, but this
blood cell through the circulatory system, is just an illusion!
using Figure 3.37 on the following page. Your veins contain deoxygenated blood (lower levels
of oxygen) which is actually still red, just a darker shade.
Some diagrams use blue to indicate areas of the circulatory
system containing deoxygenated blood, but this is just a
colour choice. Your blood is always red.

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114 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Blood returning to the heart from the As the blood passes through the lungs, it
body enters the heart though the superior releases the carbon dioxide it has stored
vena cava and goes into the right within it and gains oxygen from the alveoli
vena cava atrium. This blood has low levels of the lungs. Notice that, in Figure 3.37,
the large vessel that returns
deoxygenated blood to the of oxygen and high levels of carbon the blood coming from the lungs is now
heart, emptying into the right
atrium dioxide, and so in the diagram it is coloured bright red.
coloured dark red.
The oxygenated blood then returns from
The blood then passes into the right the lungs through the pulmonary veins into
ventricle, and is prevented from travelling the left atrium, where it passes into the left
backwards by a valve between the atrium ventricle and is then pumped
aorta
and the ventricle. Once in the ventricle, the out via the aorta to all the the largest vessel leaving the
heart, from the left ventricle,
blood is then pumped out of the heart and different parts of the body, carrying oxygenated blood to
the body
travels via the pulmonary artery to the lungs. delivering oxygen to the cells
and picking up the waste carbon dioxide.

1 Name the four Quick check 3.7

chambers of
the heart.
2 Which structure is the heart’s natural
pacemaker?
Lungs 3 For each of the vessels listed below,
Pulmonary
state whether it carries oxygenated or
artery
deoxygenated blood.
a Vena cava
b Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins c Pulmonary vein
d Aorta
Aorta
Vena cava
Left atrium
Right atrium
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Heart
Body

Low oxygen, High oxygen,

high carbon dioxide blood low carbon dioxide blood
Figure 3.37 Blood flows in the following loop: right atrium ➔ right ventricle ➔
pulmonary artery ➔ lungs ➔ pulmonary vein ➔ left atrium ➔ left ventricle ➔ aorta ➔
body tissues ➔ vena cava ➔ right atrium … and the loop starts again.

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 Section 3.4 The human circulatory system 115

Practical 3.6

Sheep heart dissection

Aim
To identify the path of blood flow through the heart and become familiar with the structures

Materials
• lamb heart, preferably with aorta and • two blue and two red pipe cleaners (or straws)
vena cava attached • wash bottle
• dissecting scissors • dissecting tray
• disposable gloves

Method
1 Place the heart on the dissecting tray, and identify Left side of heart
the front (anterior) and back (posterior).

s
ery
2 Before cutting into the heart, identify:

vein
ory art
• the vena cava – place a blue pipe cleaner into the

nary
Aor
vena cava (representing deoxygenated blood)

o
n
ta
• aorta – place a red pipe cleaner into the aorta

Pulm
Pulma
(representing oxygenated blood)
va
• pulmonary artery – place a blue pipe cleaner here ca
n a
(representing deoxygenated blood, note that this Ve
connects to the same chamber as the vena cava)
• pulmanory vein – place a red pipe cleaner here
(representing oxygenated blood, note that this
connects to the same chamber as the aorta)
Right side of heart
• right/left side (remember, these will be opposite
your left and right).
3 Place your finger into the vena cava and then into the aorta. Notice the difference in strength and thickness of
the walls of the blood vessels.

Right atrium
4 To open the right side of the heart, place the dissecting scissors into the vena cava and cut down the wall of
the heart, stopping about a quarter of the way down the heart.
5 Open the atrium chamber and locate the valve joining the right atrium to the right ventricle.
6 Using water from a wash bottle, fill the right ventricle through the valve.
7 Gently squeeze the heart and observe as the water moves up and tries to re-enter the atrium.

Right ventricle
8 Continue to cut down the same line you made earlier, to expose the right atrium.
9 Locate the ‘heart strings’ within the ventricle.

Left side of the heart

10 Repeat the process above to expose the left side of the heart.
11 Compare the thickness of the walls of the heart on the left and right sides.

Evaluation
1 Identify which chambers of the heart receive the blood and which pump the blood.
2 Describe the action of the valves in the heart.
3 Compare the wall thickness of the right and left sides of the heart. Suggest a reason why they differ.
4 Describe how the vena cava and aorta felt on your finger.

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116 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Mapping the heart Science as a human endeavour 3.5

The electrical signals generated in
your heart usually keep it beating
in a way that allows the atria to
fill, then the ventricles to fill, and
then the blood to exit via the major
vessels. But occasionally, the
electrical signals go haywire. In
some cases, the heart can go into
a rapid, dangerous arrhythmia. In
a recent study, scientists created
3D simulations of a patient’s heart,
to allow them to tailor medical
treatment. A 3D simulation can allow
cardiac surgeons to identify the exact
location of the electrical problem,
and destroy the tiny areas of heart
muscle that are causing the problem,
to prevent the heart from going into a
fatal arrhythmia. Figure 3.38 A CT scan of a patient’s heart

Vessels of the circulatory blood to all the cells of the body, with one
system exception: the pulmonary artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
There are three main types of blood vessels
The blood in arteries is pumped out of the
in the body: arteries, veins and capillaries.
heart with a lot of force and this means that
Arteries the artery walls have to be thick, muscular
artery
a thick, muscular elastic and strong to withstand the great pressure
vessel that carries blood Arteries take blood away from the
away from the heart being pushed upon them.
heart. They usually carry oxygenated

Smooth Elastic Inner

muscle layer layer

Outer layer

Figure 3.39 The structure of an artery

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 Section 3.4 The human circulatory system 117

Capillaries
As the blood travels away from the heart,
it enters smaller and smaller blood vessels,
eventually leading to the capillaries. Just
like the alveoli in the lungs, all other tissues
in the body are surrounded by a network
of tiny capillaries that allow nutrients and
gases to be delivered to cells while removing
waste. The walls of capillaries are extremely
thin, only one cell thick, to allow nutrients Figure 3.40 A capillary is only slightly wider in
and gases to pass into the tissues. diameter than a red blood cell.

Veins much less pressure and so the vein walls

As the blood travels away from the body do not need to be as thick and muscular
tissues and back towards the heart, it moves as artery walls. However, the veins need
vein from the capillaries into the to prevent blood from flowing backwards,
a thin-walled vessel with
valves that carries blood veins. At this point in the and so they have special valves that prevent
back to the heart
cycle, the blood is under blood from flowing backwards.

Smooth Inner
muscle Valve Valve
layer
Outer layer

Figure 3.41 The structure of a vein

1 State the vessel type that matches each feature listed below. Quick check 3.8
a thick, muscular walls
b diameter one cell wide
c valves to prevent backflow of blood
d carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary vessel)
2 Why do arteries carry blood at high pressure?

Circulatory system technologies Explore! 3.5

There are a number of surgical procedures and devices that can assist people who have
malfunctioning hearts. Choose one or more of the following to research, and answer the questions below.
• coronary artery stents
• automatic external defibrillators
• implanted pacemakers
• mitral valve replacements
1 How does this device or technique work?
2 What problems of the heart does it assist with?

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118 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Examining vessel types Try this 3.7

Your teacher can provide some prepared slides showing cross-sections of arteries, veins and
capillaries. Observe these vessel types under the microscope, and try to identify all the features discussed in
this section.

Blood molecules. They are shaped like a doughnut

without a hole in the centre. We call this
The human circulatory system is structured
shape a bi-concave disk. This shape provides
around a pumping heart and connected
a greater surface area for gas exchange, and
vessels, but the third part is the tissue that is
also allows them to be extremely flexible and
actually circulated: blood.
fit through small capillaries easily.
You have around five litres of blood
circulating around your body all the time.
This blood contains dissolved nutrients,
gases and several types of cells.

Most of your blood is made up of a liquid

called plasma. Plasma is a yellowish liquid,
made up mainly of water, that contains all
the dissolved nutrients and hormones
plasma Figure 3.43 Red blood cells
the yellow liquid component that are travelling to the tissues
that makes up 55% of blood;
carries water, dissolved around your body. White blood cells make up about 1% of
gases and hormones
the overall volume of blood. This varies
haemoglobin
The second-largest component of
the red pigment in blood that depending on whether you are sick, because
binds to oxygen, allowing redblood is the red blood cells. These
blood cells to carry oxygen white blood cells are part of the immune
cells contain a molecule called
system. White blood cells are generally much
haemoglobin, which gives blood its red
bigger than red blood cells. They help the
colour. Haemoglobin allows red blood cells
body fight infection by foreign organisms, by
to hold many more oxygen particles than
eating these organisms and breaking them
they could without it. Red blood cells are
down, or by using special chemicals known
unusual, as they do not have a nucleus.
as antibodies to destroy the invaders.
This gives them more space to carry oxygen

Plasma (55%)

White blood
cells and platelets
(>1%)

Red blood cells

Figure 3.42 The (45%)
components of blood, Figure 3.44 A large white blood cell (called a
separated into layers macrophage) eating and destroying bacteria

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 Section 3.4 The human circulatory system 119

The third component of your blood is the too few platelets, then you wouldn’t be
platelets. These tiny fragments of cells able to stop bleeding if you had an injury.
platelets
help blood to clot and help On the other hand, if you have too many
tiny fragments of cells that
assist with blood clotting
scabs form. Platelets are platelets, clots can form inside the blood
much smaller than red blood vessels and stop the blood from flowing
cells. They help to seal any punctures properly. These internal clots can lead to
along the blood vessels. If your body had heart attacks or strokes.

Figure 3.45 Platelets in the blood, sealing a hole in a Figure 3.46 Platelets help a scab to form over a wound
blood vessel

Changing blood composition Did you know? 3.6

The composition of your blood can change, depending on many environmental factors.
At higher altitudes there is less air, and so there is less available oxygen. People who live at higher altitudes have
more red blood cells to cope with this. If you were to go and live on the top of a mountain, after about a week your
blood would have adjusted too.

1 On average, how much blood is in your body? Quick check 3.9

2 What are the three components of the human circulatory system?
3 Name three types of cells found in the blood, and state their approximate % composition of blood.
4 What is contained in the plasma?

Section 3.4 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State the function of the heart.
2 Recall how many times a healthy human heart beats per minute.
3 State the components of blood.
4 Name the smallest type of blood vessel.
continued…

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120 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued
Understanding
5 Explain how heart muscle is different from a muscle in your arm.
6 Explain the function of a platelet.
7 Explain how the structure of a capillary allows it to exchange nutrients and gases with cells.

Applying
8 Identify the point in your circulatory system where your blood pressure would be highest.
9 Identify the point in your circulatory system where your blood pressure would be lowest.
10 The image below is an ECG readout of a person’s heartbeat. The ECG machine captures the electrical signals
of the heart. The section between the arrows represents one full cardiac cycle (heart beat + refilling stage).
If the person’s heart rate is 120 beats per minute, how much time does this full cycle take?

1.00v –0.00s Auto

Trace On
Mem1 Off
Beat
Rate 120 Bpm

One full
cardiac cycle

Figure 3.47 ECG printout of a person’s heartbeat

Analysing
11 A baby is diagnosed with ‘patent foramen ovale’, a condition distinguished by a hole in the wall of the heart,
between the left and right atria. Identify what effect this hole would have on the blood that is being pumped
out the aorta.
12 Construct a flow chart showing the path of an oxygen molecule, from when it diffuses from the alveoli into the
capillary, until it reaches a muscle cell in your leg.

Evaluating
13 Suggest a problem that would be faced by someone who has too few platelets in their blood.

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 121

3.5 The human digestive system

The nutrients we need • proteins – the building blocks of life and

the main structural component of most
Humans are heterotrophs, which means
of the living parts of your body. Meat, WORKSHEET
we cannot produce our own food, as
cheese, eggs, seeds, nuts and legumes are
plants can. We need to obtain nutrients
great sources of protein.
from the environment around us by eating
• lipids – also called fats and oils. Fats
other living organisms. The main types of
transport vitamins around our bodies, are a
nutrients that humans need can be grouped
good energy source, and also help protect
into four main categories:
the delicate organs inside our bodies.
• carbohydrates – the main source of
• vitamins and minerals – essential for the
energy in the human diet. Bread,
efficient functioning of our body. There
pasta, rice and oats are all great
are many vitamins and minerals that
sources of carbohydrates. The simplest
we can’t make ourselves, so we have to
carbohydrate is glucose.
consume them in the food we eat.

Where does vitamin C come from? Did you know? 3.7

Vitamin C helps the body to hold on
to iron in the blood, which increases
the amount of oxygen the blood can
carry. It also aids in the production
of collagen, which helps heal cuts in
your skin.
You would get most of your
vitamin C from red, yellow and orange
fruits and vegetables. But where do
carnivores get their vitamin C from?
Dogs and many other animals can
actually synthesise their own vitamin C
inside their bodies. This adaptation
could come in handy if you do not like
eating your vegetables!

Figure 3.48 All citrus fruits have a high level of vitamin C.

1 What is the simplest carbohydrate? Quick check 3.10

2 What might you know lipids as?
3 What are some sources of protein?

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122 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Parts of the human digestive of the food. Examples include breaking

system food apart with your teeth and tongue, and
bile acting to emulsify (break up) fats.
The role of the digestive system is to acquire
all the nutrients the body needs. Food is
Chemical digestion involves chemical
broken down into its smallest components
changes that occur when acids, enzymes and
by chemical and mechanical digestion, and
other chemicals break the food down into
the nutrients are absorbed into your
mechanical digestion its most basic chemical components.
a series of mechanical bloodstream and transported to the
processes that breaks food
down, such as chewing with cells that need them.
teeth, mixing in the stomach The human digestive system is essentially
and emulsification with bile
a long tube from your mouth to your
chemical digestion Mechanical digestion involves
a series of chemical anus! Let us take a closer look at the
reactions that breaks food physical changes – that is, breaking
into simpler chemical structure and function of this vital
food into smaller components but
substances that can be
organ system.
used by the body
not changing the chemical structure

Mouth
Tongue

Oesophagus

Liver

Gall bladder
Stomach
Dudodenum
Pancreas

Large
intestine

Small
intestine

Rectum

Anus

Figure 3.49 The human digestive system

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 123

Mouth and tongue helps with chemical digestion later. The

The mouth has many specialised structures tongue moves the chewed food around the
that start the digestive process. First, your mouth and coats it in saliva. It forms
bolus
teeth snip, tear, chomp and grind the food, a lump of partially broken-down a lump of partially digested
food
breaking it down into smaller pieces. This food, called a bolus.
increases the surface area of the food, which

Premolars Canine

Molars

Incisors
Figure 3.50 The different kinds of adult teeth: incisors for
cutting, canines for tearing, and molars for grinding

The average person’s tongue is around 8.5 cm long and has 2000–4000 taste buds Did you know? 3.8
on it. A quarter of the population have 4000 taste buds and have a superior sense of
taste. Your taste for certain foods can change throughout your life, because as you age you lose some taste buds
and your sense of smell decreases, meaning that you become less sensitive to food. As a teenager, your sense of
smell and taste are much stronger than an adult’s.

Figure 3.51 An average human tongue (left); an average sun bear tongue (right)

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124 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

saliva Saliva lubricates the food to make

liquid secreted by the
digestive system to lubricate its movement through your body
a bolus of food; also contains Starch
enzymes to assist chemical smoother. It also contains special
digestion chemicals, called enzymes, that
enzyme
a protein that can help speed begin to break down the food at a
up chemical reactions molecular level.
Amylase

The main enzyme found in your saliva is

called amylase and it begins to break down
carbohydrates, such as starch, into maltose Glucose
(two joined units of glucose) in your mouth.
Many more enzymes are found along the
digestive tract, and each is designed to break Figure 3.52 Amylase breaks the bonds in
down a particular food type. starch to form smaller maltose which is
two glucose units joined together.

Thanks, enzymes! Try this 3.8

Ask your parent/guardian if you can try this at home. Place a small piece
of bread or a dry savoury cracker on your tongue and leave it to sit there for a while. As the
amylase in your saliva begins to break down the carbohydrates, you should be able to taste the
sweeter glucose sub-units.

Practical 3.7

Testing enzymes
Aim
To test the function of amylase in the digestion of carbohydrates

Materials
• 3 test tubes • amylase powder
• starch solution • hot water bath set to 60°C
• Benedict’s solution • stopwatch

Method
1 Construct an appropriate hypothesis for this experiment. The independent variable (the one you will change
and test) is the presence of amylase enzyme. The dependent variable (the one you will measure the effect on)
is whether or not glucose is present, as indicated by the colour change.
2 Label the test tubes 1, 2 and 3.
3 In tube 1, add 10 mL water.
4 In tubes 2 and 3, add 10 mL of starch solution.
5 Add ¼ tsp of amylase powder to test tubes 1 and 3.
6 Place a stopper on test tubes 1 and 3, and shake.
7 Leave for 2 minutes.
8 Add 3 mL of Benedict’s solution to each test tube and place in the hot water bath at 60°C for 5 minutes.
9 Note any colour changes in the Results table. If sugar is present, the solution will turn yellow or brick-red,
depending on the amount of sugar.
continued…

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 125

…continued
Results

Test tube Colour after heating Glucose present?

1: Water, amylase, Benedict’s
2: Starch solution, Benedict’s
3: Starch solution, amylase, Benedict’s

Evaluation
1 Explain whether your results support or disprove your hypothesis.
2 Suggest the reason that water was used in test tube 1.
3 Suggest a way that the reliability of this experiment could be improved.
4 Amylase is found in saliva. Explain why food may become sweeter if you chew it for longer.
5 State at least three variables you needed to control during this experiment, to ensure that it was a fair and
valid test of the independent variable.
6 Suggest two potential sources of error in this experiment.
7 Suggest one way you could improve the experiment, if you were to repeat it in the future.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding amylase and the chemical digestion of
carbohydrates? Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ and remember to
include possible sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Oesophagus
When you swallow food, a wave-like
contraction of your oesophagus pushes
VIDEO
the food down towards your stomach. Describe
peristalsis
This movement is known as peristalsis,
and it continues all the way along your
digestive tract to constantly keep the food
moving along. Peristalsis is so effective
that you could actually eat upside down
and the food would still be pushed
against gravity, up your oesophagus! Figure 3.53 Peristalsis moves food down the oesophagus.

Modelling peristalsis Try this 3.9 1 Describe the Quick check 3.11
Find a nylon stocking and function of saliva.
cut off the toe end of the leg. Place a tennis 2 Name the enzyme found in saliva.
ball at the toe end and gently squeeze 3 How many taste buds does the average
behind the tennis ball, to move it along person have?
the length of the stocking. This is how the 4 Is chewing food an example of mechanical
muscles of the oesophagus push a bolus of or chemical digestion?
food along. 5 Define ‘peristalsis’.

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126 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Stomach Food stays in your stomach for 2–6 hours,

At the bottom of your oesophagus is a depending on the size, amount and type
sphincter that opens to allow food to of food. During this time, the stomach
sphincter enter your stomach. The stomach contracts and churns the food (mechanical
a muscle that surrounds an
opening in the body and can
contains many types of enzymes, digestion), helping to further break up the
tighten to close it, e.g. at the along with very strong hydrochloric large particles, while mixing the bolus with
bottom of the oesophagus,
leading into the stomach acid – these are known as the the gastric juices (chemical digestion). The
gastric juices. The sphincter at the acid in your stomach also performs another
opening of the stomach is very important, important function: it kills many of the
as it prevents these enzymes and acids harmful bacteria that might be found on the
from entering the oesophagus and food you eat. The stomach wall is a mucosal
burning the tube, causing a symptom membrane, which produces mucus to protect
called indigestion or ‘heartburn’. the stomach tissue from the strong acids.

Lower oesophageal
Oesophagus sphincter open,
allowing reflux

Diaphragm
Lower oesophageal
sphincter closed

Pylorus

Liquid

Stomach

Figure 3.54 When the oesophageal sphincter fails to close, gastric juices can irritate the bottom of the
oesophagus.

How do antacids work? Try this 3.10

Antacid tablets are taken during episodes of heartburn, to try and neutralise
some of the acid in the stomach. Let’s observe how they work.
You will need the following: pH data logger and probe, 1 M hydrochloric acid, antacid
tablets (such as Rennie®), 200 mL beaker, 3 mL pipette, mortar and pestle, distilled water.
Step 1 Crush one antacid tablet using the mortar and pestle. Place in the beaker with 50 mL of
distilled water and mix well.
Step 2 Measure the pH using the probe.
Step 3 After a minute, add around 1 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid and monitor the change in
pH. Stir the beaker regularly.

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 127

Enzymes act to catalyse (speed up) chemical The stomach absorbs some substances into
reactions. The main enzyme in your gastric the bloodstream, such as water, medicines
juices is called pepsin and its role is to begin and alcohol. The digested bolus is now
the digestion of protein. Each enzyme has called chyme and it leaves the stomach by
a specific shape that fits only one type of passing through the pyloric sphincter into
molecule, and therefore each food type has the small intestine.
a special enzyme dedicated to breaking it
down in the body. For example, pepsin can chyme
only break down protein. a partially digested mass of food after it leaves the stomach

Food particle

Enzyme

Figure 3.55 Each enzyme fits a specific type of molecule, like a key fitting a lock. An enzyme attaches itself
to a food particle and speeds up the chemical reaction that breaks down the food particle, and then it
releases the broken-down food particle.

Direction
Lower oesopageal of food
sphincter opens Pyloric sphincter
closed

Mixed food
(chyme)

Direction
of food

Pyloric
sphincter
Duodenum opens

Figure 3.56 The pyloric

Direction sphincter controls the flow
of food of chyme out of the stomach
and into a region of the small
intestine called the duodenum.

1 State two sites of mechanical digestion. Quick check 3.12

2 Define ‘chyme’.
3 Which enzyme catalyses the digestion of protein?
4 Explain why the stomach wall is lined with mucus.

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128 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Small intestine, liver, gall bladder The pancreas secretes pancreatic juices,
and pancreas which help to neutralise the harmful acids
The small intestine is only called ‘small’ from the stomach and prevent damage to the
because it is narrower in diameter than intestines. The pancreatic juices also contain
the large intestine. It is actually very long, more enzymes to keep chemically working
measuring nearly six metres. Because it is on different food types.
pancreas
so long, the small intestine is divided an organ that secretes
duodenum pancreatic juices containing
the first section of the small into three main parts: duodenum, Most of the nutrient enzymes into the duodenum
intestine to assist with the digestion
jejunum and ileum. absorption takes place in the of food
jejunum
the second section of the middle section of the small villi
small intestine, where food finger-like structures in the
breakdown and nutrient The duodenum is the first part of intestine, the jejunum. This digestive system that have
absorption occur
the small intestine. Many digestive section is lined with millions a high surface area and rich
blood supply for absorption
ileum
the third section of the small enzymes are secreted into it, to of finger-like structures, of nutrients
intestine, where further food
breakdown and nutrient continue digestion of the chyme. called villi. These structures have a large
absorption occur
Peristalsis is still propelling the surface area and a high flow of blood,
bile
a substance produced in chyme forwards and continues all the which increases the efficiency of nutrient
the liver and stored in the
gall bladder that helps break
way along the digestive tract. absorption into the bloodstream.
down fats
gall bladder The liver produces bile, which The end section of the small intestine is the
a small gland near the liver
that stores bile, and secretes helps to break down fats or lipids ileum. The main function of this portion of
it into the duodenum
mechanically. The bile is stored in the intestines is to finish off any absorption
the gall bladder and is excreted into the of nutrients, and to compact the remaining
duodenum if you eat a fatty meal. Bile acts digested food and pass it through into the
like a detergent – it emulsifies or breaks big large intestine.
globs of fats and oils into little globs that can
be easily moved and broken down further.

Liver Bile

Intestinal
Gall juice
bladder Stomach
Bile
Acid chyme

Pancreatic Pancreas
juice
Duodenum of
small intestine

Figure 3.57 The liver, gall bladder and pancreas all contribute to the Figure 3.58 Finger-like villi in the intestines are
digestion of food and connect to the duodenum. specialised for absorption of nutrients.

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 129

Large intestine useless organ that is a remnant of evolution,

The large intestine is 1–2 metres long and but there is ongoing debate about what its
has five parts: caecum, appendix, colon, actual role is, other than getting inflamed
rectum and anus. Its function is to absorb and having to be surgically removed! As
most of the water from the material left waste enters the large intestine and passes
over from digestion. The large intestine through the colon, water leaves the waste,
also has large numbers of friendly bacteria resulting in a solid mass called faeces. rectum
the second-last section of
that can produce vitamin K and vitamin B Faeces are stored in the rectum and the large intestine; stores
faeces
for your body to use. In humans, the when the rectum is full, it sends a
anus
caecum is a pouch at the end of the large signal to your brain to tell you to go the opening at the end of

intestine, where it joins the small intestine. to the toilet. The faeces then pass out the digestive tract, through
which solid waste leaves
The appendix has long been considered a through a sphincter called the anus. the body

Transverse
colon

Descending
colon

Ascending
colon

Sigmoid
colon

Caecum

Appendix

Anus
Rectum

Figure 3.59 The five sections of the large intestine

A lot of you is not you! Did you know? 3.9

The average person’s body has around the same number
of human cells as bacterial cells.
Until recently, it was thought that the number of
bacteria in our bodies outnumbered our own cells 10:1.
However, recent research in Canada suggests that the
average person is more likely to have a 1:1 ratio of bacteria
and human cells. Most of these bacterial cells are ‘friendly
bacteria’ found in our digestive system that help our body
break down and digest nutrients from the food we eat.
So next time you eat a meal, think about all the bacteria
hard at work in your digestive system, helping you break
it down.
Figure 3.60 Most bacteria in your body are in the intestine.

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130 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

1 State the three sections of the small intestine. Quick check 3.13
2 The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder. Which type of food does
bile help to mechanically digest?
3 Explain how villi improve absorption of nutrients.
4 Arrange the following sections of the large intestine in the correct order that faeces pass through:
rectum, colon, anus, caecum, appendix.

Is your stomach rumbling? Did you know? 3.10

Ever heard those gurgling stomach noises when you are hungry? Well, they are
actually the sounds of hyperactive peristalsis in the intestines, and are named borborygmi.

Practical 3.8

Modelling the human digestive system

Aim
To create a model of the digestive system that simulates the passage of food through the body

Materials
• a sandwich/ food source • paper towel
• blue liquid • zip lock bag
• red liquid • metal spoon
• yellow liquid • elastic band
• scissors • ice cream container
• one stocking leg

Method
Using the materials provided, create a model to demonstrate the function of the parts of the digestive system
listed in the table.

Digestive Item used to represent Explain why you used the item
system part body part
Teeth
Saliva
Tongue
Stomach
Acid
Small intestine
Enzymes
Large intestine
Anus

Evaluation
1 Identify three features of the digestive system that your model was not able to show.
2 Evaluate the effectiveness of your model in explaining digestion to a primary school student.
3 Suggest two ways you could improve this activity (e.g. two new materials that could be used, or extra organs
that should be included).
continued…

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 131

…continued
Conclusion
1 What connections did you make while completing this activity? Begin your sentence with: ‘During this activity
I showed/learned that … ’.
2 Describe some of the shortcomings of the model. Begin your sentence with: ‘Some shortcomings of the
model were … ’.
3 In what way is the model still useful? Begin your sentence with: ‘The model is still useful because … ’.

Digestion gone wrong

Food poisoning
Your body is very smart – it can detect
hazardous substances in the food you eat.
Sometimes food can be contaminated with
toxins or micro-organisms that could do
harm to your body. If your body senses
the presence of these harmful substances,
it signals your digestive system to empty
fast. This causes the stomach to contract
violently, causing vomiting, and it also
causes the intestines to contract, causing
diarrhoea. Even though getting sick is never
fun, it is your body’s way of protecting you
from a much worse fate.

Digestive disorders
Figure 3.61 Vomiting is not pleasant, but it is an important protective
Many people cannot eat certain foods, mechanism.
because of intolerance or allergy. An
intolerance is when a food cannot be
properly broken down by the body and
results in an adverse reaction.

One of the most common intolerances in

humans is lactose intolerance. Lactose-
intolerant people are unable to digest the
sugar in milk and dairy products, called
lactose. Normally when somebody eats
food containing lactose, the enzyme lactase
is released in the small intestine to break
down the carbohydrate into simple sugars.
People who are lactose intolerant do not have
lactase, and this means that the sugars do
not get digested and absorbed. Instead, the
bacteria in the intestines ingest these sugars, Figure 3.62 All mammals produce milk, but not all adult humans
leading to bloating, lots of gas and diarrhoea. can digest it.

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132 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Because humans are mammals, we can • People who already have problems
all drink milk as babies. This means that with their digestive system caused
the enzyme called lactase, which breaks by disorders such as coeliac disease
down lactose, is found in everybody when or Crohn’s disease are more likely to
we are young. Anyone can become lactose develop lactose intolerance.
intolerant at any stage in their life, although • Certain antibiotics can trigger temporary
there are certain groups of people who are lactose intolerance, by interfering with
more likely to become lactose intolerant. the intestine’s ability to produce the
Some examples: lactase enzyme.
• People of Asian, African, Indigenous • As people get older, their bodies can
and South American backgrounds are stop producing lactase.
more likely to develop lactose intolerance • If you go for a long period of time
at a young age. without eating dairy, your body may stop
producing lactase.

Coeliac disease Explore! 3.6

People are becoming more aware of foods that contain gluten, and many people have started
to follow gluten-free diets. Gluten is a protein in wheat, rye and barley-based products such as bread, pasta,
pastry, cakes and biscuits. Bread has been a staple part of the human diet for thousands of years, and so many
people view gluten intolerance and coeliac disease as new phenomena, but humans have been affected by these
conditions throughout history. However, it was not until about 100 years ago that doctors began to diagnose and
treat coeliac disease.
1 Find out how many people suffer from coeliac disease and how many people have gluten intolerance. You
may like to find out the statistics for the world or investigate different countries.
2 Outline the symptoms of coeliac disease.
3 Research and then summarise what it is about gluten that makes people sick. Include an explanation of how a
coeliac sufferer’s body responds to gluten.

Figure 3.63 Foods such as this bread dough are high Figure 3.64 Coeliac disease is an immune disorder triggered by
in gluten. eating gluten.

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 Section 3.5 The human digestive system 133

Seeing you from the inside Science as a human endeavour 3.6

Imagine swallowing a pill-sized camera that captures images over
the next 24 hours as it makes its way through your digestive system. Well, this technology is not new, and it gives
doctors a unique view of what is going on inside your oesophagus, stomach and intestines. But there is a lot that
a camera can’t do: it can’t deliver drugs, it can’t grab a foreign object and remove it, and it can’t perform a biopsy
(slice off a tiny piece of tissue for analysis). This is why medical researchers are working with engineers to design
tiny robots that can be put to work in your digestive tract. These robots need motors, sensors and smooth outer
surfaces so they can pass through your digestive organs without damaging them, before finally being excreted
just like any other waste product.

Figure 3.65 An artist’s impression of a tiny robotic device crawling Figure 3.66 An illustration showing the scale of
through an intestine a robot frozen inside some ice, which the patient
swallows. Once warmed up in the digestive tract,
the robot unfolds into the shape on the left.

Section 3.5 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State the food group that glucose belongs to.
2 Recall the route that food waste/faeces takes after it leaves the stomach. List the three
sections of the small intestine and the five sections of the large intestine it passes through.
3 State the function of the tongue in digestion.
4 Name the type of acid that is found in the human stomach.

Understanding
5 Describe the role of the stomach in food digestion.
6 Explain how the structure of villi assists in the absorption of nutrients.
7 Explain how food is transported along the digestive tract.

Applying
8 Certain nutritional deficiencies in the body can be linked to damaged digestive organs.
Suggest what deficiencies could be linked to a damaged large intestine.
9 Develop a hypothesis about what might happen if the large intestine was removed from the
digestive tract.
10 A friend who is coming to your house for dinner suffers from coeliac disease and lactose
intolerance. Suggest a meal you could cook that would be suitable for this friend.
continued…

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134 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued
Analysing
11 Compare the duodenum to the jejunum.
12 Classify the processes listed in the table as mechanical or chemical digestion.

Process Mechanical or chemical?

Stomach churning and contracting
Chewing food
Bile released from gall bladder into
duodenum to emulsify fats

Evaluating
13 Crohn’s disease is a bowel condition that causes flare-ups of inflammation in the ileum, which leads to
impaired nutrient absorption. It also causes inflammation of the large intestine. Propose what effect this
might have on the faeces.
14 Create a poster about the digestive tract that compares what happens to the portion of food that is digested
and absorbed, versus the portion of what we eat that is not digested.

3.6 Other digestive systems

Have you ever had food poisoning? If so, was because the food that you ingested
it was probably from that time when you had too many bacteria on it for your
WORKSHEET ate undercooked chicken or you finished body to deal with. But why does that
the slightly questionable leftovers from happen to you, when some scavenger
several nights ago and ended up spending animals can eat half-rotten corpses and
the following day on the toilet. Well, that not get sick?

Figure 3.67 Vulture eating a rotting corpse

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 Section 3.6 Other digestive systems 135

How is it that some animals eat only leaves

and still manage to get all the protein, fats
and iron they need to be healthy?

The answers to both these questions can be

found in their specialised digestive systems.

Carnivores
The human digestive system is designed
to process and break down both animal
and plant products. However, unlike other
animals, we have learned to cook our
Figure 3.68 Make sure you check the use-by date
food, which vastly reduces the amount of of meat.
harmful bacteria our digestive system has
to contend with. Carnivore the consumer’s digestive system. Because
carnivore
a consumer (heterotroph) and scavenger species such the food spends less time in the body of the
that feeds on animal matter
as vultures have several traits carnivore, any harmful bacteria on the food
that have evolved which allow them to eat have less chance to grow and cause illness.
food containing large amounts of bacteria
that could kill a human. Stomach acid
The stomach acid in humans is around
Digestive system length 1.5 on the pH scale. This is quite strong
A carnivore’s digestive system is shorter and allows our bodies to kill many harmful
than a herbivore’s or an omnivore’s. Because micro-organisms, but not all of them. In
animal cells do not have a cell wall (cell comparison, a vulture’s digestive acid is 0–1
walls contain cellulose which is hard to on the pH scale, which is strong enough to
digest), they are easier to digest and so it dissolve certain metals and so is more than a
takes less time for them to pass through match for any bacteria.

Bird vomit Did you know? 3.11

As a defence mechanism when
threatened, vultures and other birds, such as some seagulls,
can projectile vomit onto predators. As you know, vomit smells
bad at the best of times but just imagine how it would smell if
you had been eating rotting flesh! If you add to that the corrosive
levels of acid in the stomach, vomit makes a very effective
warning system.

Figure 3.69 Vultures and many gulls use vomiting as a defence technique.

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136 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Stomach

Small intestine

Hindgut

Figure 3.70 Cat (carnivore) and sheep (herbivore) digestive systems

Battery Lemon Tomato Milk Blood Antacid tablets Soap Drain cleaner

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Human Vinegar Coffee Water Baking soda Ammonia Bleach

stomach acid solution

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

Figure 3.71 The pH scale

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 Section 3.6 Other digestive systems 137

Practical 3.9

Acid and bacteria

Aim
To test the effect of acid on the growth of bacteria
Be careful
Materials Ensure benches are cleaned
• probiotic drink • hydrochloric acid 1 M and hands are washed
• agar plate • hydrochloric acid 2 M before leaving the laboratory.
• sterile swabs • lemon juice
• incubator • sulfuric acid 2 M
• pipette • sticky tape

Method
1 Identify the following variables in your experiment: independent (the variable you change and test),
dependent (the variable you measure) and three controlled variables (variables you must keep the same).
2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment: predict what effect the four different acids will have on
bacterial growth.

Preparing the agar plate

3 On the underside of the agar plate, draw a cross using a permanent marker. This cross should intersect in the
middle of the agar plate and form four equal quadrants.
4 Label each quadrant A, B, C or D on the outer edge of the plate.

‘Lawn plate’ technique

5 To create a lawn plate, dip your sterile swab into the probiotic mix and gently spread the probiotic over the
agar plate, as shown in Figure 3.72 on the next page.
With each 90 degree turn, dip your swab into the probiotic mixture to ensure full coverage.

Adding the acid

6 After creating the lawn plate, carefully lift the lid off of the agar plate and, using a pipette, place three drops
of lemon juice into the quadrant labelled A.
7 Repeat step 6 for each of the acidic substances, as indicated in the results table.
8 Place the lid on the plate and, with 2–4 pieces of sticky tape, tape down opposite edges of the lid.
9 Place the agar plates in an incubator for two days. Never open them again.

Gathering results
10 After two days, remove the agar plates from the incubator and count the number of colonies that you can see
on the agar plates. A colony looks like a slightly raised round dot on the agar plate.

Results

Quadrant Treatment Bacterial colony numbers

A Lemon juice
B Hydrochloric acid 1 M
C Hydrochloric acid 2 M
D Sulfuric acid 2 M
continued…

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138 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued

Step 1. Swab the entire surface of Step 2. Turn the plate 90° and swab
the plate in one direction. the surface of the plate in the
second direction.

Step 3. Swab diagonal to the Step 4. Ring the entire plate.

first two directions.

Figure 3.72 Making a lawn plate

Evaluation
1 Did your results support or not support your hypothesis?
2 Use your results to explain how different animals could eat dead organisms without getting sick.
3 Suggest how you could use this experimental design to test the effectiveness of different antibacterial
products such as hand wash, mouthwash and surface sprays.
4 In this experiment you used probiotics that are found in the human body. How could you alter this experiment
to increase its validity in the natural world?

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the effects of different acids on bacterial growth,
and how this relates to different organisms’ stomach acids? Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ and remember to
include possible sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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 Section 3.6 Other digestive systems 139

1 Explain how vultures defend themselves from predators. Quick check 3.14
2 How is the vulture’s stomach acid different than a human’s?
3 Who has a shorter digestive tract: carnivores or herbivores?

Carnivorous plants Explore! 3.7

Not all plants rely solely on sunlight and water for their food. Some add meat to their diet to
give them a nutrient boost. Most carnivorous plants live in swamps and marshes, where the soil doesn’t have
many nutrients such as nitrogen, and so they rely on breaking down insects to create their own nutrients.
Find out about each of the following carnivorous plants and summarise how they catch their prey, the
structures they have that allow them to catch their prey, and how they digest their prey.
1 Venus flytrap

Figure 3.73 A Venus fly trap and an unsuspecting fly

2 Sundew 3 Pitcher plant

Figure 3.74 A sundew wrapping around an insect Figure 3.75 A pitcher plant, and its
possible prey

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140 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Herbivores Koalas are herbivores, and so herbivore

a consumer (heterotroph)
they have many adaptations that feeds on plant matter
Eucalyptus leaves are toxic for humans. In
that allow them to obtain the
fact, if you ever tried to eat some you could
nutrients that they need from eucalyptus
find yourself struggling to breathe, losing
leaves. They have a long digestive tract with
your balance and feeling very dizzy. Leaves
a special organ, called a caecum, that can
are also made of cellulose, which is not easy
digest cell walls. In herbivores, the caecum
for humans (or carnivores) to digest and
contains millions of friendly bacteria that
obtain any nutrients from. So it is surprising
are specialised to break down certain plant
that eucalyptus leaves are the koala’s
materials (such as eucalyptus leaves). Koalas
primary source of nutrition.
get most of their water from the leaves they
eat, and so they do not often need to climb
down from the tree they are living in.

Eucalyptus leaves are very low in nutrients

and so, even with a caecum, koalas need
to eat for five hours a day to get enough
food to sustain them. They spend most of
the rest of their day sleeping, to conserve
energy and to allow their bodies to digest
their food.

In total it can take around four whole days

for a leaf to pass through a koala’s digestive
system. This maximises the amount of
Figure 3.76 Koalas can digest eucalyptus leaves, which are toxic to nutrients and water that are absorbed from
humans. the food.

Average food Average food Average food

transit time = 5 days transit time = 4–22 hours transit time = 50 hours

1 1
1
3 3 2
2
6
4 3
4
5 2 1 Oesophagus
4 5 2 Stomach (gizzard in
6
the vulture)
5 3 Liver
7
7
4 Pancreas
6 0 cm 50 5 Small intestine
7
6 Caecum
7 Large intestine
8 8 Rectum/anus (cloaca
8 8 in vulture)

Figure 3.77 Food transit times for koalas, vultures and humans

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 Section 3.6 Other digestive systems 141

Eating Mum’s faeces Did you know? 3.12

Baby koalas are not born with the special friendly bacteria they need to digest
eucalyptus leaves. They need to eat their mothers’ faeces (called pap) in order to start their own colony
of bacteria in their caecum.

Figure 3.78 A mother and baby koala

Cows and the climate Science as a human endeavour 3.7

Cows burp a lot of methane gas,
which is a naturally occurring
product of fermentation in their
rumen. The micro-organisms that
colonise their digestive tract assist
in breaking down the plant matter,
producing methane as a waste
product. Unfortunately, methane
is also a potent greenhouse gas –
cows account for about 25% of the
methane produced in the USA.
A recent study has
experimented with supplementing
the diets of dairy cows with a
chemical compound that inhibits
micro-organisms from producing
methane. It showed a 30%
reduction in methane, and the
Figure 3.79 Dairy cows being fed as they are milked
cows actually gained more weight
without eating any extra feed, meaning they were extracting more energy. The feed supplement is in the early
stages of development, but could be a helpful tool in the fight against climate change.

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142 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Ruminants
If you’ve ever seen a cow, it was probably category of herbivores, called ruminants.
WIDGET chewing. Cows are herbivores, just like Ruminants, including antelope, sheep,
The
mammalian koalas, so they need to eat for most of the buffalo and goats, deal with being a
digestive
system
day to gain as much nutrition from their herbivore in a unique way. Figure 3.80
food as possible. Cows are in a special shows the path of food through a ruminant.

2 Stomach round 1
The grass passes into the largest part of the four-part
stomach, called the rumen (this is where the term
‘ruminant’ comes from). The rumen, like the caecum,
contains bacteria that digest cell walls.

6 Colon
The food passes (large intestine) Caecum
through the small
Anus
intestine, caecum
and large intestine in 1 First chewing
much the same way Cows graze on plants using their incisor
as it does in any other teeth to snip leaves and then chew
herbivore. The only their food using their molar teeth briefly
difference is that the Ileum Jejunum Duodenum
before swallowing it for the first time.
extended amount of The duodenum, jejunum and ileum
time the food spends together make up the small intestine
in the cow’s stomach
allows maximum
nutrient absorption by
3 Second, third and fourth chewing
the intestines.
Food from the rumen is regurgitated
back up into the mouth, with the help
of the second chamber of the stomach,
called the reticulum. This assists the
5 Stomach round 4 4 Stomach rounds 2 and 3 bacteria in breaking the grass down
Finally, the food passes into When the cud is sufficiently ready to be digested. The regurgitated
the abomasum, or ‘proper broken down, it passes into the food is called ‘cud’. Cows ‘chew the
stomach’, where enzymes third chamber of the stomach, cud’ for around 6–8 hours during times
and digestive juices start to called the omasum, where of the day when they are not grazing.
properly digest and absorb most of the excess water and
the nutrients. saliva are absorbed.

Figure 3.80 The passage of food through a cow’s stomach

1 Outline the role of the Quick check 3.15 Digestive flow charts Try this 3.11
caecum. Construct three flow charts on a
2 Define the term ‘friendly bacteria’. poster showing the digestive tracts of a carnivore
3 How does the length of the digestive tract of a (not a human), a herbivore and a ruminant.
herbivore differ from a carnivore’s? Annotate the structures of the digestive tract,
4 Describe the way a ruminant digests plant showing their specialised functions so that the key
matter. differences between these organisms are obvious.

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 Section 3.6 Other digestive systems 143

Section 3.6 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Recall the four parts of a herbivore’s digestive system.
2 How many chambers are there in the stomach of a cow?
3 Name the substance that leaves are composed of, which is difficult for humans to digest
and gain nutrients from.
4 Fill in the gaps: Acids have a _______ pH and bases have a _______ pH.

Understanding
5 Identify the product in the stomach that kills bacteria.
6 Outline one way that the vulture uses its stomach acid other than for digestion.
7 Explain how the vulture’s digestive system is adapted to eat rotting meat.
8 Describe how baby koalas gain their friendly bacteria.

Applying
9 Identify two ways in which a vulture’s digestive system is different from a human’s digestive
system.
10 Copy and complete the table, by comparing the digestive system of a koala with that of a human.

Human Koala

Analysing
11 Use the images in Figure 3.81 to answer the following questions.
a Contrast the digestive system of a dog and a sheep.
b Suggest which two of the animals in Figure 3.81 probably have a similar diet.

Human Dog Sheep

Figure 3.81 Digestive systems of a human, a dog and a sheep

Evaluating
12 Carnivorous plants tend to prey on small insects or amphibians. Give reasons why attracting
larger mammals rather than insects might be a problem for carnivorous plants.

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144 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

3.7 Organ repair and replacement

Each of the organ systems in your body relies

on the specialised function of many different
WORKSHEET organs working together to keep you healthy.
But what happens when one of these organs
is damaged, infected or cannot do its job
properly? If one organ in a system cannot
function at full capacity, it results in a chain
reaction that can result in people becoming
very ill and having to go to hospital.

Organ transplants
Damaged organs can sometimes be given
the chance to repair through certain Figure 3.82 Most of us have two healthy kidneys. If they are
medications, diet and lifestyle changes. damaged through disease, one option is a kidney transplant.

However, if an organ becomes so damaged

that it can no longer work at all, the your lower back. It filters waste products
organ transplantation only option may be to completely out of your blood and produces urine.
the process of removing
a donor organ and then replace it. This is done through a Diseases and environmental factors that can
surgically implanting it into
a recipient, to improve their medical procedure known as organ damage your kidneys include medications,
organ function or replace a
diseased organ transplantation, in which a healthy alcohol and diabetes. We have two kidneys
organ from one body is used to in our body, but we can manage with only
replace the damaged organ in another. one. Therefore, some people volunteer
to donate one of their healthy kidneys to
One organ that is a commonly transplanted a friend or family member who needs a
is the kidney. The kidney is located near replacement one.

Figure 3.83 Human organs being transported for transplant

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 Section 3.7 Organ repair and replacement 145

In order for an organ transplant to be

successful, the donor (person giving the organ)
and the recipient (person receiving the organ)
must have similar matching markers on
their cells. If these markers are not matched,
the body will recognise the new organ as a
foreign invader and attack the organ using
the immune system. This is known as organ
rejection. Unfortunately, the
organ rejection
when an organ transplant chances of two people being a
recipient’s immune system
recognises the organ as match is extremely low, even
foreign and attacks it
within families. This means
that there is a high demand for organs but a
Figure 3.84 A surgeon performing a kidney transplant
very low supply available.

Organ donation is sometimes possible when Not many deaths occur in a way that allows
a person dies, and has previously indicated organ donation. For example, the person
that they would like to donate their organs. must pass away in a hospital, and very strict
This amazing gift can save multiple lives, procedures must be followed to ensure
as organs such as heart, lungs, kidneys, the health of the organs being donated.
liver, large intestine and pancreas and Sometimes the families of registered organ
some tissues such as skin and corneas from donors refuse to give consent. This is why
the eye can all be donated. In 2017, 1675 it is very important that people discuss their
Australian lives were transformed by organs wishes with their families and consider
donated from 510 deceased donors and 273 registering their intentions on the Organ
living organ donors. Donor Register.

1 If an organ is damaged, what are the first treatment options before a transplant is Quick check 3.16
considered?
2 Name some of the organs and tissues that can be donated in Australia.
3 Describe what would happen if a transplanted organ came from a donor who was not a good match for
the recipient.

Kidney transplants Explore! 3.8

A kidney transplant is a life-prolonging surgery but it does not provide a cure for end-stage
kidney disease. The recipient must be medically suitable, and an available matching organ needs to be found.
Conduct some research into kidney transplants in Australia and answer the questions below. The ‘Kidney Health
Australia’ website is a great resource.
1 What are the steps involved in transplanting a kidney?
2 Where is the donor kidney positioned in the recipient’s body?
3 What influences the success of the organ transplant? Give some statistics in your answer and discuss the
anti-rejection drugs the person will need to take.

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146 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Organ replacement Doctors have been transplanting porcine

Because of the high demand but low supply (pig) heart valves into humans since 1965.
of organs available for transplantation, Now scientists are trying to find a way to
scientists are developing new ways to transplant entire pig organs. Pig organs are
overcome this problem. One new technique a similar size and shape to human organs.
xenotransplantation is xenotransplantation. This is the There are two main biological challenges
transplanting organs from
one species into another
process of transplanting organs from that scientists face with this procedure.
a different species than the recipient. • The biological markers on pigs’ cells and
organs do not match those in humans,
and so the human recipient’s body would
reject the organ.
• There are 64 viruses in pigs’ genetic
material that could infect and harm
humans who receive a pig organ.
The first challenge that scientists are
focusing on is to remove the viruses from
the genetic material of pigs. This can be
done using technology known as CRISPR,
where an enzyme is used to cut out the parts
of the genetic material of pigs that contain
the viruses. CRISPR acts like a cut-and-
paste tool, where the harmful parts of the
genetic material are cut out and then a non-
harmful section of genetic material is pasted
in its place.

Scientists have used the CRISPR process to

produce several healthy genetically modified
pigs that do not contain the harmful
viruses. Scientists now have to overcome the
problem of the markers on pig organs that
Figure 3.85 Pigs are mammals, just like us. Tissues from pigs have
cause human bodies to identify the organs
been successfully transplanted into humans. as foreign.

Harmful retrovirus is Safe genes are used to

cut out of DNA replace the dangerous ones

Figure 3.86 In the CRISPR process, the virus is cut out, and harmless genetic material is
pasted in.

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 Section 3.7 Organ repair and replacement 147

Circulatory

Heart Red blood cells Heart valves Blood vessels

Nervous system

Eye tissue
Stem cells

Nerve cells

Many organs

Kidney Liver Lungs Intestines

Figure 3.87 All the possible transplanted tissues and organs we could get from pigs

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148 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Robots making organs? Science as a human endeavour 3.8

Organoids are tiny clusters of cells that organise themselves into
miniature and rudimentary versions of our organs. They present biomedical researchers with an opportunity to
study organ development and experiment with drug technologies. Organoids develop from stem cells that have
been grown in tiny ‘wells’ and induced to differentiate into a specialised type of cells, such as neurons. These
neurons then make connections and begin to behave in a similar way to how they do in a patient’s actual brain.
In 2018, researchers at the University of Washington successfully put robots to work in making trays of kidney
organoids in the lab. The automated system completes a researcher’s daily work in around 20 minutes and makes
fewer mistakes. The robotic system has also been trained to analyse the genetic material in the organoids, and
has led to new discoveries about the kidneys’ blood supply and kidney disease.

Figure 3.88 Mini brain organoids grown from stem cells. Left: Fibroblast cells (shown
here) are used to produce stem cells. Middle and right: The stem cells are grown in
culture and induced to form brain tissue, or 'mini brains'.

Organ regeneration period of time, it can become damaged and

The liver is the largest organ in your body. not perform its job properly.
It is located just below your ribs, on the right
side of your body. The liver is involved in Alcohol is a toxin that the liver filters out of
many important processes, such as producing the blood. People who regularly drink too
enzymes for digestion, storing vitamins and much alcohol can permanently damage their
removing toxins from your blood. If the liver liver. Another toxin that your body naturally
is exposed to too many toxins over a long produces is hydrogen peroxide – the same
chemical that people use to bleach their
hair. Obviously, having too much of this
substance dissolved in the blood could cause
major damage throughout the body.

Figure 3.90 Your cells produce the same product

Figure 3.89 The position of the liver in a human that bleaches hair!

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 Section 3.7 Organ repair and replacement 149

The liver usually does a great job of turning

hydrogen peroxide into the harmless
substances water and oxygen. However, too
much salt in the blood can reduce the liver’s
ability to break down hydrogen peroxide.
Salt comes directly from our diet, and people
who eat fast food or processed foods regularly
consume high levels of salt and so are at risk
of reducing their liver’s ability to function.
If caught early enough, a change in lifestyle
habits can reverse or limit the damage done
to the liver. In severe cases, however, liver
transplantation surgery may be necessary.

As you learned earlier in this chapter,

organ transplants come with many risks,
and matching donors are hard to find. Figure 3.91 Hot chips are delicious, but you need to be careful how
That is why scientists are working on the much salt you eat.
ability to regenerate or grow organs from
living healthy tissue found in the patient. If scientists could grow and regenerate
This process is called tissue engineering organs using the patient’s own tissue,
and it is a fast-growing area of research. then the body would not reject the
The liver is the only human organ that transplanted organ.
can not only repair itself but can regrow
dead or damaged areas. This means that 1 What is the difference between Quick check 3.17
healthy living organ donors can donate organ replacement and organ
part of their liver and their liver can grow regeneration?
back to nearly the same size over time. 2 Define ‘xenotransplantation’.
Because of the regenerative properties of 3 Outline two potential problems with xenotransplantation.
the liver, scientists can grow whole new 4 Name two toxins filtered out by the liver.
organs from as little as a quarter of an 5 A liver can regrow from what sized portion?
original liver.

Practical 3.10

Investigating the impact of salt on liver function

During this experiment you will add hydrogen peroxide to blended cow’s liver. If the hydrogen peroxide is broken
down, then oxygen bubbles will be produced. You will add different amounts of salt solution, to test the effect of
salt on liver function.

Aim
Construct an appropriate aim for this experiment, based on the background information above.

Materials
• 4 large test tubes
• liver solution (100 g of cow liver blended with 100 mL water)
continued…

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150 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

…continued
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
• 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% salt solutions
• 3% hydrogen peroxide
• test tube rack
• disposable gloves
• marker
• stopwatch

Method
1 Identify the following variables in your experiment: independent, dependent and three controlled variables.
2 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment: predict what effect the four different acids will have on bacterial
growth.
3 Place the test tubes in a rack and label them 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%.
4 Add 3 mL of liver solution and 3 mL of the first salt solution and allow to combine for 3 minutes.
5 Mark the level of the solution with a marker.
6 Add 2 mL of hydrogen peroxide to the first test tube and time until the bubbles stop being produced.
7 When the bubbles stop being produced record the time in the results table.
8 Repeat steps 6–7 with the remaining tubes.

Results

Salt (%) Height of bubbles (mm)

0
10
20
30
40

Evaluation
1 Draw a line graph to plot your results.
2 Describe how you could make your results more reliable.
3 Discuss whether your results supported or didn’t support your hypothesis.
4 Explain the trend observed from your results.
5 Using your results, suggest a salt % range that you would test in a follow-up investigation.
6 Explain the reason that a test tube containing no salt was included in the experiment.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the effects of salt on liver function? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ and remember to
include possible sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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 Section 3.7 Organ repair and replacement 151

Ethics save or improve the life of a patient? Some

questions they have to consider are:
When we discuss organ transplants, we often
• Does the living donor know and
have to think about the ethical implications
understand all the risks?
of taking an organ from one person and
• What if something goes wrong during
using it in another. ‘Ethics’ is the term we
surgery and puts the donor’s life at risk?
use to discuss what is right and wrong in
• What if the transplant is rejected by the
society. As there are many different beliefs,
patient and the organ goes to waste?
cultures and people around the world,
• What happens if the donor is left with
ethics can vary from country to country or
long-term pain, infection or impaired
from person to person. When something
health after the surgery?
ethical is considered right, we say it is
relating to ethics, the
ethical, and if it is considered
field of considering
what is right and wrong
The donor may be under a lot of pressure
wrong, we say it is unethical.
from friends or family, which can make
them feel forced into donating.
Our laws are linked to the ethical beliefs
of a nation and can change over time
At any one time, there are around
as people’s perception of ethics evolves.
1500 people on the Australian organ
However, just because something is
transplant waiting list. There are many rules
considered unethical does not necessarily
in place to ensure that organs are allocated
mean that it is illegal.
to patients in a fair process that is not
affected by race, religion, gender, disability,
social status or age, unless an adult organ
is too large for a child (or a child’s organ is
too small for an adult).

There are a very limited number of organs

available at any one time, and so the wait
for an organ could be anywhere from six
months to more than four years. As a result
of this, several factors are used to decide
who gets an organ, such as:
• how long the person has been waiting
for a transplant
• how well the organ matches the patient
• how urgent the transplant is for the
patient’s health
Figure 3.92 Judges make decisions based on law,
but ethics may also be a consideration in the • whether the organ can be brought to the
decision-making process. person in time.

Ethics of organ transplants The pros and cons of organ Try this 3.12
Some donated organs, such as kidneys and donation
partial livers, come from living donors. This Create a two-way table showing the possible advantages
creates an ethical dilemma for the doctor and disadvantages (risks) for both an organ donor and
who is performing the surgery. Should a recipient.
they risk the life of a healthy person to

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152 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Opt in or opt out? Explore! 3.9

In some countries, such as Spain, all adults are automatically registered as organ donors.
These adults can ‘opt out’ of the registration if they do not wish to be an organ donor. Many do not opt out. Spain
consequently has one of the shortest waiting times for organ transplants in the world.
Research the current percentage of Australians who are registered organ donors and our average waiting list
times, and compare these with Spain’s.
Answer the following questions and justify your opinion with evidence.
1 Do you think Australia would benefit from an ‘opt out’ organ donation system?
2 What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of an ‘opt out’ system?

Section 3.7 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 State the function of the kidneys.
2 Name two factors that can damage the kidneys.
3 List the two main challenges that scientists face with xenotransplantation.
4 Name the largest organ inside a human.

Understanding
5 Define ‘organ donor’.
6 Define ‘organ transplant’.
7 Explain why organs are rejected.

Applying
8 Summarise how too much salt can be harmful to a person.
9 Identify one organ that can regenerate.
10 Identify how Australian rules keep organ donation fair.

Analysing
11 Compare ethics to laws.
12 Patients who are waiting Patient survival rates by dialysis and transplant
100
for a kidney transplant
90
might undergo daily or
weekly dialysis treatment. 80
Percentage survived (%)

Dialysis involves attending 70

a hospital and being
60
connected to a machine
that filters your blood, 50
and then returns it to your 40
circulation. The graph
30 Dialysis patients
in Figure 3.93 shows
20 Transplant patients
percentage survival rates
for patients on dialysis 10
versus patients who receive
0
a kidney transplant. Use 0 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years
the graph to answer the
following questions. Figure 3.93

continued…

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 Chapter 3 REVIEW QUESTIONS 153

…continued
a What is the difference in survival rates at the 1 year mark for dialysis patients versus transplant recipients?
b What is the difference in survival rates at the 5 year mark for dialysis patients versus transplant recipients?
c Using your knowledge of organ transplantation, account for the difference in survival rates for these two
patient populations. (What advantages does transplantation offer?)

Evaluating
13 Justify why liver regeneration would be more beneficial than a liver transplant.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Define ‘lenticels’ and state where they might be found.
2 Name the blood vessel: SCORCHER
a that carries blood away from the heart to the lungs to become oxygenated
b that carries oxygen-rich blood out of the heart
c that returns blood to the heart from the body.
3 State the key role of the small intestine and the large intestine in humans.
4 Define ‘xenotransplantation’.
5 Match the numbers in the following diagrams of a human with the following terms:
mouth, liver, larynx, alveoli, diaphragm, tongue, anus, stomach, nasal cavity, trachea, rectum,
lung, pancreas, gall bladder, epiglottis, duodenum, large intestine, oesophagus, pharynx,
small intestine, bronchus, bronchiole.

1 11
18

4
2

5 12

6
7
3
8 13
9 14
19
10 15
20

16

17

21

22
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154 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

Understanding
6 Describe the contents of blood.
7 Explain the role of enzymes in the digestive system, using examples.
8 Explain the function of the liver.
9 Outline the differences between the digestive systems of a carnivore and a herbivore.
10 Explain what is meant by ‘living donor’.
11 Outline three essential features of gills if they are to efficiently exchange gases and act as
lungs for fish.

Applying
12 Arrange these terms in order of increasing size/complexity: organ, organism, tissue, cell,
organ system.
13 Explain why it could be harmful to treat a koala with antibiotics for an infection.
14 Other than breaking down food, propose another function of stomach acid.
15 Construct a flow chart or a story that depicts the path taken by a single molecule of oxygen,
from when it enters the mouth, to when it enters a cell and diffuses to the mitochondria to be
consumed in cellular respiration. Then show how a molecule of carbon dioxide is produced
and follow its story until it is exhaled. Make sure you include all relevant parts of the respiratory
and circulatory systems.

Analysing
16 Examine this statement: ‘Lactose intolerance should be referred to as lactase deficiency’. Why
is this the case?
17 Compare mechanical digestion to chemical digestion.
18 Contrast the contents of the blood as it leaves your heart to when it returns to the heart.
19 Copy and complete the table, to distinguish between an artery, a capillary and a vein in terms
of both their structure and their function.

Structure Function
Artery
Capillary
Vein

20 Construct a table to compare the structure and function of villi and alveoli.
21 Construct a Venn diagram to compare the gas exchange structures of fish, frogs and humans.

Figure 3.94

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 Chapter 3 REVIEW QUESTIONS 155

22 Forced vital capacity (FVC) is a measure of how much air a person can blow out in one
exhalation. The graph in Figure 3.95 shows the normal values for men (in red) and women
(in purple) according to their age. Use the graph to answer the following questions.

5.5

5
Men

4.5

4
Forced vital capacity (litres)

3.5
Women

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Age (years)
Figure 3.95 Forced vital capacity versus age, for men and women

a What is the average FVC for a male and a female at age 30?
b Between what ages does a person’s lung capacity increase the most?
c Propose a reason why males tend to have larger FVC than females.

Evaluating
23 Propose two reasons why most frogs need to remain near water.
24 A child is diagnosed with a rare and potentially fatal condition, but a bone marrow transplant
from a matching donor will likely save their life. Neither of the parents is a match, but they are
told by the doctors that a sibling is likely to be a suitable match. The parents decide to have
another child, with the intention that when the baby is born, he or she can provide a bone
marrow donation to their sibling. Research what is involved in bone marrow transplantation,
and discuss the ethical dilemma these parents face. Evaluate the pros and cons of the parents’
decision, and defend your personal opinion on whether they should or should not have the
second sibling.

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156 Chapter 3 ORGAN SYSTEMS

STEM activity: Clearing a blocked artery

Background information
VCSSU094 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
The heart is an incredible organ. It is responsible for
pumping oxygen and nutrients around your body,
to every cell. It continues to
pump for your entire lifetime Balloon angioplasty
and you can’t live without
it. Unfortunately, many
Balloon is inserted
people around the world in narrowed area
experience heart conditions
that are life threatening. An
example is coronary artery Balloon is inflated,
disease (CAD), a major flattening plaque
cause of death in Australia.
Many heart conditions can
be treated with medication,
and some require surgery. Artery is widened,
blood flow improved
Other conditions, such as
dilated cardiomyopathy,
Figure 3.96 Angioplasty: a small ‘balloon’ is inflated inside the artery, which pushes
CAD and heart-related birth
the plaque aside and widens the vessel.
defects, can only be treated
with a heart transplant. A donor heart can
Balloon angioplasty and stent
be used from a person who has died and
has consented to being an organ donor.
However, sadly, the number of people on
waiting lists for heart transplants is far
Deflated Plaque
greater than the number of donor hearts Artery Closed stent
balloon
available, and many people die while they
are waiting for a transplant.
Like all our organs, the heart requires
oxygen and nutrients. These are supplied to
Inflated balloon Expanded stent
the heart in blood that comes via the coronary
arteries. When a person has CAD, cholesterol,
calcium, fat deposits and other substances
deposit on the walls of their coronary arteries.
These deposits make the coronary arteries Stent Compresses Increases
narrower, reducing the blood supply to the widens artery plaque blood flow
heart, and therefore reducing the supply of Figure 3.97 Many people also have a stent inserted inside the artery
oxygen to the heart muscle. after the artery has been widened by angioplasty. A stent is a small
Two ways of using surgery to overcome tube made of plastic or metal that is inserted into the artery to
this problem of blocked coronary arteries are prevent it narrowing again.
shown in Figures 3.96 and 3.97.

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 STEM activity CLEARING A BLOCKED ARTERY 157

It is important to note that neither of these Suggested steps

methods actually cleans the plaque away. This is
1 In your group, take some time to discuss ideas
because blood vessels are fragile, and cleaning
and come up with several possible designs.
the plaque would cause it to dislodge, which is
2 Build your prototype.
dangerous because it might then completely block
3 Test the prototype and time how long it takes to
a narrower blood vessel, causing a heart attack.
clear the plaque.
4 Assess whether your prototype was effective and
Design brief: Design a device and a procedure whether improvements could be made.
to clear blocked arteries while trapping the 5 Modify your prototype and test it again.
dislodged plaque.
Suggested materials
Activity instructions • model of a blocked artery, created using a tube
or a toilet roll tube and Play-Doh
In groups of three or four, you will design a device
• paperclips
along with the procedure to unblock an artery. As
• string
part of the design brief, your device and procedure
• popsicle sticks
will also need to trap any of the plaque that is
• cloth
cleared out.
• glue
You can only insert any devices from the top end
• tape
of the ‘artery’ tube (see Figure 3.98).
• cardboard
• paper
Top

Evaluate and modify

1 For each model that you created, discuss how
effectively the model performed. Consider how
long the procedure was and how difficult it was
to carry out. Evaluate how effective the ‘trap’ was
at catching the dislodged pieces – how much of
Assumed
blood flow the plaque did it catch?
2 Propose some improvements to your first design
and prototype. Test it and compare it to your
first prototype.
3 Imagine you had to do this procedure on a real
patient. Discuss the limitations of your model
of a blocked artery, and how your device and
procedure might need to be modified to better
reflect real life.
Figure 3.98 A model of an artery

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158

Chapter 4 Reproduction

Chapter introduction
Reproduction is the means by which populations continue to survive on Earth. If a species fails to
reproduce, it will become extinct. In this chapter you will explore the different modes of reproduction,
and the structures and mechanisms behind them.
Humans have become adept at extending our lifespan, thanks to scientific discoveries and modern
medicine. Technology such as IVF (in vitro fertilisation) now allows us to assist people who are finding it
difficult to become pregnant. We also manipulate how some other organisms reproduce – examples are
agricultural techniques for food crops and animals, and breeding programs for endangered animals.

Curriculum
Multicellular organisms contain systems of organs that carry out specialised functions that enable
them to survive and reproduce (VCSSU094)
• examining the specialised cells and tissues involved in structure and function of 4.2
particular organs
• describing the structure of each organ in a system and relating its function to the 4.2
overall function of the system
• identifying the organs and overall function of a system of a multicellular organism 4.2
in supporting life processes
• comparing reproductive systems of organisms 4.1, 4.3

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 159

Glossary terms
asexual reproduction gonads pollen
binary fission internal fertilisation pollination
budding menstrual cycle puberty
cloaca menstruation scrotum
embryo nectar sexual reproduction
external fertilisation ovulation spore
fragmentation ovule vegetative propagation
gametes ovum zygote
gestation parthenogenesis

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160 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Concept map

Reproduction
Living things need to
reproduce for life
to continue.

Methods

Sexual Asexual
reproduction reproduction

In humans:
Egg
↓ • Binary fission
Zygote • Spores
4.1
• Budding
↓
• Parthenogenesis 4.2
Embryo
↓ 4.3
Foetus
↓
Birth
Both these methods
apply to plants
(and some
animals).
The human
reproductive
system

• Natural asexual reproduction

• Human-induced asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction involving seed
Male Female dispersal methods.

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 Section 4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals 161

4.1 Asexual and sexual

reproduction in animals

Every living thing on the planet will

eventually die. This means that, in order for
WORKSHEET life to continue, organisms need to produce
more of their own kind through the process
of reproduction.

There are two main types of reproduction:

asexual and sexual.

Asexual reproduction occurs when

organisms make an exact copy of
asexual reproduction themselves. There is no
a method of reproduction
in which there is one parent
need for a second parent.
organism and all offspring
are genetically identical
sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
a method of reproduction in involves the genetic input
which there are two parent
organisms and genetic of two parents, and tends Figure 4.1 Many sperm cells will try, but only one will manage to
variation in the offspring
to result in offspring with fertilise an egg cell.
lots of variety. Humans reproduce via sexual and they form in the gonads of males gonads
reproduction. This means that, while siblings and females. The male gonads are the
the reproductive organs,
where gametes are
might look similar, they are rarely identical. testes and the female gonads are the produced; testes for males
and ovaries for females
ovaries.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two organisms When an egg cell and a sperm cell meet,
of the same species to each contribute a they combine to form a fertilised egg,
special cell that combines with the other to called a zygote. This cell has the zygote
produce a new, unique offspring. correct amount of genetic material a fertilised egg cell

and it can begin to replicate by mitosis,

Sexual reproduction requires a sperm cell which you may remember from Chapter 2,
from the male and an egg cell from the in which eukaryotic cells make copies of
female to combine. These cells each contain themselves. As this new cell replicates and
gametes half the genetic information becomes many cells, it grows and the cells
the sex cells (eggs and
sperm), each of which needed to form a new take on special functions. The zygote
contains half the genetic embryo
material required to make an organism of the same species. will eventually develop into the a fertilised egg cell that has
organism
We call these cells gametes embryo of the organism. begun dividing

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162 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Egg

Sperm

Gametes
Fertilisation

Ovary Testes

Zygote

Mitosis and
development
VIDEO
Contrast
asexual
and sexual Multicellular adults
reproduction
Figure 4.2 The human reproductive cycle

1 Define the following key terms: asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, gametes, Quick check 4.1
gonads, zygote, embryo.
2 How many parents are involved in asexual and sexual reproduction?
3 Name the female and male gonads, and name the female and male gametes.

Courtship Did you know? 4.1

Attracting a mate is essential in sexual reproduction. Many animals, such as birds,
use elaborate and impressive courtship rituals to signal to the opposite sex that they are ready to mate. Some
adaptations stimulate the mating process and can
include:
• behavioural adaptations, such as special mating
calls (songs) or dances
• physical adaptations, such as special feathers or
colour patches
• physiological adaptations, such as releasing
attractive chemicals called pheromones.
The male peacock puts on an impressive display to
attract prospective females. He has a vibrant train
of feathers in iridescent colours. If the peahen is
suitably impressed, she will crouch on the ground.
The peacock then advances, emits a ‘hoot’ and
makes a short dash towards the peahen. Figure 4.3 A male peacock, starting his performance

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 Section 4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals 163

Fertilisation methods Although other land animals such as

In mammals, fertilisation and development reptiles and birds also have internal
of the embryo take place within the body fertilisation, the development of their young
of the female – this is known as internal happens externally, in waterproof eggs.
fertilisation. This method of
internal fertilisation
a mode of fertilisation in fertilisation is important for
which male gametes are
delivered into the female all animals that live on land,
reproductive system and
fertilisation takes place as it protects the gametes and
inside the female
zygote from drying out. It
also protects the embryo from any threats in
the outside world.

Figure 4.6 A freshly hatched crocodile

External fertilisation takes place external fertilisation

a mode of fertilisation in
outside the parent animals and which gametes are released
usually requires the animals to be into the environment and
fertilisation occurs outside
aquatic or semi-aquatic. This is the body

because the eggs and sperm are expelled

from the organisms’ bodies and unite
in water.

Figure 4.4 A pregnant gorilla

Figure 4.5 With internal fertilisation, the growing

baby is protected inside the mother. Figure 4.7 A school of fish and a cloud of gametes that have been released

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164 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Because the eggs and sperm are released Stages of embryonic development
outside the body, it is harder for them to in humans
meet, and the fertilised eggs have little In humans, the time from fertilisation to
protection. This means that organisms that birth is around 40 weeks.
reproduce in this manner have to produce
lots of eggs and sperm cells, and release Egg to zygote
them all at the same time and reasonably The unfertilised egg is released from the
close to each other. ovary and travels along the Fallopian tube
towards the uterus (see Figure 4.9). There
Some potential problems with this method is a 12-hour window in which the egg
of fertilisation: can unite with a sperm cell and become
• The eggs and sperm may not meet (no fertilised. When fertilised, it is referred to
fertilisation). as a zygote.
• The eggs may be eaten by predators.
• Environmental conditions may not be Fallopian tubes
favourable (e.g. a strong current in the
wrong direction).
Uterus
1 Define the Quick check 4.2
following key
terms: internal fertilisation, external
fertilisation. Endometrium Ovary
2 State the type of fertilisation that
Cervix
occurs in mammals. Vagina
3 List some advantages of internal
fertilisation and some disadvantages of Figure 4.9 The female reproductive system
external fertilisation.

Zygote to embryo
Gestation The zygote undergoes cell division and
splits into two cells, then these cells divide,
Gestation is the term used to describe
and so on, forming a ball of cells. Over
how long an embryo takes to develop
five days, the ball of cells moves along the
gestation inside the mother to the point
Fallopian tube and then implants into the
the pregnancy period, when
the offspring are developing
where it can survive outside her
wall of the uterus. The cells continue to
inside the mother body. In humans, the gestation
divide and begin to specialise, and it is now
period is called ‘pregnancy’ and usually
referred to as an embryo.
takes about 280 days (9 months). This
time varies in other mammals.
Embryonic stage
The embryo continues to divide repeatedly,
and the cells specialise to become everything
from neurons (nerve cells) to liver cells to
skin cells. It is referred to as an embryo for
the first eight weeks. In humans, during this
critical period, the developing embryo is
Figure 4.8 A heavily pregnant dog. Dogs have a susceptible to the effects of alcohol, diseases
gestational period of approximately 63 days. and drugs, which can lead to birth defects

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 Section 4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals 165

such as limb abnormalities or problems with

brain development. By the eighth week,
all major organs are present but not fully
developed.

Foetal stage
The foetal stages lasts from around week
8 to birth. This is a time of rapid growth
VIDEO
and the organs become fully developed and Microscopic
functional. Alcohol, disease and drugs can view of an IVF
procedure
still have an impact during the foetal stage Figure 4.10 A model showing a foetus that is nearly
full term and ready to be born
of development.

Investigating gestation and development Explore! 4.1

How much time does it take different animals to develop from an embryo to infant form?
Conduct research to answer the question, and then copy and complete the table below.

Animal Gestation period Time until they Time relying on Average life
can walk/move parent for food length
Human 280 days
Pig
Elephant
Choose your own
animal

Reproductive technologies Science as a human endeavour 4.1

Some people have difficulty conceiving (becoming pregnant)
naturally, due to age or certain medical conditions. If a person or animal is unable to produce gametes, they
are termed ‘sterile’. Humans have developed sophisticated reproductive technologies such as IVF (in vitro
fertilisation) to assist pregnancy. The first successful human IVF birth occurred in 1978, and the practice has
become increasingly common.
Some features of the IVF method:
• The female might take extra hormones to encourage
release of multiple eggs (called ovulation).
• Eggs are harvested surgically.
• An egg is fertilised by a sperm in a laboratory.
• The fertilised egg is incubated and allowed to begin cell
replication. When it has reached a size of around four
cells (after approximately 36–48 hours), it is implanted
back into the woman’s uterus.
Reproductive technology also has implications for conservation
efforts. For example, bison numbers in Colorado, USA, are so
low that these animals are at risk of becoming endangered.
In 2018, eight bison, four calves and their mothers were Figure 4.11 American bison living in Colorado are
at risk of becoming an endangered species. IVF
released into a northern Colorado herd, where a 10-month-
technology may be a way to rectify this.
old calf known as IVF was among the newcomers.

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166 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

1 Define the term ‘gestation period’. Quick check 4.3

2 How long is the gestation period for humans?
3 Copy and complete the following table summarising the stages of embryonic development in humans.

Stage Time Description

Egg to zygote
Zygote to embryo
Embryonic stage
Foetal stage

Birth Development
When a baby is ready to be born, the Most mammals develop internally in the
woman goes into labour – which, as the uterus of the mother and are born looking
name suggests, can be hard work, lasting relatively similar to an adult organism.
anywhere from a few hours to days. The Internally developing organisms, including
cervix dilates and the uterus contracts, humans, receive nutrition directly from the
pushing the baby out of the vagina. The mother, via the umbilical cord. Marsupials,
baby is usually born head first. However, such as kangaroos, are unique because the
situations such as a breech birth, where young are born in an extremely under-
the baby’s feet come out first, can result developed state and continue to develop
in a medical emergency and the baby inside the pouch.
may need to be removed surgically.
This is done by making an incision Baby birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects
across the woman’s abdomen, called a tend to develop externally – outside the
Caesarean section. mother. They develop inside an egg and
hatch once they are sufficiently equipped to
survive in the world.

Figure 4.12 A baby joey. After being born, the joey wiggles its way into its mother’s pouch to feed.

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 Section 4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals 167

Parenting
Not all animals are as suitable to parent as
humans are. Insects, fish and some other
simple organisms do not look after their
young at all after they have laid their eggs.
For example, moths lay their eggs on the
under-surface of leaves, in order to hide
them from the line of sight of predators and
to provide them with a food source when
they eventually emerge as a caterpillar.
However, the female moths do not remain
to protect them.

Figure 4.14 A kangaroo mother provides a safe environment for

her offspring.

The male midwife toad Did you know? 4.2

The male midwife toad is a
dedicated father. He carries around 40 fertilised eggs,
which he wraps around his back legs after mating. After
about three weeks, when the eggs are ready to hatch, he will
find an appropriate body of water where he will place the
tadpoles, so that they can emerge from their eggs and begin
their independent life.

Figure 4.13 Caterpillars hatching under a leaf

Animals that do not look after their young

often produce large numbers of eggs,
resulting in an increased chance that some
of the offspring will survive predation,
disease and competition and develop to
adulthood.

More advanced animals such as birds,

mammals and even some frogs look after
their fertilised eggs and their newborn
offspring, which increases their chance Figure 4.15 A male midwife toad, carrying fertilised eggs

of survival.

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168 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Some multicellular organisms, such as

flatworms, also reproduce
Some organisms reproduce asexually,
asexually by fragmentation. fragmentation
without the input of a partner. This method a mode of asexual
If you cut a flatworm in half, reproduction by flatworms,
of reproduction is useful for organisms that where they can be cut and
both ends can regenerate and regrow into two genetically
are isolated from other members of their
it will become two flatworms. identical organisms
species or cannot move easily. Asexual
reproduction can be useful, because it is
fast and does not require time and energy
to find a mate. The offspring produced
are clones, genetically identical to the
parent. If the parent is well adapted to the
environment, this is a good thing. However,
if environmental conditions change or a
disease is introduced that the organisms are
susceptible to, it can lead to the extinction of Figure 4.17 Fragmentation in a flatworm

a whole species.
Spore formation
Fungi and some plants, such as ferns, produce
In asexual reproduction, one cell becomes
single-celled spores that are released into the
two, and there are many different ways this
environment. These spores
can occur. You are going to look at binary spore
are carried by the wind, and an asexual reproductive
fission, fragmentation, spore formation, cell produced by
land in a new location, where organisms such as fungi
budding and parthenogenesis. and ferns
some develop into a genetically
Binary fission and fragmentation identical version of the parent organism. The
Bacteria and some simple unicellular spore is actually a clump of unspecialised cells
organisms, such as the amoeba, reproduce surrounded by a protective coating.
binary fission by splitting in half. This process
a mode of asexual
reproduction by bacteria, is known as binary fission. The
where genetic information
is copied and the cell splits
genetic material is copied, and then
in half the cell constricts and splits down
the centre, resulting in two identical
daughter cells.

Animal cell Nucleus divides Cytoplasm Two daughter

(e.g. Amoeba) into two divides cells are formed
about to divide
Figure 4.16 Binary fission in an amoeba Figure 4.18 Common puffball fungus releasing spores

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 Section 4.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction in animals 169

1 2 3 4
Figure 4.19 Budding in a hydra

Budding produce genetically identical budding

a mode of asexual reproduction by
Yeasts and simple aquatic animals, called copies of the mother. This organisms such as yeast and hydra,
hydra, reproduce asexually by budding. mode of asexual reproduction where the daughter organism grows off
the side of the parent and drops off
A genetically identical offspring grows and is known as parthenogenesis. parthenogenesis
develops on the side of the parent organism, The resulting population a mode of asexual reproduction by some
insects and reptiles, where females give
before dropping off and continuing to live is female. birth to unfertilised eggs that hatch to
produce offspring that are genetically
independently. identical to the mother

Parthenogenesis
In organisms such as bees and certain lizards,
the females are capable of ‘virgin birth’ – that
is, they lay unfertilised eggs, which hatch to

Asexual reproduction Try this 4.1

in animals
Observe examples of asexual reproduction
in animals. You will need a microscope,
cavity slides, coverslips and a sample of
pond water containing organisms such
as protozoa (any of a large group of one-
celled organisms, called protists) that live
in water or as parasites, hydra (polyp) or
rotifers (microscopic aquatic animals).
Take care when looking at live organisms,
as some, like the hydra, are relatively
large and if you use a coverslip you will
squash them. Try to see whether any of
the organisms are reproducing. What is
the evidence that they are doing so? What
type of asexual reproduction can you
observe?
Figure 4.20 In some species, such as stick insects, the females can
reproduce by parthenogenesis.

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170 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

1 What are two advantages of asexual reproduction? Quick check 4.4

2 What is one disadvantage of producing genetically identical
offspring?
3 Name five types of asexual reproduction and give an example of an organism that uses that
method.
4 Make a table or poster summarising the five different types of asexual reproduction. Include
five examples of organisms that reproduce in each of the five ways.

Asexual vs sexual reproduction Try this 4.2

Draw a Venn diagram comparing asexual and sexual reproduction.
Remember, the overlapping section of the circles is for characteristics that both types of
reproduction share.

Section 4.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Recall the two types of reproduction.
2 State the two cells that sexual reproduction needs.
3 Define the term ‘gamete’.
4 Recall where gametes are made.

Understanding
5 Explain why an aquatic animal can use external fertilisation more easily than a land-
dwelling animal can.
6 Explain why it could be advantageous for an organism to reproduce asexually.

Applying
7 Construct a short timeline of the human gestation period. Ensure you include the terms
egg, zygote, embryo and foetus.
8 Create a table to list the benefits and limitation of internal fertilisation.
9 Identify why organisms produced by asexual reproduction are sometimes called clones.

Analysing
10 Compare internal and external fertilisation.
11 Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.

Evaluating
12 Many courtship displays demonstrate a male individual’s strength through physical feats,
or their health through the vibrancy of their colourings. Give reasons why this would be
useful information for the female.
13 A brand new species of lizard is discovered, and a zoologist captures a female of
the species. One year later, the lizard lays eggs that hatch into many female lizards.
Hypothesise about the method of reproduction she has utilised.

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 Section 4.2 The human reproductive system 171

4.2 The human reproductive

system

As discussed previously, humans reproduce The female reproductive system

sexually via internal fertilisation, and have
When a female is born, she has around
highly specialised body systems to support WORKSHEET
400 000 eggs in her ovaries, in tiny sacs called
this process. Both females and males share
follicles. Each month, one egg (ovum) ovum
some structural similarities: both possess egg
is released into the Fallopian tube,
gonads, which are the site of gamete ovulation
through a process called ovulation. the release of an ovum (egg)
production, although many of the other into the fallopian tube
If this egg is not fertilised, then the
structures are different. menstruation
uterine lining is shed (along with the cyclical shedding of the
unfertilised egg and the
the egg) and the woman experiences uterine lining; also known as
menstrual period
menstruation (menstrual period).
Fallopian tube
Carries the ovum
(egg) from the
ovary to the uterus

Uterus (womb)
Ovary If an egg is fertilised,
After puberty, an egg it will implant into the
(ovum) is released from wall of the uterus and
here once every month develop into a foetus
Cervix
Vagina
The opening at
Connects the cervix to the
the top of the
outside of the body. Sperm
vagina, leading
is deposited here
to the uterus
Figure 4.21 The female reproductive system

More than one uterus Did you know? 4.3

Animals such as rabbits have a
branched uterus, which allows
for the development of multiple
foetuses at the same time, even
up to 14! However, this is not the
only factor in the rabbit’s rapid rate
of reproduction. They also have
a gestation period of 28–31 days,
which means a single female could
give birth to 168 live young per year!

Figure 4.22 Rabbits are excellent breeders.

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172 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

The male reproductive system Sperm are around 0.5 mm long and are well
adapted for swimming through the mucus
Gamete production in males is a little
of the vagina and the uterus to reach the
different: once a male reaches puberty, he
egg. Each sperm has a long whiplike tail
starts to produce sperm in his testes.
scrotum that beats in a corkscrew motion to propel
a sac that encloses the The testes are suspended from the
testes the sperm forwards. Unlike eggs, sperm are
body in a sac called the scrotum,
produced in huge quantities throughout a
which is around three degrees cooler than
male's life.
core body temperature.

Bladder Seminal vesicle

Holds urine for excretion
Prostate Sperm duct (vas deferens)
Gland that releases liquid, A tube that transports sperm
which mixes with the from the testes to the penis
sperm to form semen
Testes
Penis After puberty, produce sperm
Contains erectile continuously for the remainder
tissue and urethra of the male’s life
Sperm (inside the testes)
Urethra
The male gamete, adapted to
Tube through which
swim into the Fallopian tube
semen and urine
to fertilise an egg
leave the body Scrotum
A protective sac of skin that
holds the testes and responds
to changes in temperature
Figure 4.23 The male reproductive system

1 Where does fertilisation usually occur? Quick check 4.5

2 Describe what happens when an egg is released but not fertilised.
3 What is the vas deferens?
4 Draw up a table summarising the parts of the female and male reproductive
systems and their function.

Model/diagram Try this 4.3

Construct a model or a diagram showing the structures of the female
reproductive system, and the process of fertilisation (from ovulation until the zygote implants
in the uterine wall).

Puberty
Goats, chickens, sheep and cows all go
All animals develop from a juvenile form through puberty within their first year of
into their adult form early in their lives. life. In humans, puberty comes later. Girls
This process involves many hormones that go through puberty at around the age of
stimulate growth and changes in their 9–14 years, and boys go through puberty at
puberty
the time of transition from bodies. This process of change is around 12–16 years. This is why girls are
juvenile form to adult form
called puberty. often taller than boys in Years 7 and 8.

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 Section 4.2 The human reproductive system 173

However, puberty happens at different In males, testosterone causes the testes

times for everyone and this is perfectly to enlarge and produce sperm, the voice
normal. deepens and muscle size increases. Increased
testosterone levels can also lead to more oil
When humans go through puberty, they production on the skin and an increase in
grow rapidly, start getting hair around sweating. Both these attributes can lead to
their genitalia and become sexually mature, an increase in acne and body odour.
meaning that they can produce offspring.
The main hormones involved in puberty In females, oestrogen and progesterone
are testosterone, follicle-stimulating stimulate the eggs in the ovaries to develop
hormone (FSH), lutenising hormone and breast tissue to grow. Females might also
(LH), growth hormone, oestrogen and notice that their hips widen and they begin
progesterone. Growth hormone and LH to develop more fat around this menstrual cycle
a cycle controlled by hormones to
make you grow taller and stimulate hair area. These hormones prompt the prepare the body for fertilisation
of an egg; if fertilisation does not
follicles around the body to produce more menstrual cycle to begin. occur, menstruation will follow
hair, most noticeably on the face, legs,
groin and armpits. FSH triggers eggs to
develop in the ovaries of females.

Puberty Explore! 4.2

Some of the changes you
experience during puberty have already been
mentioned, but what else happens?
1 Draw outlines of a female and a male on two
separate pieces of paper.
2 Do some research and annotate your diagrams
with the changes that occur during puberty and
where they occur. If you can explain what causes
the change, include that too.

Figure 4.24 Hair development is common Figure 4.25 Some unpleasant side effects of puberty: body odour
during puberty and acne

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174 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

The menstrual cycle

Hormones control a woman’s menstrual While this is occurring, the follicle also
cycle, which usually lasts around 28 days. secretes oestrogen, which causes the uterine
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and wall to thicken so that the egg can implant
luteinising hormone (LH) trigger ovulation, there if fertilised. If the egg is not fertilised,
and the egg bursts out of the follicle in the the uterine lining is shed and the woman
ovary. Once released, the egg will travel down experiences a ‘period’, also known as
the Fallopian tube, ready to be fertilised. menstruation.
Ovarian cycle

Growing Corpus
follicle luteum

Ovulation
Hormone levels

0 7 14 21 28 Day
Hormone: Progesterone Oestrogen LH FSH
Uterine wall

1 5 10 15 20 25 28 Day
Figure 4.26 The link between the different hormones in the female reproductive system and the
action of the follicles. After the follicle releases an egg, it is known as the corpus luteum.

Cloaca – one hole does it all! Did you know? 4.4

Humans have an anus to defecate out of, a urethra
to urinate out of and, if you are a female, a vagina
to push babies out of. But not all animals are like
that. In fact, it is much more common to have one
hole that does all of the
cloaca
a hole used for defecating, above. This organ is called
urinating and giving birth
that is present in some
the cloaca and it is found
amphibians, reptiles, birds, in amphibians, reptiles,
fish and monotremes
birds, some fish and even
monotremes. This is why it can sometimes be tricky
to distinguish between the sexes of certain animals.
For example, birds mate by pressing their cloacas
together in a process known as a ‘cloacal kiss’,
where muscular undulations move the sperm from Figure 4.27 A turtle laying an egg through its cloaca
the male to the female.

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 Section 4.2 The human reproductive system 175

1 Define the term ‘puberty’. Quick check 4.6

2 Name the hormones involved in puberty in males, and explain what their roles are.
3 Name the hormones involved in puberty in females, and explain what their roles are.
4 Draw a flow chart to summarise the female menstrual cycle. Use the diagram in the text to help you.

Contraceptives Explore! 4.3

There are many contraceptive methods available in Australia, and some of them work by
interrupting the action of hormones. Examine the following options and select one question to investigate,
or chat with your teacher about something else relevant to this
section of the text, that you would like to investigate.
1 Investigate three different female contraception methods,
and determine how they interfere with hormones and
how this acts as a contraceptive. Examples include oral
contraceptive pills, the ‘mini’ pill, implants (Implanon®),
injections (Depo Provera®) and vaginal rings.
OR
2 Investigate three hormonal contraceptive options being
developed for men, and determine how they interfere with
hormones and how this acts as a contraceptive. Examples
Figure 4.28 The female oral contraceptive pill is
include the male birth control pill, contraceptive injection one option for regulating hormones and preventing
and contraceptive gel. pregnancy.

Early puberty caused by plastic Science as a Human Endeavour 4.2

The chemical called bisphenol A (BPA), used since the 1960s, is
found in plastic containers, water bottles, inside tin cans used for storing food, and in cash register receipts.
BPA is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), as it has been found to copy the action of the female sex
hormone oestrogen. BPA can affect human reproduction and puberty, and has been linked to early puberty, low
sperm counts and infertility in men, as well as breast and prostate cancer. Consequently, many BPA-containing
products are banned in Australia. This is another good reason why you should minimise your use of plastics,
especially those that are in contact with food.

Figure 4.29 Wherever possible, use BPA-free plastics. If you can’t, ensure
you wash all food products before use.

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176 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Section 4.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Where are the female and male gametes produced?
2 List three signs of puberty for males, and three signs of puberty for females.
3 What does the onset of puberty indicate?

Understanding
4 Outline the function of the cervix.
5 Outline the function of the testicles.
6 Describe the cloaca.

Applying
7 Referring to the graph of the menstrual cycle in Figure 4.26, answer the following questions.
a Which hormones peak just before ovulation (when the egg is released)?
b Which hormone is at its greatest concentration when the uterine wall is at its thickest?

Analysing
8 Classify the following structures as belonging to the female reproductive system, the male
reproductive system or both systems:
Fallopian tube, penis, gonads, prostate gland, bladder, scrotum, ovary, vas deferens, cervix
9 Conclude why a woman who has blocked Fallopian tubes might find it difficult to become
pregnant.

Evaluating
10 As a man ages, his prostate can increase in size. Suggest a reason why this could affect urination.

4.3 Plant reproduction

Plants can reproduce both asexually and or sudden access to new space, most
sexually. plants can reproduce asexually, which is
WORKSHEET a relatively fast process that requires less
Sexual reproduction in plants requires the energy.
production of flowers, fruit and seeds. This
means that the plant has to divert many Asexual reproduction in plants
resources to the production of a new unique
All asexual reproduction in plants is classed
offspring. This method of reproduction
as vegetative propagation. It involves part
is great for increasing the variation and
of a plant growing into a new vegetative propagation
genetic diversity of a population; however,
plant, and can occur naturally areproduction
form of asexual
where only one
it can take quite a long time.
or humans can manipulate it. plant is involved

In order to take advantage of favourable

Natural methods and human-induced
conditions, such as heavy rainfall, high
methods of asexual reproduction are
levels of sunlight, regeneration after fire
summarised in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 177

Natural methods

Vegetative Definition Examples Image

propagation
method
Bulb • Underground stem for food Onions,
storage hyacinths,
• Food is stored in large leaves daffodils
• Each bulb develops into a
new plant

Figure 4.30 An onion bulb

with leaves and roots

Runner • A stem that grows on top of Strawberries,

and across the ground, from some grasses
the existing stem
• New plants grow from the
runners

Figure 4.31 Strawberry leaves and

runner
Tuber • Underground stem that Potatoes, sweet
contains stored food potatoes
• The eyes of a potato can
develop into new plants

Figure 4.32 A potato with eyes

beginning to sprout
Rhizome • Long modified stem that Long grasses,
grows horizontally under the ferns, irises,
ground ginger,
• New plants grow from the asparagus
rhizome

Figure 4.33 Ginger rhizome with sprout

Table 4.1 Natural methods of asexual reproduction in plants

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178 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Human-induced methods

Vegetative Definition Examples Image

propagation
method
Cutting • Taking pieces of a root or stem Bananas, roses,
• Each piece grows into a new plant sugar cane

Figure 4.34 Some cuttings grow roots

when placed in water

Grafting Taking part of a plant and connecting Citrus, grapes,

it to another plant, combining the two apples, roses
plants

Figure 4.35 The two pieces of stem (left)

are tied in place and will eventually grow
into one stem.

Table 4.2 Human-induced methods of asexual reproduction in plants

Figure 4.36 Some trees can have multiple fruits grafted onto the same tree. Figure 4.37 Growing new plants from
For example, plums, nectarines and peaches can be grafted together. cuttings is a way of making clones.

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 179

Practical 4.1

Asexual reproduction in plants

Aim
To model the process of asexual reproduction, using tubers in carrots

Materials
• carrots • water
• cotton wool • knife
• Petri dish • chopping board
• windowsill

Method
1 Place the cotton wool in the Petri dish.
2 Add enough water to make the cotton wool damp but not wet.
3 Cut the top off the carrot, leaving about 3 cm of flesh.
4 Press the top of the carrot into the wet cotton wool. What
changes do you predict will occur over the next weeks?
5 Re-water the cotton wool every few days, to prevent it from
drying out completely.
6 Once the stem begins to grow, measure and record the
growth each day over two weeks.
7 Plant the carrot top and stem in your garden.
Figure 4.38 Grow your own dinner!
Results
Use your data and the data from three other groups from
your class to calculate the average stem growth each day.
Use the average data to produce a line graph. Remember:
• Place the independent variable on
Stem length (mm) the x-axis.
Day
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Average • Place the dependent variable on
1 the y-axis.
2 • Label both axes.
3 • Write a title.
4 • Use over 75% of your graph paper.
5 • Use equal spaces between each
6 number plotted.
7
8

Evaluation
1 Describe a trend you see in your graph.
2 Explain why you calculated an average using other groups’ data as well as your own.
3 Suggest another plant that could be used for a similar activity.
4 Propose an independent variable that you could add to this activity to turn it into an experiment.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding carrots and their mode of reproduction. Start your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that carrots … ’.
continued…

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180 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

…continued
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the growth over the two weeks. Start your sentence with: ‘It
was observed that … ’ and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

The pollen it produces is pollen

1 Define the terms ‘asexual Quick check 4.7 the male gamete in flowering
reproduction’ and ‘sexual
the male gamete (similar to plants

reproduction’. sperm) and the female gamete ovule

a structure in a flowering
2 What are two advantages of asexual reproduction in is known as the ovule. plant where the female
gamete is produced and
plants? where seeds develop
3 What is a rhizome? Pollination is the fertilisation pollination
4 Name one plant that can be grown from a cutting. process, in which pollen from the process by which
pollen sticks to the female
a flower reaches the ovule. structures of a plant and
fertilises the ovule
Bees and other insects are nectar
attracted to flowers by the a sweet liquid produced by
flowers to attract pollinators
sweet nectar they produce,
Sexual reproduction in plants
and pick up pollen while they are feeding.
If you sit near a patch of flowers on a When the bee moves to the next flower,
WIDGET summer day, you may see a bee or a some of the pollen on the bee sticks to the
Sexual and
asexual butterfly pay them a visit. Many flowers stigma of the new flower, and the pollen
reproduction rely on these insects to help them grain then grows down the style to the ovule.
reproduce by sexual reproduction. The This is where fertilisation occurs and seeds
flower is the sexual organ of the plant. (offspring) develop.

Figure 4.39 A bee with large yellow pollen sacs on its legs

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 181

Stigma
Petal The sticky head on the top
The colourful part of
of a stalk in the centre of
the flower that
the flower. Pollen grains
attracts insects or
stick to the stigma.
other pollinators.

Pistil (carpel)
Anther
Stamen The part of the stamen Style The female
The male The long stalk that the part of the
that produces and pollen grain grows flower; consists
part of the
holds pollen. through into the ovary of the stigma,
flower;
consists of Filament style and ovary
filament The long stalk that
and anther holds the anther. Ovary
Where the female
gamete (ovule)
is housed

Stamen Sepal

Pistil Petal

Figure 4.40 Top: a cross-section of a flower. Bottom: view of the flower from above

Pollination Explore! 4.4

Pollination is an important process. It allows plants to reproduce. After fertilisation, the
ovary swells and grows into a fruit. There are different methods by which pollen can be transported from one
flower to another and allow pollination to occur – examples are wind, insects, birds and animals.
When male gametes (pollen) fertilise female gametes (ovule) on the same plant, this is called self-pollination.
When pollen from one plant fertilises the ovule of another plant, it is called cross-pollination. Cross-pollination
results in genetically diverse offspring that increase variation in the species, making it more likely to be able to
survive changes in the environment.
1 Draw up a table with two columns. In the first column, list the four methods of moving pollen from one flower
to another. Then research the types of flowers that use each method of pollination. In the second column,
summarise what you have found out about the characteristics (shape/colour/size) of the flowers, their
stamens and pistils.
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination? Do some research to find out how plants
prevent self-pollination occurring.

continued…

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182 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

…continued

Figure 4.41 These flowers are pollinated by different methods. Can you identify which is using which method?

Palynology Did you know? 4.5

Pollen grains come in many shapes and sizes, depending on the plant that produces
them. This is why pollen from certain plants can trigger an allergic reaction in some people,
while other pollen has no effect. Palynology is the name for the study of pollen grains. Palynologists
study pollen samples found on archaeological digs, as well as pollen samples found at crime scenes.

Figure 4.42 There are many types of pollen in the air.

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 183

Humans are attracted to flowers because under ultraviolet light, you will see that
of their beautiful and varied colours and many have patterns that resemble a
scents, but the colourings that we see are bullseye target or a landing strip. These
just the tip of the iceberg. Many insects patterns are designed to tell the insects
can see further into the electromagnetic exactly where they need to go to get
spectrum than we can. If you view flowers the nectar.

Figure 4.43 Flowers with (left) a bullseye pattern and (right) a landing strip pattern

1 Name the male gamete and the female gamete of plants. Quick check 4.8
2 Bees and insects can transfer pollen from one flower to another flower. Name some
other ways that pollen can be transferred.
3 Draw up a table summarising the parts of the flower and their role in sexual reproduction.

Practical 4.2

Flower dissection
Aim
To identify the parts of a flower, and link their structure to their role in
Be careful
reproduction
Take extreme care when
Materials handling the razor blade.
• a variety of flowers for dissection
• hand lens
• stereomicroscope
• tweezers
• single-sided razor blade
• chopping board
continued…

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184 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

…continued
Method
1 Draw a diagram of your first flower. Note the number of petals and sepals, and label these
on your diagram.
2 Holding the flower carefully with tweezers on the chopping board, cut the flower in half
vertically. This means you should now be looking at a cross-section of the flower, similar to
the top picture in Figure 4.40.
3 Draw a diagram of the flower in cross-section, and label all the parts of the flower you can
recognise. Add ‘M’ next to the male parts of the flower and ‘F’ next to the female parts of the
flower.
4 Gently remove the sepals and petals, by pulling them down towards the stem. Use a
microscope to look at the tip of the petal at low magnification. Record your observations of
the petal’s texture in your results.
5 Remove the flower’s stamens, by breaking or gently cutting them off the stem. Examine the
pollen with your microscope. Record your observations of the pollen’s shape and texture in
your results.
6 Gently remove all parts except the pistil, so that it remains alone on the stem. Carefully cut
the pistil in half lengthwise, and use your hand lens to look at the inside of it. Record your
observations of the style, ovary and ovules in your results.
7 Repeat steps 1–6 with the other flowers.

Results
Your results should consist of:
• Labelled diagrams of the whole flower and cross-section of the flower
• Observations made during the dissection.

Evaluation
1 Consider the different flowers you looked at. List the similarities and differences between
them.
2 Explain why these differences between flowers might exist.
3 Use a flow chart to summarise the process of sexual reproduction in plants. Use the names
of the parts of flowers that are involved and their role in reproduction.

Healthy bees need diversity Science as a Human Endeavour 4.3

Bees pollinate most of our crops, but bee
numbers are decreasing rapidly. Bees can fly between flowers at about 25 km per hour and visit
up to 5000 flowers in one day. In fact, bees are so important that artificial hives are moved all
around the country to help pollinate new crops.
Imagine that you were only allowed to eat one type of food. That would become boring and
you probably would not be very healthy. Australian and German researchers have discovered
that a diversified plant environment helps bees maintain stable populations. The bees’ quality
of life is highest in gardens and biodiverse forests, and lowest in mono-crop areas. As plant
biodiversity declines, bees produce less offspring, and eventually bee colonies shrink in
size. This means we need to protect our biodiverse environments in order to help prevent the
extinction of bees.

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 185

The blue-banded bee Did you know? 4.6

In 2017, residents living near the Merri Creek
in Melbourne worked together to raise money
to improve the quality of the habitat of the
native blue-banded bee, as the area had lost
the diversity of wildflowers that the bee needs
for nectar. Blue-banded bees cannot travel
very far and so their home needs to offer all
their requirements for a healthy existence. The
special thing about blue-banded bees is that
they can perform a special type of pollination,
called ‘buzz pollination’. Some flowers hide
their pollen inside tiny capsules, but a blue-
banded bee can grasp a flower and shake
it so much that the pollen shoots out of the
capsules. The bee can then collect the pollen
Figure 4.44 The blue-banded bee
and carry it from flower to flower, pollinating
the flowers.

Seed dispersal
Instead of an embryo, flowering plants
produce a seed. This is just as valuable to
the plant as a foetus is to an animal, and so
the plant grows a protective cover for the
seed, known as a fruit. (Note that not all
fruit are edible.)

Figure 4.46 Pine cone ready to drop its seeds

Plants produce many seeds, to increase

the chances of survival. Many seeds will
be eaten by herbivores, or land on areas
Figure 4.45 Peaches produce a large seed VIDEO
surrounded by tasty flesh. where they cannot grow, or be destroyed. Australian
Adult plants often take up a lot of space and plants and
seed dispersal
Pine trees produce wooden cones instead resources and so, in order for their offspring
of flowers, which also protect their seeds. to thrive, the seeds need to spread to new
When the seeds are fully developed, the places. This is known as seed dispersal, and
cones open and release the seeds. plants have many clever ways of doing this.

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186 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

Exploding! Hitching a ride on the inside

The seed pods of a group of plants know As you know, fruit not only protects the
as Impatiens are ticking time bombs. When seeds, but also can be very tasty. Some plants
the fruit is ripe, the slightest touch can make their fruit extra sweet, to encourage
trigger the pod to explode suddenly, flinging animals to eat the seeds. The seeds have a
the seeds it contains in many directions, tough coat in order not to be digested. If by
although the seeds often do not travel far. chance they eventually pass intact through
the animal, they are in a brand new spot if
conditions are favourable, they may grow in
this new environment.

Figure 4.47 Exploding seed pod

Hitching a ride on the outside

Certain plants, including grasses, use spikey
Figure 4.49 Animals ingest seeds in fruit and then
pods (burrs) that latch onto an animal’s defecate the seeds in a new location.
fur or a human’s clothing to disperse. The
spikey pod stays on the animal’s fur until Shooting the breeze
the animal gets itchy and scratches it off, Dandelion seeds are so light that they
and then the pod falls to the ground in a are blown extremely long distances by
new location. just a gust of wind. A fluffy tuft that acts
as a parachute carries each seed away.
A dandelion head is not just one flower

Figure 4.48 Burrs caught on a dog’s fur Figure 4.50 Dandelion seeds caught in the breeze

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 Section 4.3 Plant reproduction 187

but is made up of many florets that each

produce individual seeds. One dandelion
head can make around 500 seeds. This is
why dandelions are such an effective weed.

Floating away
A coconut is one giant seed. It is hollow and
so it can float. This is how coconuts are able
to move between islands and across oceans.

Draw up a table Quick check 4.9

to summarise
the different ways in which seeds can
disperse. Include examples where
appropriate.
Figure 4.51 A floating coconut

Practical 4.3: Self-design

Seed germination
Aim
To design a valid, reliable and accurate experiment to test the conditions necessary for a seed to germinate,
using the materials provided. You may investigate other factors that contribute to the plant’s germination (light
levels, water, nutrients, heat, etc.)

Materials
• Petri dish or glass jar • water
• paper towel • black paper
• water • heat lamp
• seeds • cotton wool
• sugar • fertiliser
• salt

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for your experiment. State the independent variable, the dependent variable and the
controlled variables.
2 Once you have chosen the independent and dependent variables for this experiment, write a hypothesis.
3 Construct a detailed method to explain the procedure you will follow in your experiment. Include all the
instruments and exact measurements you will use. Set it out in step-by-step form. Include the number of
repeats you expect to conduct. Do not forget to mention how the data is recorded. Remember, another
scientist should be able to read this procedure and replicate your experiment exactly, so be precise.
4 After confirming with your teacher that your method is satisfactory, carry out your investigation.

Results
Construct an appropriate results table to document your experiment.
continued…

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188 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

…continued
Evaluate
1 What do your results show?
2 Did something beyond your control go wrong?
3 How would you alter your experiment next time, to prevent this?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding seeds and germination conditions. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that seeds … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the seeds germinating. Start your sentence with: ‘It was
observed that … ’ and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 4.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 List four ways in which plants can reproduce asexually.
2 State the purpose of the petals of a flower.
3 Define the term ‘pistil’.

Understanding
4 Explain the purpose of fruit.
5 Explain how seed dispersal by the wind is effective.

Applying
6 Outline how a plant is pollinated.

Analysing
7 Compare a peach with a pine cone.
8 Distinguish between self-pollination and cross-pollination.

Evaluating
9 Evan lived in England for 15 years and never experienced hay fever. Hay fever is caused by
pollen irritating the nasal passageways. Since moving to Australia, Evan has had hay fever
every summer. Suggest a reason for this.
10 A new volcanic island has formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Suggest the first type
of plants that will grow on the island, and justify your answer, based on its method of seed
dispersal.

Figure 4.52

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 Chapter 4 REVIEW QUESTIONS 189

Review questions

Remembering
1 What mode of asexual reproduction is used by:
a a yeast cell SCORCHER
b a bacterial cell
c a strawberry plant
d fungi?
2 State the function of the following structures in the human reproductive system:
a ovary
b scrotum
c Fallopian tube
d prostate
e uterus.
3 Name the parts of a flower that have the following function:
a attracts pollinators
b the site of seed development
c produces the male gametes
d produces the female gametes
e site where the male gamete sticks to the female part of the plant.
4 State the two methods of fertilisation in animals, and for each method give an example of one
animal that uses it.

Understanding
5 Explain why internal fertilisation is generally more efficient than external fertilisation.
6 Explain four different ways that seeds might be dispersed.

Applying
7 Construct a timeline of the human gestation period, indicating the names of the structure at
each stage and approximate timeframes.
8 If a female reptile reproduces via parthenogenesis due a lack of male mates in the area, what
conclusion can you draw about her offspring?
9 Construct a comic strip or series of diagrams to model how sexual reproduction occurs in a
flowering plant. Ensure the reproductive organs are labelled appropriately.

Analysing
10 Compare sexual and asexual reproduction to show the advantages and disadvantages of
each method.
11 Distinguish between external and internal development of offspring, naming an example
organism for each.
12 Compare the changes in male and female bodies during puberty by using a Venn diagram.

Evaluating
13 Evaluate this statement: ‘When a male and a female animal have sexual intercourse, there is
always the same chance of getting pregnant, no matter what time of day/month/year’. Do you
agree or disagree?
14 A biologist is investigating a species of frog that lives in an environment that is changing
rapidly. Propose a reason why sexual reproduction would be better for this species of frog.
15 Certain orchids have flowers that closely resemble the shape of a female wasp. Suggest a
reason for this adaptation, and justify your answer.

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190 Chapter 4 REPRODUCTION

STEM activity: Help or hinder seed dispersal

Background information
VCSSU094 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
To reproduce effectively, many plants rely on the
wide distribution of their seeds. If the parent plant
has a method of distributing its seeds away from
itself, rather than simply dropping the seeds in farmers’ crops, and can be particularly difficult to
the immediate area, this will give the offspring combat. If you have ever done your own gardening,
a better chance of being able to grow. Plants you will know how difficult it is to keep weeds out
have developed many creative ways of spreading of your garden, so you can imagine the problems
their seeds, including being carried by the wind, farmers would have to deal with over large areas
attaching to or being carried by animals, floating if their seed supply was contaminated with weed
in water and even flying. These adaptations have seed, for example. Today, farmers use several
resulted in seeds and seed pods that are specifically methods to combat weed growth, including the
suited to a particular type of dispersal, allowing use of chemicals called herbicides to kill the
plants to cover most of our planet. weeds. Some herbicides are selective and only kill
Sometimes effective seed dispersal can be specific types of plants, while other herbicides kill
damaging, as seed contamination can destroy all plants.

Figure 4.53 Dandelion seeds are carried by the wind. Figure 4.54 A bird carries seeds in its beak.

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 STEM activity HELP OR HINDER SEED DISPERSAL 191

Evaluate and modify

Design brief: Design a device to help or hinder
seed dispersal 1 Make modifications to the design of your seed
after the testing phase, and see if you can make
Activity instructions it more effective or travel further.
2 Evaluate the effectiveness of your seed design
Your first task is to design and construct a seed and suggest any improvements to it.
or seed pod that can be used to disperse seeds 3 Describe any challenges you encountered when
effectively. Choose one method of seed dispersal designing or testing your seed. Explain how you
described on the previous page or in the chapter, and your colleagues worked to overcome that
and think about what features your new seed will challenge.
need to have to help it stick to animal fur, be carried 4 Describe the product you have come up with to
by wind or float in water. Remember that the seed aid in seed dispersal or control weed seed, and
eventually needs to fall to the ground or soil. evaluate its potential in the real world.
Your second task is to design a product that
will be helpful to farmers in dispersing seeds or
in combatting contamination by weeds, without
chemicals. You do not need to construct this
product, just describe what the product is and
how it might work.

Suggested materials/presentation
formats
• paper
• cardboard
• sticky tape
• string Figure 4.55 A seed pod floats on a river.

• scissors
• elastic bands
• balloons
• plastic bottles
• paddle pop sticks
• plastic containers
• toothpicks
• drinking straw
• glue
• felt or woollen fabric scraps

Figure 4.56 The ‘wing’ on a maple seed is designed to

create lift (upwards force) as the seed spins through
the air.

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192

Chapter 5 Particles

Chapter introduction
This chapter goes beyond the idea of there being many small particles in matter and further into the
exciting world of chemistry, to look at atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures. You will learn
about the arrangement of these substances, their symbols, how to write formulas, and compare the
characteristics of elements, compounds and mixtures. It’s like learning a brand new language!

Curriculum
Differences between elements, compounds and mixtures can be described by using a particle model
(VCSSU097)
• modelling the arrangement of particles in elements and compounds 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
• recognising that elements and simple compounds can be represented by symbols 5.2, 5.3
and formulas
• explaining why elements and compounds can be represented by chemical formulas 5.2, 5.3
while mixtures cannot

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 193

Glossary terms
atom element molecule
bonds flammability monatomic
chemical formula heterogeneous non-metal
chemical properties homogeneous periodic table
compound lustre physical properties
conductivity malleability polymer
crystal lattice metalloid pure substance
diatomic metal
ductility mixture

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194 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Concept map

Matter

Pure
Mixtures
substances

Categorised as
Elements are substances Compounds are substances
made up of only one made up of two or more
type of atom. different atoms joined.
• Homogeneous
Organising elements • Heterogeneous
Organised as
• Metals
• Non-metals
(including metalloids) • Molecules
• Polymers
• Lattice arrangements
The periodic table
organises elements
from lightest to heaviest. 5.1
5.2
Structural organisation 5.3
with other atoms of
the same type
• Monatomic
• Molecules
• Crystal lattices

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 Section 5.1 Atoms and elements 195

5.1 Atoms and elements

You may remember learning about the Pure substances and mixtures
particle theory of matter in Year 7. If you
In Chemistry, substances are often classified
can’t quite remember, here is a reminder: WORKSHEET
into pure substances or mixtures. You
investigated this idea in Year 7, but now
The particle theory of matter
let’s take it further.
All matter is made up of tiny particles that
are too small to see.
A pure substance is made up of pure substance
There are very small spaces between the a substance made up of only
particles.
only one type of atom. Atoms one type of atom or one type
of molecule
don’t usually exist on their own –
There are attractive forces between the
particles: when the particles are close,
often there are two or more atoms joined
the bonds are stronger than when they are together. In this case, the combination of
far apart. atoms is called a molecule, and the molecule

The particles are always moving and/or atoms are held together by strong two or more atoms joined
together by bonds
vibrating. forces of attraction, called bonds. So bonds
The particles move or vibrate faster at higher we can now say that a pure substance forces of attraction that hold
atoms together
temperatures than at lower temperatures. is made up of one type of atom or one
type of molecule. There are several different
Table 5.1 The particle theory of matter summarised
types of bonds, such as covalent bonds,
Scientists refer to some of the tiny particles hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds.
using the scientific term ‘atom’. This word
comes from an ancient Greek In this chapter you will learn about two types
atom
the smallest possible piece
word that means ‘uncuttable’. of pure substances: elements and compounds.
of any substance; it makes
up all matter
As you go through secondary
school, you will learn more about atoms, An element is a substance made element

but we are going to keep it simple for now. up of only one type of atom. These substance made up of only
one type of atom or molecule

If you want to imagine how small atoms can be single atoms or molecules,
are, there are about 10 000 000 000 000 000 but they are all the same type of atom. For
atoms in the dot at the bottom of this example, gold is an element and is made up
exclamation mark! of many single gold atoms. Hydrogen gas is
another element, but hydrogen atoms like
Cut a strip of paper 28 cm x 1 cm.
to bind together to form molecules, each
Try this 5.1
Now cut it in half, and you will have with two hydrogen atoms.
two 14 cm lengths of paper. This is cut 1. Repeat this
as many times as you can, counting your cuts as An element made up An element made up
you go. of atoms of molecules
How many cuts were you able to make? Name
one item that is the same size as the paper with
1 cut, 3 cuts, 5 cuts. How do you think you could
keep cutting the paper smaller and smaller?
Imagine this: it takes 31 cuts to get a piece of paper
the size of an atom!
Figure 5.1 In an element, all the atoms are the same.

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196 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

compound A compound is a substance made A mixture is a substance that mixture

substance made up of two a substance made up of
or more different types of up of two or more different types of is made up of two or more two or more different pure
atoms substances (compounds
atoms joined into a molecule. For different pure substances or elements) that are not
example, water is a covalent compound, (compounds or elements) that bonded together
as it is made up of two hydrogen atoms are not bonded together. For example, air is
bonded to one oxygen atom, joined by a mixture of several different elements and
strong covalent bonds. compounds.

Hydrogen Hydrogen
atom atom Oxygen

Oxygen
atom Nitrogen Water

Figure 5.2 A water molecule is a compound,

because it has two different types of atoms: Carbon dioxide
one oxygen atom bound together with
two hydrogen atoms. Water is also a pure
substance, as it is made up of only one type
of molecule, the one shown here.

Figure 5.3 Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon

dioxide, water vapour and very small amounts of other gases.

Putting it all together Matter

Pure Mixture
substance

Element Compound

An element made up An element made up

of atoms of molecules

Figure 5.4 Putting it all together: matter is made up of pure substances (elements and compounds)
and mixtures.

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 Section 5.1 Atoms and elements 197

Use Lego® or molymod® kits to model different elements, compounds and mixtures. Try this 5.2
For a challenge, take it a step further: model pure elements, pure compounds, a mixture of
elements, a mixture of compounds, and a mixture of elements and compounds.

1 Rewrite the following terms matched with their correct definitions. Quick check 5.1

Molecule The smallest piece of substance you can have; it makes up all matter
Compound Substance made up of only one type of atom
Bond Substance made from two or more different types of atoms
Element Two or more atoms joined together (same or different)
Atom Strong force of attraction that holds atoms together

2 Rewrite the following table, matching each term with the correct example and the correct diagram (A–E).

Term Example Diagram

Mixture of elements Hydrogen A

Pure compound Water B

Element Salt and water C

Mixture of compounds Air D

Mixture of elements Oxygen and helium E

and compounds

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198 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Scanning tunnelling microscopes Did you know? 5.1

You cannot see an atom with a
light microscope, which is the
type of microscope you may
have at school. In 1981, a type of
microscope called a scanning
tunnelling microscope (STM) was
developed, and now scientists
can not only see atoms but even
manipulate them! The developers
won a Nobel Prize in Physics for
their amazing invention.

Figure 5.5 Scanning tunnelling

microscopes are now used all over
the world, as scientists conduct
experiments to try to find out more
about the structure of the atom and
the forces that hold it together.

Elements soil, air and water. Can you find out

how many elements have been found in
You have learned that elements are an nature? Scientists have also made synthetic
VIDEO
How does example of a pure substance that is made elements, but these artificial elements are
a scanning
tunneling
up of just one type of atom or one type highly radioactive and, because they are so
microscope
work?
of molecule. Elements are the purest heavy, most of them break down almost as
substances we can find or extract from soon as they are created.
matter, and they make up everything we
know of. But what makes the different Each element has particular qualities, or
elements different? They are made of properties, and these properties allow us
different atoms. to determine how different
elements can best be used. physical properties
the way substances look
The first elements to be identified were Last year you learned about and act, e.g. colour, melting
point, hardness, boiling point
the metals gold, tin, copper and iron, the physical properties and density
and this happened thousands of years and chemical properties of chemical properties
the behaviour of a substance
ago. Since then, more and more elements different substances. These when it reacts with another
have been discovered in the Earth’s rocks, are summarised in Table 5.2. substance

In 2016, scientists announced that four new Science as a human endeavour 5.1
elements had earned a permanent place in the
periodic table: elements 113, 115, 117 and 118. They are called nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc),
tennessine (Ts), and oganesson (Og). In December 2017, two teams of scientists from the USA
and Japan joined forces in the hope of discovering the elements 119 and 120.

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 Section 5.1 Atoms and elements 199

Property
Physical Chemical
Definition The way a substance looks and acts The behaviour of a substance when it reacts with
another substance
Examples Colour, ductility (see Figure 5.6), hardness, Flammability, rusting or corrosion (see
melting/boiling point, malleability, solid/liquid/ Figure 5.7), acidity, biodegradability,
gas, conductivity, shape, strength, density, lustre combustibility, toxicity
Table 5.2 The two types of properties we investigate when looking at matter: physical and chemical

ductility
the ability of a substance to
be drawn into a wire
malleability
the ability of a substance to
be bent or flattened into a
range of shapes
conductivity
the ability of a substance to
conduct or carry electricity
and heat
lustre
the ability of a substance to
become shiny when polished
flammability
Figure 5.6 Steel is ductile – it can be made into long rods and wires. the ability of a substance to
ignite

Figure 5.7 An old car rusting

Grouping elements Metalloids

Some of the elements in the non-metal
Metals and non-metals
group look like metals. One example is
As in all other areas of science, in chemistry
silicon (see Figure 5.8 on the next page).
we like to group similar things together:
Silicon can conduct heat and electricity a
pure substances/mixtures, solids/liquids/
little, but it cannot be bent or made into
gases and so on. One of the first steps in
wire. It is shiny when polished but is brittle
grouping elements is to determine whether
and can shatter like glass. When an element
metal the substance is a metal or
a substance that is shiny, has properties of both metals and
can conduct electricity, can a non-metal. To do this,
be bent, is usually silver/grey non-metals, it is called a metalloid. metalloid
and is ductile scientists look at the general a substance that has some of
There are eight metalloids: antimony, the properties of both metals
non-metal properties that the elements and non-metals
a substance that is dull, arsenic, astatine, boron, germanium,
cannot conduct electricity, is have in common (see
polonium, silicon and tellurium.
brittle and is not ductile
Table 5.3).

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200 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Property Metals Non-metals

State at room temperature Solid (exception is mercury) Solid, gas or liquid
Colour Silver/grey A range of colours, including
colourless
Lustre Shiny when polished Shiny or not shiny. Often dull
or glassy
Conductivity Conducts electricity and heat Does not conduct electricity
or heat
Malleability Can be bent or flattened Cannot be bent or flattened.
Often brittle
Ductility Can be made into a wire Cannot be made into a wire
Melting point Usually high temperature Usually low temperature
(exception is mercury)
Table 5.3 The general properties of metals and non-metals

Figure 5.8 Three examples of metalloids. Left: Silicon is shiny and brittle, and can conduct electricity but not as well as a metal.
Middle: Antimony is shiny like a metal, but brittle like a non-metal. Right: Boron conducts electricity but is brittle.

Practical 5.1: Teacher demonstration or student practical

Metals vs non-metals
Aim
To investigate the properties of metals and non-metals
Be careful
Materials Electrical shocks may
• light bulb (LEDs can also be used) occur. Elements may
• connecting wires and alligator clips become hot. Ensure
• battery or power pack the voltage output is
• fine sandpaper not exceeded. Turn the
• samples of six metals and non-metals – for example, sulfur, magnesium, power supply off when
silicon, copper, iron/steel, tin, zinc, aluminium, carbon changing the circuit.
Method
1 Draw up a table like the one in the Results section. Include the six metals and non-metals you are
investigating. Also select a property you would like to investigate as well as those already listed.
continued…

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 Section 5.1 Atoms and elements 201

…continued
2 Use the fine sandpaper to rub each substance and determine its lustre – is it shiny or dull? Record your
observations in your table.
3 Try to bend each of the substances – is it malleable or not? Record your observations in your table.
4 Make a prediction about the conductivity of each of the substances.
5 Connect each substance as shown in Figure 5.9 – does it allow electricity to pass through, making the globe
glow? Record your observations in your table.

Power supply

Globe

Material to
be tested

Alligator clips

Figure 5.9 Experimental set-up for testing the conductivity of different

substances
6 Investigate your choice of property.

Results

Element Lustre Malleability Conductivity Your choice of

property
Prediction:
Observation:
Prediction:
Observation:
Prediction:
Observation:
Prediction:
Observation:
Prediction:
Observation:
Prediction:
Observation:
continued…

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202 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

…continued
Evaluation
1 Which of the substances you tested were metals and which were non-metals? Were there any exceptions?
List them and name the group that these exceptions belong to.
2 Explain how you tested for your choice of property.
3 Recall the difference between a physical property and a chemical property. Then summarise the properties
that metals have in common and the properties that non-metals have in common. What properties do the
exceptions have in common?
4 Are the substances you tested elements, compounds or mixtures? Explain your answer by including
definitions of these terms.
5 Imagine you have discovered a new element. What tests would you carry out in order to determine whether
the substance was a metal or a non-metal?
6 Describe some possible sources of experimental faults for this investigation, and explain how you might
resolve these errors in future investigations.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the properties of metals and non-metals? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … .’
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

1 Define the following key terms: element, physical properties, chemical properties, Quick check 5.2
metals, non-metals, metalloids, malleability, lustre, conductivity, ductility.
Provide examples where possible.
2 Rewrite the following table so the properties of metals and non-metals are in the correct columns.

Metals Non-metals
Solid, liquid or gas Dull or glassy surface
Solid Shiny surface
Unable to conduct electricity or heat Can conduct electricity and heat
Ductile Unable to be made into a wire
Low melting temperature Malleable
Silver/grey Unable to be bent

Uses of the elements Explore! 5.1

There are many different elements, each with their own properties. Some are rare, and some
are common. Some have more uses when they are combined with other elements than they do when they are on
their own. Some have several different forms.
1 Investigate and report on three uses of carbon. Keep in mind that carbon has different forms.
2 Investigate and report on the medical uses of iodine.
3 Investigate and report on the uses of hydrogen in the chemical industry.

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 Section 5.1 Atoms and elements 203

Section 5.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the terms ‘pure substance’ and ‘mixture’, providing examples of each.
2 List three properties of metals and three properties of non-metals.
3 What is it that holds two or more atoms together in a molecule?
4 The smallest part of an element is called _________________.

Understanding
5 Describe how elements are like Lego® blocks.
6 Look at diagrams A to D below. Which diagram is:
a an element
b a compound
c a mixture of elements
d a mixture of compounds?
A B C D

Applying
7 Distinguish between:
a an atom and a molecule
b an atom and an element
c an element and a compound
d a molecule and a compound.
8 Summarise three of the tests you can do to find out whether a substance is a metal or
a non-metal.

Analysing
9 Imagine using symbols, such as ❏, ♦ and ❖, to represent different atoms. How many
different molecules can you make by joining these atoms together two at a time? How many
can you make by joining three at a time?
10 Consider what elements are and what compounds are. Discuss why there are many more
compounds than there are elements.
11 Distinguish between chemical properties and physical properties, and include examples.

Evaluating
12 Justify why the metalloids are considered a separate group from the metals and non-metals.
Use an example to illustrate your point.
13 Here are the answers to some questions. Determine three options for what the question
could be, for each answer.
a properties
b atom
c conducts electricity
d compound

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204 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

5.2 Organising elements

Symbols for elements

Chemistry has its own language, with all
WORKSHEET
the elements represented by symbols. It
is a shorthand way of writing the name of
the element so that every scientist in every
country can understand it.

In Table 5.4, notice that sometimes an

element’s symbol comprises of the first and
second letters of the English name. For
example, the symbol He for Helium, or O
for Oxygen. Note that the first letter of the
symbol is always capitalised and the second
letter is never capitalised. But what about
chlorine? You would think that chlorine
would have the symbol Ch, but it is actually Figure 5.10 Every element has a symbol, and Au is
Cl. In this case it is distinguished by its the symbol for gold.

third letter.

Element Symbol Metal/non-metal Melting point (°C) Date of discovery

Hydrogen H Non-metal −259 1766
Helium He Non-metal −272 1895
Lithium Li Metal 180 1817
Beryllium Be Metal 1278 1797
Boron B Metalloid 2300 1808
Carbon C Non-metal 3500 Ancient
Nitrogen N Non-metal −210 1772
Oxygen O Non-metal −219 1774
Fluorine F Non-metal −220 1886
Neon Ne Non-metal −249 1898
Sodium Na Metal 98 1807
Magnesium Mg Metal 650 1808
Aluminium Al Metal 660 1825
Silicon Si Metalloid 1410 1824
Phosphorus P Non-metal 44 1669
Sulfur S Non-metal 119 Ancient
Chlorine Cl Non-metal −101 1774
Argon Ar Non-metal −189 1894
Potassium K Metal 64 1807
Calcium Ca Metal 850 1808
Table 5.4 Twenty elements, their symbols and some of their properties

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 Section 5.2 Organising elements 205

Sometimes the letters from the element’s mercury, which has the symbol Hg, taken
Latin or Greek name are used. For example, from its Latin name hydragyrum, which
the symbol for copper is Cu. The Latin means ‘shining water’. Some elements are
word for copper is cuprium and this is where also named after famous people or places,
its symbol comes from. Another example is like einsteinium and francium.

1 Explain why not all the elements are named after the first letter of their name. Quick check 5.3
2 What is the reason for using symbols instead of the elements’ full names?
3 Refer to Table 5.4 with the 20 elements listed.
a Which elements have the following symbols?
K, S, Mg, Be, B
b Which element has the lowest melting point?
c Which of these was the most recently discovered element?
4 Write each element name followed by its correct symbol.
Names: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, sulfur, magnesium, aluminium
Symbols: Mg, O, Al, S, N, H, C, He

The fabulous four! Did you know? 5.2

The ancient Greeks believed that there were four elements that everything in the world
was made up of: earth, water, air and fire. These elements are referred to as the classical elements. This theory
was first suggested around 450 bce and was the cornerstone of philosophy, science and medicine for around two
thousand years. At one stage, the four elements were even used to describe the four temperaments a person
could have! Even though we no longer categorise things like this, in a way the four elements do align with the
four states of matter that modern science has agreed on: solid (earth), liquid (water), gas (air) and plasma (fire).

Figure 5.11 Earth, water, air and fire

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206 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Periodic table are non-metals, and which are metalloids.

We know scientists like grouping similar
A list of all the known elements and their
things together, but imagine the challenge
symbols is called the periodic
periodic table it would have been to organise 118 elements
a list of all the known table (see Figure 5.12). It
elements and their symbols according to size and properties! Some
shows the elements in order
elements are naturally occurring, and
from lightest to heaviest, and even clearly
others have been created by humans. Some
shows which elements are metals, which
elements are radioactive.

Figure 5.12 This periodic table includes all 118 known elements as of May 2017.

Look at the periodic Try this 5.3 1 What is the periodic Quick check 5.4
table in Figure 5.12. table?
Begin by finding some of the metalloids 2 Here are some of the symbols in the periodic
you know of, like boron (B), silicon (Si) and table that start with C or S. List each symbol with
germanium (Ge). What colour are they its element name.
in the periodic table? All the metalloids C          Si
are the same colour. What are the symbols Cl          S
for the other metalloids? Ca          Sc
Next, identify some of the metals you Cr          Se
know of. Where are they in relation to Co          Sr
the metalloids? What about the non- Cu          Sn
metals – where are they positioned in Cd          Sb
the table? Cs          Sm
Ce
Cm
Cf

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 Section 5.2 Organising elements 207

Practical 5.2

Flame tests
Aim Be careful
To investigate the colour Ensure appropriate
that a flame will go when personal protective
an element is heated, equipment is worn.
and use this information
to determine the metal element in four unknown
samples

Materials
• heatproof mat
• Bunsen burner
• 10 flame test wires
• 5 M hydrochloric acid in labelled test tubes
• known test solutions in a test tube rack:
• barium (barium chloride)
• calcium (calcium chloride)
• copper (copper(II) chloride) Figure 5.13 A substance burning in the
• strontium (strontium chloride) flame of a Bunsen burner, producing an
• sodium (sodium chloride) orange flame
• four unknown samples

Method
1 Clean your flame wires by holding the metal loop in the hottest part of the blue Bunsen
burner flame. If it is not clean, a coloured flame will appear, so clean it by dipping it into the
hydrochloric acid provided and then holding the loop in the Bunsen burner flame again.
2 Dip the clean flame test loop into one of the known test solutions, then hold the metal
loop in the hottest part of the Bunsen burner flame. Record the colour of the flame in your
results table.
3 Clean the flame test wire, then test another known test solution. Keep going until you have
recorded the colour for all the known solutions.
4 Flame test the four unknown solutions and record their flame colours in a second
results table.
5 Work out which metals are in each of the unknown samples and record in your table.

Results

Barium Calcium Copper Strontium Sodium

Flame colour
Flame colours of known substances

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Flame colour
Metal
Flame colour of each unknown substance, and the metal indicated by the colour
continued…

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208 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

…continued
Evaluation
1 Suggest why a blue flame, not a yellow flame, on the Bunsen burner is necessary.
2 Outline the key safety concerns in this experiment.
3 List the elements that produced the most easily identified colours. Were there any colours
that were tricky to identify?
4 Based on your observations, would this method be useful to determine the identity of metals
that are in a mixture? Why or why not?
5 Give at least two reasons why the flame test may not always provide the right answer.
6 Describe some sources of faults for this experiment and the improvements you would make
if you were to repeat this task.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding burning different materials and
flame colours? Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’
and remember to include possible faults in the method.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.
Remember to state what the four unknown elements were.

A closer look at the

Some gases are diatomic, diatomic
organisation of elements a molecule consisting of two
such as hydrogen and oxygen. atoms of the same type
In Section 5.1, you learned that elements These gases are composed of
are substances made up of only one type of one type of atom, but the atoms are bonded
monatomic atom. These can be single atoms into pairs (two atoms).
made up of single atoms, all
of one type or molecules, but all are the same
crystal lattice type of atom. Let’s now look at Molecules
a three-dimensional shape
that allows metal atoms to the different ways that elements Most non-metal elements have atoms
pack together very tightly
and form bonds that are can be organised: as single atoms organised as molecules. Remember that
extremely strong because (monatomic), as molecules and as molecules are two or more atoms joined
the atoms bond to each
other in all directions crystal lattices. together by bonds. We are discussing
elemental molecules, and so the atoms
Monatomic in these molecules are all the same type.
Monatomic literally means ‘single atom’. Some examples of different molecular
A monatomic element is made up of single elements are shown in Figure 5.14. It is
atoms, all of one type. There aren’t many important, as you look at the diagram, to
of these elements in the periodic table, and notice not only the range of molecules, but
all of them are non-metallic gases. You also how to write the chemical formula for
are probably most familiar with neon, as elements that are molecules. For example,
neon signs are everywhere! But perhaps look at the oxygen molecule. It has two
you are not as familiar with the monatomic oxygen atoms, so we write O2, where O
elements helium (He), argon (Ar), krypton is the elemental symbol for oxygen, and
(Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn). Can you 2 shows how many atoms are joined by
see where these elements all sit in the bonds in the molecule. Now you try: how
periodic table? (Refer back to Figure 5.12.) would you explain O3 and S8?

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 Section 5.2 Organising elements 209

Crystal lattices bonds. The bonds are extremely strong

All metals in their solid state (and some because the atoms bond to each other in
non-metals, such as diamond) are organised all directions, and so it is hard to separate
in what we call a crystal lattice formation. them completely. It is easier to make them
A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional slide past each other, provided they stay in
shape that allows the atoms to pack contact with each other. What properties of
together very tightly and form the strongest metals does this behaviour remind you of?

H H O O Cl Cl

Hydrogen Oxygen Chlorine

H2 O2 Cl2

O S S

O O S S

Ozone S S
O3
S S

Sulfur
S8

Figure 5.14 Some elemental molecules: hydrogen, Figure 5.15 A crystal lattice: every atom is attached
oxygen, chlorine, ozone and sulfur tightly to other atoms in all directions

To imagine how metal atoms pack together and form a lattice, imagine Try this 5.4
marbles that need to be packed in a box. The marbles would be placed on
the bottom of the box in neat, orderly rows and then a second layer of marbles would move
into the spaces between marbles in the first layer. Give this a try, to model the lattice formed
by metal atoms.

Figure 5.16 Stacking glass marbles of the same size in a box can be
used to model how metal atoms pack together and form a lattice.

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210 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

1 Define the three ways in which elements can be organised. Quick check 5.5
2 Draw a simple diagram to show the arrangement of atoms in a
monatomic element, a molecule of an element and a crystal lattice of an element.

Carbon is an element that occurs in many different forms. The atoms are Explore! 5.2
the same in all the different forms, but the way the atoms are organised
differs. This affects the properties of the different forms.
1 Investigate one of the hardest substance in the world: diamond. Find out its uses and its
properties.
2 Investigate the substance that is in the middle of your pencil: graphite. Find out its uses and
its properties.
3 Investigate the coolest-sounding molecules: buckyballs. Find out their uses and their
properties.
4 Compare the structure of the crystal lattices of diamond, graphite and buckyballs. Do this
by describing what each looks like and including a picture.

Carbyne Science as a human endeavour 5.2

We know that carbon is amazing, but there
is more! It comes not just as diamond and graphite, not just buckyballs and nanotubes,
but now there is carbyne. In 2013, scientists in the USA calculated the properties of this
superstar material and discovered that it would
have more strength than any known material.
In 2016, scientists in Austria made carbyne! It is
difficult to build, as it is a long, one-dimensional
chain of carbon atoms that are linked to each
other, and it is unstable – as quickly as it is made,
it is destroyed. The Austrian scientists got around
this by building the carbyne inside a tube made of
graphene (another form of carbon).

Figure 5.17 Scientists have made carbyne, a very strong material that lasts for a very
long time.

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 Section 5.2 Organising elements 211

Section 5.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 What is the chemical symbol for the following elements?
a carbon e sodium
b oxygen f copper
c hydrogen g chlorine
d silicon h potassium
2 Find out the names of these elements.
a Ag e Hg
b Au f Na
c Sn g Zn
d Si h Pb
3 List all the elements in the periodic table that have symbols beginning with A.

Understanding
4 Complete the sentences below by selecting the appropriate word from this list:
elements, compound, symbol, properties, sulfur, pure, letters, carbon dioxide,
periodic table.
a _________________ cannot be separated or broken down any further chemically.
b An element’s name can be written as a _________________ , which consists of one or two
_________________ .
c Elements are organised in the _________________ .
d When two or more elements are chemically combined, the end result is a
_________________.
e _________________ is an example of an element and _________________ is an example of
a compound.
f Elements and compounds are called _________________ substances because they have
specific chemical and physical _________________.
5 Identify each of the following as either an element (E) or a compound (C).
a silver f silicon dioxide
b water g chromium
c wood h arsenic
d plastic i carbon dioxide
e tin j sodium chloride (table salt)

Applying
6 Classify the following elements as monatomic, molecular or lattice:
helium, diamond, hydrogen, aluminium, oxygen, argon, chlorine, copper, neon.

Analysing
7 Distinguish between a monatomic element and an elemental molecule.
8 Distinguish between an elemental molecule and a crystal lattice. Include examples in
your answer.

Evaluating
9 We use symbols to describe elements. Give reasons why we do this.

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212 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

5.3 Compounds and mixtures

Compounds Words Compounds

hide chief CO2 NH3

At the start of this chapter it was
WORKSHEET a, b, c,
mentioned that, in chemistry, substances
d, e, f, g, H, O, N, C
are grouped into either pure substances h, i
or mixtures. Elements and compounds
big face H2O O2
are both examples of pure substances. In
Figure 5.18 Elements are like the letters of the alphabet
Section 5.2 you learned about elements.
– letters can form thousands of words, and elements can
Now you will look at compounds. To form millions of compounds.
recap: a compound is a substance made
up of two or more different types of atoms
joined up into a molecule. For example,
water is a compound. It is made up of two
hydrogen atoms linked to one oxygen atom,
so it has two different types of atoms joined
up into a molecule. Just as the 26 letters of
the alphabet can form thousands of words,
elements can form millions of compounds.

Compounds can be covalent or ionic – these

terms describe the types of bonds that hold
the compound together. A molecule can
also be a compound – water is an example.
The properties of a compound depend
on a couple of things: the elements that
are in the compound, and how they are
arranged. For example, the properties of
carbon vary depending on the arrangement
of the carbon atoms. You learned about
some of the different forms of carbon in
Section 5.2 (in the Explore! box): graphite,
diamond and buckyballs. Hydrogen has
the following properties: it is colourless,
odourless, tasteless, non-toxic, non-metallic
and highly combustible. However, the
properties of the compounds formed from
carbon and hydrogen are very different from
the two elements on their own. Figure 5.19
shows examples of the uses and properties Figure 5.19 Substances that contain only carbon
and hydrogen. From top to bottom: methane
of compounds made of only carbon and (natural gas); hexane (glue for shoes); octane
hydrogen. (a component of automobile fuel)

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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 213

Organisation of compounds plastics that are made up of thousands of

atoms and stretch for metres. The atoms
A molecular compound is always the
in compounds can be arranged in
same size and shape, and it always has polymer
three different ways: as a molecule, a compound made of
the same elements and number of atoms. molecules that are long
a polymer or a lattice. These are chains of atoms in a pattern
It can be relatively small – a few atoms that repeats
summarised in Table 5.5.
joined together – or it can be huge, like

Arrangement Description Examples

Molecule Groups of different atoms held Carbon dioxide (CO2)
together by bonds. A particular Water (H2O)
compound always has the same
elements in the same ratio
Polymer Molecules that are long chains of Proteins
atoms in a pattern that repeats over Plastics
and over
Lattice Larger structures with atoms held Sodium chloride (NaCl)
together in three-dimensional shapes Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Table 5.5 The atoms in a compound can be arranged into a molecule, a polymer or a lattice.

More plastic has been produced in the past Science as a human endeavour 5.3
10 years than in the previous 100 years! Because
of plastic pollution, in the past decade companies have been developing bioplastics.
Bioplastics differ from conventional plastics in that they can be:
• biodegradable – tiny micro-
organisms that are in the
environment convert these materials
into natural substances, such as
water, carbon dioxide and biomass
• biobased – the material is derived
from biomass (plants) to some
degree; for example, some
bioplastics are made from corn
• both biodegradable and biobased.
The term ‘bioplastic’ refers not just
to biodegradable plastics, but also
to petroleum-based plastics that are
degradable, plant-based plastics that
are not biodegradable, and plastics
that contain both petroleum-based and
plant-based materials that may or may
not be biodegradable. Given that many Figure 5.20 There are companies around the world
retailers now do not provide single-use making plastic bags from biodegradable materials such
plastic bags, scientists and engineers as starch. Some companies are even developing plastic
that can dissolve in water and claim that the water is still
are hopeful that the way we use plastic drinkable!
polymer products will change.

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214 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Summing up

Pure
substances

Elements Compounds

Monatomic Molecule Lattice Molecule Polymer Lattice

e.g. e.g. e.g.

e.g. e.g. e.g.
Carbon Protein Sodium
Helium gas Oxygen Gold
dioxide (amino acid chloride
(He) gas (O2) (Au)
(CO2) units) (NaCl)

Figure 5.21 Summing up: the organisation of atoms in elements and in compounds

Polymer bank notes Did you know? 5.3

Symbols for compounds
In 1988, Australian scientists at A chemical formula is a chemical formula
the CSIRO developed the polymer bank note – the first in shorthand way of describing a symbol for a compound
that shows which elements,
the world. Now polymer bank notes are also used in thirty the elements that are in a and how many atoms of each
other countries. Australian bank notes start out as plastic compound, and it includes
element, are present in one
molecule of that compound
pellets, which are melted and blown into a bubble three
the symbols of all these
storeys high! The walls of the bubble are pressed together
elements. The formula tells you which
and cooled to form laminated polymer film.
elements are present in the compound,
and how many atoms of each element are
present in one molecule of that particular
compound.

Let’s go through some examples.

• Carbon dioxide in the air has the
chemical formula CO2. This means that
one molecule of the compound carbon
dioxide has two elements in it: carbon (C)
and oxygen (O). There is one carbon
atom and two oxygen atoms.
Figure 5.22 Australian polymer bank notes • Sodium sulfate, found in common
detergents, has the chemical formula
Na2SO4. This means that one molecule
of the compound has three elements
1 Define the terms ‘compound’ Quick check 5.6
in it: sodium (Na), sulfur (S) and
and ‘molecule’.
2 Explain why the properties of elements, and the
oxygen (O). Each molecule of sodium
compounds made up of those elements, are different. sulfate contains two atoms of sodium,
3 List two examples of compounds that have a molecule one atom of sulfur and four atoms
structure, two that have a polymer structure and two that of oxygen.
have a lattice structure.

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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 215

one CO3 unit. In this case there are three

units of CO3. So, from the formula, we can
see that there are three elements in each
molecule of this compound: aluminium
(Al), carbon (C) and oxygen (O). Each unit
of aluminium carbonate is made of two
atoms of aluminium, three atoms of carbon
and nine atoms of oxygen.

Consider the compound Try this 5.5

sodium bicarbonate,
Figure 5.23 Sodium sulfate is a compound used in
common household detergents. more commonly known as baking powder,
NaHCO3. First identify the elements in
What if the formula has a bracket in one molecule of the compound, and then
it? Consider the compound aluminium how many atoms there are of each of the
carbonate. Its formula is Al2(CO3)3. elements.
The brackets tell us that there is more than

Practical 5.3: Self-design

Making models of molecules in compounds

Aim
To model the molecules of a variety of compounds

Materials
Decide what you would like to use to represent different atoms of elements. Perhaps you
would like to use stationery items, plasticine or coloured polystyrene balls – the list is endless.
However, you will need about five or more elements, so choose about five or more different
colours or items.

Method
1 Research common household items, what they are made of and their chemical formula.
2 Make a list of five compounds you would like to model, with no more than three elements in
each.
3 Using your chosen materials, make models of your chosen compounds.

Results
Copy and complete the following table by including details from your five compounds. Include
photos of each of the molecules of compounds that you create.

Compound Formula List of Number of atoms Photo

elements of each element

continued…

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216 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

…continued
Evaluation
1 Were there any compounds that contained the same elements? In which way are they
similar or different?
2 Would the compounds you have modelled have the same properties as the elements that make
them up? Explain.
3 Discuss your choice of materials for the models you built. Were they appropriate? Were
there any challenges with the items you chose? Would you use different materials next
time?
4 Discuss your choice of compounds to model. Were they appropriate? Were there any
challenges with the molecules you chose? Would you use different compounds next time?
5 Explain the value of using models in science.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this activity? Begin your sentence with: ‘This practical
activity shows that … ’.
2 What materials did you use? Were your materials and compounds good choices?
3 Explain how your choices affected how smoothly the activity went, or how complicated
it became. Summarise your activity with a sentence beginning with: ‘In completing this
activity, we discovered … ’.

Naming compounds example, CaCO3 or calcium carbonate

contains calcium, which is a metal, and
When naming a compound, there are some
carbon and oxygen, which are both
rules to follow.
non-metals.
1 If there is a metal in the compound, it
4 When you are working with non-metals,
gets named first. For example, CaCl2 is
such as oxygen (O) and chlorine (Cl),
calcium chloride. Calcium is the metal,
the start of the second element word
so it is named first.
changes based on how many atoms there
2 If there are only two elements in the
are in the compound. For example,
compound, there are only two words in
CO2 contains one carbon atom and
the name. The second word will usually
two oxygen atoms, and so the second
end in -ide. Again, consider CaCl2.
word starts with di- – it is called carbon
Calcium chloride contains two elements
dioxide. Table 5.6 summarises the
and the second element word ends in -ide.
prefixes used, depending on how many
3 When the name ends in -ate or -ite,
atoms of the second element there are in
it means the compound contains both
the compound.
oxygen and another non-metal. For

Number of atoms of Prefix (start) of second Example

second element element word
1 None or mono- Chloride
2 Di- Dichloride
3 Tri- Trichloride
4 Tetra- Tetrachloride
5 Penta- Pentachloride
Table 5.6 Prefix used at the start of the second element when naming compounds

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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 217

Practical 5.4: Teacher demonstration

Making a compound
Aim
To make a compound from two elements, and to practise using elemental symbols and naming compounds

Materials
• strip of magnesium ribbon (approximately 5 cm)
• fine sandpaper
• crucible with lid Be careful
• pipeclay triangle Do not look directly at the
• safety glasses reaction. The reaction is very
• wooden tongs bright and can damage your eyes.
• Bunsen burner and matches
• heatproof mat

Method
1 Examine the piece of magnesium and record its properties. If it isn’t shiny and clean, gently use the
sandpaper to remove any imperfections from the surface.
2 Coil the ribbon up and place it in the crucible with the lid. Place the crucible on the pipeclay triangle, as
shown in Figure 5.24.

Lid
Magnesium
ribbon inside Crucible

Pipeclay
triangle
Bunsen
Tripod burner

Heatproof
mat

Figure 5.24 Experimental set-up

3 Put on your safety glasses. Heat the crucible with a blue flame, and every so often monitor the reaction by
using the tongs to carefully lift the edge of the crucible lid.
4 When the reaction has finished, the magnesium ribbon will no longer be recognisable. Turn off the Bunsen
burner and let the crucible cool down.
5 Record what you see in the crucible.

Results
Record your observations.

Evaluation
1 Magnesium is an element. What is its elemental symbol?
2 When magnesium is heated, it reacts with something. What is the other element, and what is its elemental
symbol?
3 Describe what you saw in the crucible after heating, and decide whether it is an element or a compound.
Explain your answer.
4 Work out the chemical formula for this compound and the name of the substance formed in the crucible.
continued…

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218 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

…continued
Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding what the two elements were and what compound
they formed? Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Refer to your results by beginning a sentence with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim. For example, how can you be sure that a new compound
was formed? Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

1 Complete the following table. Quick check 5.7

Compound Scientific name Formula List of Number of atoms
elements of each element
Natural gas Methane CH4 Carbon C1
Hydrogen H4
Petrol Octane C8H18
Alcohol Ethanol C2H6O
Aspirin Acetylsalicylic acid C9H8O4
Eggshells Calcium carbonate CaCO3

2 Write the formula for each of the following compounds:

a hydrochloric acid – contains one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine
b glucose – a sugar, contains six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms
c rust – contains two atoms of iron and three atoms of oxygen.
3 Work out the names of the following compounds:
a one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms
b rust – contains two atoms of iron and three atoms of oxygen
c one magnesium and one oxygen atom.

Practical 5.5

Breaking down a compound

Aim
To investigate the breakdown of copper carbonate
Be careful
Materials Safety glasses must be worn
• copper carbonate • heatproof mat at all times.
• limewater • wooden tongs Wash hands thoroughly at
• straw • paper towel the end of the experiment.
• three test tubes • retort stand and clamp
• Bunsen burner • delivery tube and stopper
• matches • spatula

Method
1 Half fill a test tube with limewater. Using the straw, blow into the limewater so it bubbles. Record your
observations when CO2 from your breath is bubbled through limewater.
2 Use the diagram in Figure 5.25 as a guide to the steps that follow.
continued…

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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 219

…continued

Clamp stand

Clamp

Delivery
Test tube tube

Copper
carbonate

Test-tube
Bunsen
burner

Limewater

Figure 5.25 Experimental set-up

3 Place a small amount of the copper carbonate in a large test tube and fit it with the gas delivery tube and
stopper. Clamp the test tube to a retort stand.
4 Record your observations of the copper carbonate.
5 Half fill another test tube with limewater and place the gas delivery tube in it.
6 Using a small blue flame on the Bunsen burner, gently heat the copper carbonate.
7 Observe and record the changes in the copper carbonate and the limewater.
8 Remove the limewater solution before removing the Bunsen burner.
9 Allow to cool.

Results
Record your observations of the limewater after bubbling, the copper carbonate before heating, and the
substance and the limewater after heating.

Evaluation
1 What caused the change in the limewater when you blew into it?
2 What happened to the copper carbonate after heating? Describe what it was like before and what happened
after heating. Mention the changes you observed in the limewater.
3 What is the evidence that copper carbonate is a compound and not an element?
4 Why is it important to remove the delivery tube from the limewater as soon as heating is stopped?
5 Why do some gas bubbles pass through limewater when heating is first started?
6 Identify any faults in the method for this experiment and how the experiment could be improved if it were to
be carried out again.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding how the substance changed upon heating? Begin
your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Describe what you observed upon heating the copper carbonate, with a
sentence that begins with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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220 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Mixtures sugar, water, carbon dioxide and colouring),

a soothing cup of tea (a mixture of tea leaves
Mixtures are not pure substances like
and water), refreshing tap water (a mixture
elements and compounds. You may
of water, fluoride and chlorine) and tasty
remember from Year 7 that a mixture is a
spaghetti bolognaise (a mixture of tomatoes,
substance made from two or more different
beef, garlic, chillies and thyme).
pure substances that have been mixed
together and can be physically separated. The
Mixtures have different properties from
components of a mixture can be separated,
those of compounds, as there is no chemical
as they are not combined in a chemical way.
bond between the parts of a mixture.
Some examples of mixtures that you may be
Table 5.7 summarises the differences
familiar with are soft drinks (a mixture of
between compounds and mixtures.

Compound Mixture
Components Contains two or more elements Contains two or more elements
or compounds
Bonding between atoms Elements are chemically bonded Elements/compounds are not
together chemically bonded together
Properties The compound has properties that Each substance in the mixture
are different from the properties of keeps its own properties
the elements it contains
Separation The compound can be separated Each substance is easily
into its elements using chemical separated out of the mixture
reactions
Ratio of different atoms Elements occur in strict ratios to Substances in the mixture can
each other occur in any ratio
Table 5.7 The differences between a compound and a mixture

Figure 5.26 This caesar salad is an example of a mixture – the components are not chemically combined, and so
they can be separated.
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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 221

Mixtures can be broadly classified into homogeneous

describes a mixture of two or more substances that are evenly
two categories: homogeneous mixtures and distributed and do not separate out
heterogeneous mixtures. heterogeneous
describes a mixture that can be separated into its parts,
and the parts retain their original properties; the mixture is
not blended evenly

Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

You cannot tell that two or more Can easily be separated into its parts,
substances have been mixed together, and those parts retain their original
as they don’t separate out when left to properties. The mixture is not blended
stand. The components of the mixture together evenly and is not the same
are all evenly distributed, so the entire consistency throughout, so if you took
mixture has the same properties. a sample from different parts of the
Examples: air, water, chocolate pudding, mixture, the samples would all have
soft drink. different properties.
Examples: trail mix, choc chip cookies,
smog, pizza topping.

Figure 5.27 Soft drink is an example of a Figure 5.28 Pizza is an example of a

homogeneous mixture. heterogeneous mixture.

Symbols for mixtures

substances mixed together that can be
You know about writing symbols for the physically separated and are not combined
different elements, and know how to write in a chemical way, you will never have to
the symbols for compounds. But what about write a chemical formula for mixtures. The
mixtures? Because mixtures are substances elements and compounds that make up the
made from two or more different pure mixture retain their own symbols/formulas.

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222 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Summing up

WIDGET Matter
Elements,
compounds
and mixtures

Pure
Mixture
substance

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Element Compound
mixture mixture

Figure 5.29 Matter consists of pure substances and mixtures. In this chapter, you have learned about
both these groups.

Make a revision flip book Try this 5.6

Using three pieces of white A4 paper, in portrait orientation, cut from the middle of the top to
the middle of the bottom of the paper, so you end up with six long, thin rectangles. Stack the rectangles on top
of each other, turn the rectangles to landscape orientation,
and place three staples, equally distant, across one long
Element Compound Mixture
edge (see Figure 5.30). Using your scissors, and the picture
as a reference, cut the rectangle into thirds.
First, label the three top panels with the words ‘element’,
‘compound’ and ‘mixture’. Next, decide what key concepts
you have learned in this chapter, to add to your flip
book. Consider examples, definitions, symbols/formulas,
diagrams, organisation and so on. Then hop to it!
Figure 5.30 Your revision flip book

Section 5.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Define the following key terms related to the organisation of compounds: molecule,
polymer, lattice.

Understanding
2 Read each of the following statements and decide whether it applies to compounds or mixtures.
a The substances in it are not chemically bonded.
b The substances in it are chemically bonded.
continued…

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 Section 5.3 Compounds and mixtures 223

…continued
c Each substance in the mixture keeps its own properties
d Its properties are not the same as the properties of the elements that make it up.
e The substances can be separated by chemical means only.
f The substances can be separated by physical methods.

Applying
3 Copy and complete the following table.

Name Diagram Formula Number of Number of atoms

different in each molecule
elements in the
compound
Water H2O 2 3

Carbon monoxide CO
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Nitric oxide NO
Nitrous oxide
Methanol CH3OH

4 Use the information you provided in your answer to the previous question to answer the following questions.
a What is the difference between nitric oxide and nitrous oxide?
b Which is bigger: a molecule of sulphuric acid or a molecule of carbon monoxide? Explain.
c In what ways are nitrous oxide and water similar?
5 Write the formula for the following compounds:
a marble, which contains one calcium atom, one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms
b propane, which contains three carbon atoms and eight hydrogen atoms
c sucrose, which contains 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms.
6 Identify the names of the following compounds:
a sand, which contains one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms
b epsom salts, which contain one magnesium atom, one sulphur atom and four oxygen atoms
c one phosphorus atom and three chlorine atoms.

Analysing
7 Draw a Venn diagram and label one circle ‘compounds’ and the other ‘mixtures’. Write statements in each
circle to distinguish between the two, and in the middle to identify what they have in common.
8 A tiny sample of quartz contains 1 000 000 atoms of silicon and 2 000 000 atoms of oxygen. Determine what the
formula would be, based on this information.

Evaluating
9 Substances A, B and C were tested and were found to have the following chemical compositions:
A: 70% oxygen, 30% carbon
B: 60% hydrogen, 40% carbon
C: 60% oxygen, 40% carbon
Are any two of these substances the same compound? Give reasons for your answer.
10 Compare and contrast a heterogeneous mixture with a homogeneous mixture.

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224 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

Review questions

Remembering
1 What has to happen to separate a compound into its elements?
SCORCHER
2 Match the element name with its correct symbol.
Symbols: O, C, He, Br, Au, Zn, H, S, Na, Mg
Names: sodium, hydrogen, oxygen, helium, magnesium, carbon, bromine, sulfur, zinc, gold
3 Baking powder is a common substance in pantries. Its formula is NaHCO3. What does the 3 mean?

Understanding
4 Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks.
a Elements are pure substances containing only one kind of ____________.
b An element ____________ be separated into simpler materials.
c All existing elements are listed and classified in the ____________.
d In compounds, the atoms are ____________ combined using bonds.
e Compounds ____________ be separated by physical means.
f The properties of a compound are usually ____________ to the properties of the elements
it contains.
g Mixtures are two or more ____________ or ____________ that are not chemically combined.
h Mixtures can be uniform (called ____________).
i Mixtures can also be non-uniform (called ____________).
j The properties of a mixture are ____________ to the properties of its components.
5 Explain how the properties of an element relate to its use. Include examples.
6 Explain why carbon dioxide does not appear in the periodic table.

Applying
7 Distinguish between mixtures and compounds.
8 Copy and complete the following table.

Name of Formula Number of Name of the Number of

compound elements in the elements in the atoms in the
compound compound compound
Magnesium MgO 2 Magnesium 2
oxide Oxygen
FeS
Potassium oxide K2O
FeSO4
Benzene C6H6
Al2O3
2 Sulfur 4
Oxygen

9 Summarise the arrangement of atoms in an element, a compound and a mixture.

10 Methane (natural gas), hexane (glue for shoes) and octane (petrol) are substances that contain
only carbon and hydrogen. Identify why they are all so different.

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 Chapter 5 REVIEW QUESTIONS 225

Analysing
11 Classify each of the following substances as an element, a compound, a mixture of elements, a
mixture of compounds, or a mixture of elements and compounds. Some of the substances are
named, and some are provided as diagrams.

a Chicken soup b Bismuth (Bi)

c Dry ice (CO2) d Concrete
e f

g h

i j

12 Compare the properties of metals and non-metals.

13 Marie heated an unknown powder with the Bunsen burner and some gases were released
(nitrogen dioxide and oxygen).
a Was the original unknown substance an element or a compound?
b Which elements can you confirm were in the original substance?
Marie then continued to heat the substance and more oxygen gas was released. There was also
a silvery residue in the test tube (the element mercury).
c What other element/s can you now confirm were in the original substance?

Evaluating
14 We can use the letters of the alphabet to make up words, sentences, paragraphs and more.
Using this analogy, what would best represent compounds, mixtures and elements – letters,
words or paragraphs? Justify each of your answers.
15 Give reasons why elements and compounds can be represented by chemical formulas but
mixtures cannot.

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226 Chapter 5 PARTICLES

STEM activity: To mine or not to mine?

Background information
VCSSU097 VCDSTS043 VCMNA285
You may remember from Year 7 that mining is a
process used to extract natural resources from the
Earth. Most of these resources are non-renewable,
which means that, unless recycled, they can only VCSIS107 VCSIS111 VCSIS113

be used once. This poses a number of challenges

for future generations. For example, minerals such
as indium and silver might run out within the next largest resources of cobalt, copper and silver.
20 years, making the search for a substitute vital Australia’s resources of tungsten, lithium and
for the maintenance of the electronics industry. manganese ore are ranked in the top five in
Mined resources are used for many things, such as the world.
making toys, computers and cell phones (copper, Mining minerals, and the associated technology
iron, nickel, tin), as well as heating homes and and services, is an important part of the Australian
generating electricity. Resources that are more economy, accounting for around 15% of gross
accessible can be used up first, while resources domestic product (GDP) in 2015/16—that is,
that are not as accessible may require further about $236.8 billion! The Australian Bureau of
exploration and effort. These resources may be Statistics also reports that, in 2017, the mining
more expensive due to the extra effort required to industry employed around 1.1 million people,
mine them. which is about 10% of overall employment. The
You may not know it, but Australia is a leading Australian minerals industry is a major contributor
producer of minerals for the world. Australia to national income, investment, high-wage jobs,
produces 19 minerals from nearly 400 operating exports and government revenue. So why aren’t
mines in every state and territory. We have the more mines opening in Australia? We have the
world’s largest resources of gold, iron ore, lead, resources, mining creates jobs and income ….
nickel, uranium and zinc, as well as the second- Let us investigate.

Figure 5.31 An open-cut gold mine in Australia

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 STEM activity TO MINE OR NOT TO MINE? 227

Suggested materials
Design brief: Use digital technologies to create a
proposal for opening a mine in country Victoria. • Web browser
• PowerPoint
Activity instructions
Evaluate and modify
You are an engineer working for the Elemental
Resource Mining Company. Along with a team of 1 Choose an element to be mined, and investigate:
other engineers, you have applied for permission its chemical symbol, its properties, what it is
to open a new open pit mine in country Victoria, used for, the form it is found in, where there are
in order to harvest rare earth elements (REE) from deposits in Australia (including a map), how
the ground. This region is famous for its clean it is extracted and processed, and the volume
waters, and farmers rely on this water in growing currently mined (include a graph demonstrating
their crops. Also, local tourists visit the region its change over time).
for a weekend away. But, as with many regional 2 Outline the advantages of the proposed mine:
areas, local communities experience high levels of the export value of the element (include a graph
unemployment. demonstrating its change over time), benefits to
Your team must begin by investigating the national economy, possible jobs created, and
questions such as: other community benefits.
• how open pit mining works 3 Discuss the disadvantages of the proposed
• how REE minerals in such mines are processed mine: the environmental impacts, impacts on
• what properties make these minerals suitable the local community including farming and
for use tourism, additional costs such as exploration
• how mining for REE may affect the environment and wages.
• how much money is to be made or lost by mining 4 Propose and present your team’s findings,
• the impact that opening a mine would have on including your conclusions with regard to the
local communities. feasibility of opening a mine that harvests your
Your team will then propose how feasible it is to chosen element from the Earth.
open a new mine in country Victoria, and present 5 As a class, evaluate the presentations made by
your findings to the local community using a all the teams, and propose which element would
PowerPoint (or equivalent) presentation. be best to mine and which should not be mined.

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228

Chapter 6 Chemical change

Chapter introduction
This chapter introduces you to the physical and chemical changes that occur in our world. You will
also learn about how substances react to form new substances, and the evidence that a reaction has
occurred. You will look at how glow sticks work, how marshmallows go goopey and delicious over a fire,
how fruit ripens, and how fireflies glow in the night.

Curriculum
Chemical change involves substances reacting to form new substances (VCSSU098)
• identifying the differences between chemical and physical changes 6.1, 6.2
• identifying evidence that a chemical change has taken place 6.2
• investigating simple reactions, for example, combining elements to make a compound 6.3

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 229

Glossary terms
bioluminescence dissolving physical change
chemical change endothermic precipitate
chemiluminescence evaporation precipitation
combustion exothermic products
condensation expansion reactants
contraction freezing reversible
corrosion galvanisation synthesis
decomposition irreversible thermal decomposition
diffusion melting

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230 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Concept map

Substances
can change

Physical Chemical
change change
(often reversible) (often irreversible)

Evidence Evidence

• Shape • Colour change

• State • Gas formation
• Dissolving • Precipitate
• Mixing • Light or sound
There are
several ways
6.1
to categorise
chemical reactions. 6.2
6.3

Based on reactants Based on use or production

and products of heat energy

• Synthesis • Exothermic
• Decomposition (e.g. respiration)
• Precipitation • Endothermic
• Combustion (e.g. photosynthesis)

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 Section 6.1 Evidence of physical change 231

6.1 Evidence of physical change

Physical change stretched, the physical properties of the

elastic band change but not its chemical
physical change During a physical change,
when the physical properties structure, nothing new has formed and WORKSHEET
of a substance change the characteristics of a
in some way, but no new
it is reversible. Think about a soft drink
substance, or its physical
substance is formed; it is can being crushed. Have its physical
reversible; examples are a properties, change in some
change in shape, expansion properties changed? Has its chemical
and contraction, change in way but nothing new is
state, mixing and dissolving structure changed? Has anything new
formed. Examples of physical
been made? Is it reversible? So is it a
properties are texture, shape, size, colour,
physical change?
odour, volume, mass, weight, pH and
density. As the chemical nature of the
substance is not altered,
reversible
capable of going in the physical changes are usually
opposite direction
considered to be reversible.

When trying to determine whether a physical

change has occurred, there are several pieces
of evidence to look for, such as:
• a change in shape
• expansion or contraction
• a change in state
• mixing or dissolving occurring
• a non-permanent colour change.

Evidence of physical change

Changing shape Figure 6.1 Different types of evidence that a physical
When an object changes shape, we say change has occurred: change in shape (top left),
expansion or contraction (top right), change in
it has undergone a physical change. state (bottom left), mixing or dissolving (bottom right)
For example, when an elastic band is

Aluminium atoms
Aluminium atoms (Al) have moved

Force applied

Soft Al (aluminium) Al (aluminium) Crushed soft

drink can Physical change drink can
Figure 6.2 When an aluminium can is crushed, the characteristics of the can have changed, but nothing new
is formed. Therefore it is a physical change.

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232 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Figure 6.4 When the air inside a hot air balloon is

heated, the atoms in the heated air gain energy,
move faster and take up more space. This is an
example of a physical change occurring and it
results in the air being less dense on the inside of
the balloon, so the balloon rises.
Figure 6.3 An example of a physical change is when glass breaks: its
physical characteristics change, but it is still glass. density decreases), but no new substance
has formed, and it is reversible. Hot
Breaking glass is another example of air balloons and thermometers are two
physical change. Can you explain why? examples of where we can see evidence of a
physical change occurring in this way.
1 Write a definition of the term Quick check 6.1
‘physical change’. The reverse of expansion is contraction
2 List the four pieces of evidence to look for when contraction, and this is also the process of getting
smaller, the atoms in a
determining whether a physical change has occurred. evidence of a physical change substance move closer
together as they cool
3 Explain how changing shape is an example of physical occurring. The substance
change.
cools down, the atoms lose energy, they
slow down, and the distance between the
atoms gets smaller (volume decreases and
Expansion and contraction
density increases).
In Year 7 you learned about the particle
model and different states of matter.
Note that if the gas in inside a container of
The particle model, which describes
fixed size, the pressure will change but the
the behaviour of atoms in solids, liquids
volume will not.
and gases, suggests that if you heat up
a substance, the atoms in the substance
will also gain energy, move faster and
Increasing
expand if the container allows. This means temperature
the atoms will gain energy, move more
and increase the distance between each Decreasing
other. This process of getting larger is temperature
called expansion. Expansion is an
expansion
the process of getting larger, example of physical change – the Contraction Expansion
the atoms in a substance
move further apart as they properties of the substance have Figure 6.5 The physical changes experienced by
heat up changed (volume increases and atoms during expansion and contraction

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 Section 6.1 Evidence of physical change 233

Practical 6.1

Making a model thermometer

Aim
To demonstrate expansion and contraction by making a model thermometer

Materials
• 250  mL conical flask • permanent marker
• glass thermometer • modelling clay (or Blu Tack)
• clear narrow plastic straw • water
• ice-cream container • ice
• red food colouring

Method
1 Half fill the bottle (conical flask) with water.
2 Add a drop or two of food colouring.
3 Place the straw in the bottle, but do not let it touch the bottom. Use the clay to seal the edges of the bottle’s
top with the straw in the middle. The clay will hold the straw in place and prevent it from touching the bottom
of the bottle.
4 Write a hypothesis: what do you predict will happen as the fluid in the bottle warms up? And when it cools down?
5 On the side of the bottle, use a permanent marker to mark the height of the liquid inside the straw (your
thermometer) at room temperature. Record the temperature of the room.
6 Place the bottle into an ice-cream container with ice and allow to cool. Record the temperature of the
environment and mark the side of the bottle to document where the liquid level is now.
7 Place the bottle in a different temperature environment. Let the bottle sit there for several minutes. Record
the temperature of the environment and mark the side of the bottle to document where the liquid level is.
8 Make a scale on your thermometer, using the temperatures you have recorded and the marks you have made
on the bottle. Test your thermometer.

Results
Record your observations and tabulate your results: the temperature of each environment and the height of the
fluid in the straw.

Evaluation
1 Did your results support your hypothesis? Explain.
2 Explain your results. Why did the fluid move up/down the straw? Use your knowledge of the particle theory to
aid in your explanation.
3 Imagine you repeated your experiment but with a narrower straw. How would you expect the measurements
to be different for a narrower straw? Explain whether this new thermometer would be likely to be more or less
accurate than your first thermometer.
4 Outline possible faults in this experiment, and explain how each could have affected your results.
5 Suggest improvements for this experiment if you were to carry it out again.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the behaviour of liquids at different temperatures?
Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ and remember to
include possible faults in the experimental technique.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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234 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Changing state
You know that heating up a substance
causes an increase in temperature. If enough
heat is added, the substance can change its
state. When a substances changes state, it is
a physical change – it can be reversed, and
the actual substance is still chemically the
same, it is just its physical properties that
have altered.

Figure 6.7 A snowman melting is an example of physical

change. Can you explain why?

Freezing is the opposite freezing

the process in which heat
of melting. It is a physical is lost, causing a liquid to
change that occurs when heat become a solid
is lost, causing a liquid to become a solid.
As liquid cools, the atoms lose energy and
move or vibrate more slowly. If you remove
enough energy, the atoms will end up just
Figure 6.6 When a substance gains or loses heat, it undergoes a
vibrating in a fixed position. Because of
physical change: no new substance is produced and the substance their closeness, the atoms will form stronger
changes its physical properties but is still the same substance. bonds with their neighbours than before,
forming a solid.
melting Melting is the process in which heat
the process in which heat
causes a solid to become causes a solid to become a liquid.
a liquid
Remember that heating a substance
gives the atoms of that substance more
energy, and this makes the atoms move
or vibrate faster. If you add enough heat
to the atoms, the edge of the solid will
eventually jiggle around so much that
some of the atoms will break free, and
a liquid will form. For example, when a
snowman melts, the solid water becomes
liquid water. The two forms of water have
very different properties (hardness, ability
to be poured, shape and so on), but they
are both water. The process of melting is
reversible, and no new substance has been
Figure 6.8 Candle wax undergoes a physical change – it melts
formed, so melting ticks all the boxes for or forms a liquid when heated, and freezes or forms a solid
being an example of physical change. when cooled.

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 Section 6.1 Evidence of physical change 235

evaporation Evaporation is another gas to become a liquid. An example you

the process in which heat
causes a liquid to becomechange of state. It occurs are probably familiar with is when you
a gas
when heat causes a liquid to see water vapour from the air cooling and
become a gas. Consider the clothes you forming condensation on the outside of
hang on the line to dry – they dry as the your cold drink.
water evaporates from the surface of the
clothes. No new substance has formed,
Physical Science as a human endeavour 6.1
and the change is reversible, so it is a
changes
physical change. have happened on Mars too!
In 2015, scientists used special computer modelling to
see if freezing liquid water could have caused the surface
features of the Martian landscape. Features like the dried-
out river valleys and gigantic outflow channels are clearly
visible to orbiting spacecraft. As you know, a change of
state is an example of physical change, so physical changes
have happened on Mars too.
In 2018, data collected by the European Space Agency’s
Mars Express spacecraft suggested that there is in fact a
pool of liquid water buried under layers of ice and dust in
the south of Mars. Orbiters, landers and rovers exploring the
Martian landscape have also discovered minerals that can
only form in the presence of liquid water.

Figure 6.9 Clothes dry as water evaporates from them.

condensation Condensation is the opposite

the process in which heat
is lost, causing a gas to of evaporation. It occurs
become a liquid
when heat is lost, causing a

Figure 6.11 The surface of Mars is thought to have been shaped by

physical changes.

1 Explain how expansion and Quick check 6.2

contraction are examples of
physical change.
Figure 6.10 Condensation is an example of a physical 2 Explain how changing state is an example of physical
change, as no new substance has formed, it is reversible
change.
and it is only the physical properties of the water that have
altered, not its chemical make-up.

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236 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Mixing and dissolving

When you mix substances or dissolve one
substance in another, a physical change
dissolving occurs. Think about dissolving sugar
the process in which a
substance (solute) breaks (solute) in water (solvent) to form a
up into small particles that
can no longer be seen in a solution. The way the molecules of
solution
sugar spread out within the water
diffusion
the movement of atoms/ is called diffusion. When the sugar
molecules until they are
evenly spread out; occurs in
is all spread out in the water, you
a liquid or a gas still have sugar, but the molecules Solute
have been separated and surrounded by
Solvent
water molecules. The characteristics of
the sugar have changed from a crystalline,
solid structure to one where all the sugar
particles are free to float around in the
water. No new substance has been formed,
and the process is reversible if you evaporate
the water. It is for this reason that mixing Figure 6.12 Molecules of water (blue) move randomly in a
glass. Add molecules of sugar (red) and these new molecules
and dissolving are considered evidence of will eventually become distributed uniformly throughout the
physical change. water. This is diffusion.

Skittles and diffusion Try this 6.1

Note: This activity uses lollies, which may present a risk
if students have food allergies. No food items are to be
consumed.
Collect the following materials: Petri dish, stopwatch, filter
paper or white paper, five skittles of different colours, and a
beaker of water.
Now place the Petri dish on the filter or white paper and
place the five skittles equally spaced in the Petri dish. Slowly
pour water into the Petri dish to fill it up, and start timing.
Record your observations. Explain your observations using the
term ‘diffusion’.
Figure 6.13 Skittles can help demonstrate diffusion.
Repeat, but this time use warm water. Explain the
differences you observe.

1 Explain how mixing and dissolving are examples of physical change. Quick check 6.3
2 Identify which of the following are physical changes.
a slicing bread g freezing water m colouring hair
b turning on a light h cutting hair n yoghurt going ‘off’
c breaking an egg i making a fire o popping popcorn
d mowing grass j drying clothes p squeezing an orange
e fireworks k burning toast
f breaking glass l melting chocolate

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 Section 6.1 Evidence of physical change 237

More physical changes? Explore! 6.1

Are there other examples of physical change that you have not investigated, or have you
covered them all? Your job is to find out what you can about the following three situations, and provide evidence
for each on why it is or is not an example of physical change.
1 the heating of an iron bar until it turns red
2 the magnetising of a piece of iron
3 the glowing filament of a light globe.

Figure 6.14 An iron bar glows red when heated, and a filament glows in a light globe. Are these examples of physical change?

Practical 6.2

Physical change
Aim
To conduct a series of activities/experiments in order to explore physical
Be careful
change, and be able to identify the evidence of change
No food items are to be
Materials consumed.
• small plastic cups
• ice
• Play-Doh
• rehydration powder
• beaker of water

Method
Activity 1
1 In a plastic cup, place one ice cube.
2 Observe and record how the ice looks and feels.
3 Set the cup with ice aside and complete the other activities.
4 Return to your cup with ice, observe and record how the ice now looks and feels.
5 Record what evidence of change you see, in the results table.
continued…

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238 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

…continued
Activity 2
1 Take some Play-Doh in your hands.
2 Observe and record how the Play-Doh looks, feels and smells.
3 Break the Play-Doh into lots of little bits. Observe and record how the Play-Doh looks, feels and smells.
4 Record what evidence of change you see, in the results table.

Activity 3
1 Observe and record how the rehydration powder and water look on their own.
2 Add a teaspoon of the powder to the beaker of water.
3 Observe and record how the water looks and smells.
4 Record what evidence of change you see, in the results table.

Results
Copy and complete the table below, to show the evidence that a physical change has occurred in the three
activities.

Activity Change in Change in Expansion/ Mixing/ Other Observations

shape state contraction diffusion
1
2
3

Evaluation
1 Define ‘physical change’.
2 Outline the different pieces of evidence that a physical change has occurred, and provide an example from
your activities.
3 Were there any pieces of evidence that weren’t demonstrated during these activities? Write an activity that
would allow you to demonstrate this piece of evidence of physical change.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding physical change? Begin your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. How did you know a physical change had occurred? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 6.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Identify which of the following are examples of physical properties.
a blue colour e flammable i hardness
b odour f reacts with air j dissolves in water
c density g reacts with water k lustre
d sweet taste h boiling point l volume
continued…

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 Section 6.1 Evidence of physical change 239

…continued
2 Identify which of the following are physical changes.
a cutting an apple g reacting with vinegar
b milk going ‘off’ h inflating a bike tyre
c digesting food i grass growing
d ice melting j silver tarnishing
e cooking pikelets k mopping up water
f wood rotting l Milo dissolving in milk
3 Define the following terms: reversible, expansion, contraction, melting, freezing,
evaporation, condensation, dissolving, diffusion.

Understanding
4 Write T or F for each of the following statements to demonstrate whether it is true or false.
Then rewrite the false statements so that they are true.
a During a physical change, the chemical make-up of the substance also changes.
b Melting is a physical change.
c As particles warm up, expansion can occur and this is a physical change.
d Physical changes are never reversible.
e When heat is lost from a substance, the particles can move closer together, and a gas
can change to a liquid.
f Cutting up a cake changes the shape and size of the cake – this is a physical change.
g Burning wood in a fire forms charcoal and ash – this is a physical change.
h When a solvent dissolves in a solute, nothing new is formed, so this is a physical
change.
5 Identify five physical changes that happen in your home.

Applying
6 Summarise the following physical changes, using your knowledge of the particle theory.
a why the tyres on your family car seem more deflated on a cold day
b how a liquid in glass thermometer works
c why on extremely hot days there are concerns about train tracks not working well
7 Explain the process whereby a strong-smelling deodorant is sprayed in one corner of the
room but eventually everyone in the whole room can smell it.

Analysing
8 Examine how you could you reverse the following physical changes.
a salt dissolving in water
b inflating a balloon
c ice melting
d glass breaking

Evaluating
9 Give reasons why each of the following is an example of a physical change.
a blow drying your dog’s coat after giving him a bath
b making cordial from a concentrate and water
c your lilo getting tight and ready to pop after lying in the sun
d crushing cereal boxes before putting them out for recycling

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240 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

6.2 Evidence of chemical change

Chemical change Consider the fireworks that light up the

night sky each year on New Year’s Eve.
During a chemical change, a new substance
WORKSHEET The bright explosions of colour that we see
is formed. This new substance could be a
are actually metals, like magnesium and
solid, a liquid or a gas. To help
chemical change
copper, that change chemically as they burn,
when the chemical properties
determine whether a new substance
of a substance change and producing fantastic colours. What signs are
a new substance is formed; has been formed, and therefore
irreversible; indicators of there that a chemical change has occurred?
chemical change include colour a chemical change has occurred,
change, change in temperature, Referring to the previous list, we see colour,
gas or precipitate being there is evidence you can watch for.
produced light and smoke, we hear cracking and
Occasionally you will get exceptions
fizzing, and we know the fireworks are
to this list, but most of the time, one or more
dangerous to get close to, because of the
of the following would be observed:
heat they produce.
• a permanent colour change
• a gas being given off (as an odour, or
Chemical changes are also considered to
smoke or bubbles)
mostly be irreversible. ‘Irreversible’ means
• a solid (called a precipitate)
precipitate that the products cannot
the solid that forms when forming in a solution irreversible
two clear solutions are mixed easily (if ever) be converted incapable of going in the
together and undergo a • a change in temperature (up or opposite direction
chemical change back to the substances that
down)
formed them. To reverse a chemical change
• energy in the form of light or sound
often requires a chemical reaction to take
being produced (e.g. an explosion)
place, or the input of energy.
• a new substance being formed.

Figure 6.15 New Year’s Eve fireworks over Melbourne are an example of chemical change

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 241

1 What is the key piece of evidence that a chemical change has occurred? Quick check 6.4
2 List the five pieces of evidence to look for, to determine whether a chemical change
has occurred.
3 What is the evidence that a chemical change has occurred in each of these situations?
a Leaves turn red in the autumn.
b Sherbet fizzes in your mouth.
c Bread is baking in the oven.

Chemical reactions caught on film Science as a human endeavour 6.2

In March 2017, scientists shared with the world how they had
been able to ‘film’ inter-molecular chemical reactions. They were able to do this using the electron beam from
a transmission electron microscope (TEM), like stop-motion or stop-frame filming. This technique can show
chemical reactions as they are happening and, among other challenging questions, could help us understand
how molecules interact or react with each other at the atomic level. We may also be able to find out why one
product results rather than another product.

Evidence of chemical change Colour change

Remember: a chemical change is any
It is finally the school holidays and your
change that causes a new substance to be
family is going camping. One cool evening VIDEO
formed. For example, when your campfire Evidence of
you are all relaxing around the campfire chemical
has burned completely out, ashes are left
to keep warm. The adults are cooking reactions
behind – these are a new substance formed
sausages on the grill over the flames, and
by the burning of wood. This is a chemical
damper in the coals beneath them. You
change. But what about permanent colour
toast marshmallows using sticks held over
change? This is another indicator that a
the edge of the fire, letting them get all
chemical change has occurred.
brown, gooey and delicious. On this lovely
evening, chemical changes are happening
Your marshmallows, sausages and damper
all around you!
are all browning on the outside from being
exposed to the heat of the campfire flames.
Not only is a new substance (charcoal)
forming on the outside where the food is
burned, but there is also a permanent colour
change, indicating that a chemical change
has indeed occurred. Generally speaking,
the changes caused by cooking food are all
chemical changes.

The ripening of fruit and vegetables

is another example of a colour change
indicating that a chemical change has
occurred. For example, when a tomato
Figure 6.16 Damper bread that has been cooked in the coals of reaches the green stage of its development,
a fire shows evidence of a chemical change occurring. it starts to produce ethylene gas.

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242 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

The ethylene then interacts with the tomato iron oxide (rust). This is a new substance
fruit to start the ripening process, which forming and so, clearly, rusting is a process
involves chemical reactions, and so it is producing a chemical change.
evidence of chemical change.
Given the widespread use of iron and steel,
we need ways to prevent rusting. The word
equation for the process of rusting is:
iron + water + oxygen → iron oxide

This equation means that all three

substances on the left of the arrow are
required to produce the substance on the
right of the arrow. If iron and steel are not
exposed to water and/or oxygen, then iron
oxide cannot be made and rusting is halted.
You may have noticed that, in hardware
stores, there are two options for stopping
water and oxygen coming into contact with
Figure 6.17 Tomatoes ripening and changing colour is evidence that a the iron and steel:
chemical change has occurred.
• a surface protector can be painted onto
the iron or steel surface. This is like the
Rusting, a type of corrosion, is a slow and
paint we put on cars to prevent the metal
usually unwanted chemical change that
panels being exposed to the elements
corrosion causes iron and steel to go flaky
• galvanisation, in which
the gradual and natural
and brown. This is not desirable in galvanisation
process of metals breaking
the iron or steel is the process of coating iron
down; an example is rusting things like buildings, bridges and or steel in zinc to prevent
coated in a layer of zinc. corrosion
train tracks, which are made of iron and
If a corrugated iron roof has been
steel. Rusting occurs when iron reacts with
galvanised, the zinc coating will corrode
water and with the oxygen in the air to form
before the iron, and so the iron is
protected from rusting.

Figure 6.19 A galvanised corrugated iron roof: the zinc coating

Figure 6.18 Screws exposed to water and oxygen will start to corrode or will corrode before the iron underneath, preventing rusting of
rust, providing evidence of chemical change. the iron.

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 243

Steganography Try this 6.2

Steganography is the practice of sending hidden messages. For this activity you will need some
lemon juice in a small container, white paper, a plastic tray, some cotton buds and access to an iron or a hair
dryer. Begin by placing a piece of white paper on your tray. Dip a cotton bud into the lemon juice and write a
message on the paper. When your message is dry, take it up to your teacher and they will reveal your message
using a heat source (iron or hair dryer). Explain why this is an example of a chemical change.

Practical 6.3: Self-design

To rust or not to rust

Aim
To determine the conditions required for the chemical change of rusting

Materials
• steel wool • vegetable oil
• large glass test tubes with stoppers • water

Method
1 You may need to wash the steel wool to remove soap residue.
2 Consider what you learned earlier in the chapter about the conditions that are required for the chemical
change of rusting.
3 Design an experiment that will demonstrate that the conditions you believe are required for rusting are
indeed required, using steel wool, oil (to prevent air getting access to water or steel wool), stoppers and test
tubes. Think about your independent, dependent and controlled variables as you plan. You will need to leave
your experiment overnight.
4 Draw a diagram of your method, showing what will be added to each test tube.
5 Draw up a results table.
6 Write a hypothesis or prediction about what conditions are required for rusting.
7 Check your design with your teacher before starting your experiment.

Results
Use your results table to record your results.

Evaluation
1 Did your results support your hypothesis? Explain how they did or did not.
2 Define the terms ‘chemical change’ and ‘rusting’. List any chemical changes you saw in this experiment.
3 Write a word equation for the reaction that occurs when rust is produced.
4 How would you design your experiment differently if you had the opportunity to repeat it? Give details in your
answer.
5 For a super challenge, how can you make the steel wool rust faster? You may like to use salt water, vinegar
and soft drink in your experiment.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the conditions required for rusting? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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244 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Gas is formed Ready, set, bake! Try this 6.3

To produce a soft, fluffy loaf of bread or a Jump online and find a
delicious piece of cake, you need a chemical simple bread recipe. Give it a go at home.
change to occur. One of the key indicators Write a word equation for the reaction
in this case is a gas being produced. This – that is, write the ingredients that go
gas could be in the form of an odour, into the bread, and then an arrow to
bubbles or even smoke. represent the change, and then write the
substances that are formed, to the right of
the arrow. What evidence is there that a
chemical change has occurred? Also list
any physical changes you notice.

Rotting things often produce gas, and

again this is a sign that a chemical
change is occurring. For example, your
vegetable scraps in the compost bin are
broken down by micro-
decomposition
organisms in a process called a reaction in which one
substance (reactant)
decomposition, and this breaks up into smaller ones
produces carbon dioxide gas. (products)

What about the eggs you buy? One of the

ways to tell whether an egg is rotten or still
good is to use the flotation test. To carry
Figure 6.20 Mmmm … hot bread straight out of the out the test, gently place the egg in a glass
oven, a delicious consequence of chemical change. of water. A fresh egg will rest at the bottom
of the glass. An egg that sinks but rests with
Bread can be made using a substance known
the large end facing up may be a bit older
as bicarb soda (or sodium bicarbonate),
but is still okay to cook and eat. If the egg
which is added to the main ingredients –
floats, it is old and may be rotten.
flour, salt, oil and water. The ingredients
are mixed together into a dough before
baking. When heated, the bicarb soda
breaks down and produces carbon dioxide
gas. As the carbon dioxide is released
into the dough, it expands with the heat
(note that this is a physical change). Large
bubbles of gas form in the dough, and this
is what gives the bread its spongy texture.

Bread can also be made using micro-

organisms called yeast. The yeast uses the
starch and sugars in the flour to produce
alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol
escapes during cooking, but the carbon
dioxide expands inside the dough, creating Figure 6.21 The flotation test used to determine whether an egg is
bubbles of gas and making the bread rise. rotten (left) or fresh (right)

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 245

This test works because, as the egg starts to atoms break free of each other and form
rot, decomposition occurs and carbon dioxide different substances. For example, when you
forms. The more rotting, the more gas. The cook an egg, the heat makes the atoms in egg
gas can move through the eggshell, so some white break free and recombine in a different
of the gas escapes through the eggshell and way, and this appears to us as cooked egg!
is lost to the atmosphere. When enough gas
is lost, the egg is lighter (less dense) than the
water, and so the egg floats.

Precipitate is formed
Another indicator that a chemical change
has occurred is the formation of a precipitate.
A precipitate is the name given to a solid that
forms when two clear solutions are mixed
together. The precipitate is unable to dissolve
in water and so, when it forms, it makes the
solution look cloudy before it settles on the
bottom. You will learn more about chemical
reactions that produce a precipitate in the
Figure 6.22 When natural gas burns, a lot of heat energy is released,
next section.
and we use this heat to cook our food.

1 Give three Quick check 6.5 Essentially, any time you burn something,
examples of heat energy is produced, and the increase
where a colour change indicates that a in temperature indicates that a chemical
chemical change has occurred. change has occurred. But the opposite can
2 Write the process of rusting as a word also happen: heat energy can be absorbed,
equation. and the temperature decreases. Chemical
3 Explain some examples of where a gas ice packs are probably the most common
being formed provides evidence of example of this. If you injure yourself,
chemical change. you may be offered an ice pack. You pop
4 Define the term ‘precipitate’. a bubble inside the pack and magically
the pack starts to absorb heat from the
surrounding environment, and this makes
Change in temperature the pack feel cold. You will investigate
You already know that during a chemical chemical processes that produce heat energy
change, new products are formed. But did and absorb heat energy, in the next section.
you know that heat energy may also be given
off or absorbed during a chemical change? Light or sound produced
This is another sign that a chemical change Another piece of evidence that a chemical
has occurred. For example, the burning change has occurred is light or sound. WIDGET
of natural gas in the kitchen when you are Remember the fireworks discussed earlier? Physical vs
chemical
cooking is a chemical change that gives off During that chemical change, both sound change
a great deal of heat. Heat is used in cooking and light are produced. Can you think
to speed up the many chemical changes that of other examples where light or sound
result in a delicious meal. Remember how (or both) are evidence that a chemical
all matter consists of atoms joined together change has occurred? The following
to form different substances? Heat can help information may help you.

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246 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Fireflies glow because of chemical reactions! Did you know? 6.1

Fireflies produce a chemical reaction inside
their abdomens that allows them to produce
light. This process is called bioluminescence
and is shared by many
bioluminescence
a chemical reaction that other organisms, mostly
produces light in living
things
sea-dwelling or marine
chemiluminescence organisms. (Note that
a chemical reaction that boluminescence is a type of
produces light
chemiluminescence.)
When oxygen combines with calcium,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the chemical
luciferin, and a bioluminescent enzyme is also
present, light is produced. When oxygen is
available, the firefly’s light organ glows, and when
it is not available, the light goes out. The firefly
Figure 6.23 The tail of a firefly produces light through a chemical
is able to control the beginning and end of the reaction known as bioluminescence.
chemical reaction, and thus start and stop the
production of light. Unlike a light bulb, which gets hot when it produces light, a firefly’s light is cold light, and so
very little energy is lost as heat. This is very lucky for the firefly, because it would not survive getting as hot as a
light bulb!
Fireflies light up for a number of reasons. The larvae produce short glows that act as a warning to predators
that they taste bad. As adults, many fireflies have flash patterns unique to their species, and use them to
discriminate between members of the opposite sex. In males, a higher rate and intensity of flashing has been
shown to be most attractive to females in several firefly species.

Glow sticks Explore! 6.2

Have you ever played minigolf in the dark with glow-
in-the-dark balls? Have you ever celebrated New
Year’s Eve with glow sticks? It all comes down to
chemical reactions.
1 Define the following key terms: fluorescence,
chemiluminescence, bioluminescence.
2 Find out about the structure of glow sticks and
explain what is involved in the chemical reaction
that produces the light. Summarise your findings
and include a picture/diagram.

Figure 6.24 Glow sticks work because of chemiluminescence,

a chemical reaction that produces light.

1 List some examples of where a change in temperature provides evidence of Quick check 6.6
chemical change.
2 List some examples of where light or sound being formed provides evidence of chemical change.

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 247

Practical 6.4

Chemical change
Be careful
Aim Personal protective
To conduct a series of activities/experiments in order to explore chemical equipment is to be
change and be able to identify the evidence of change worn. All waste is to be
Materials collected and disposed
• Bunsen burner • 1  M hydrochloric of appropriately.
• matches acid
• wooden skewer • thermometer
• saturated strontium chloride solution • 100  mL glass beaker
• saturated copper II sulfate solution • lemon juice
• 0.1 M ammonium hydroxide solution • baking soda
• test tubes and test tube rack
• 2  cm strip of magnesium ribbon

Method
Activity 1
1 Light the Bunsen burner.
2 Take a wooden skewer and break it in half.
3 Dip the broken-off end of the skewer into the strontium chloride solution.
4 Place the wet end of the skewer into the flame.
5 Record your observations for Activity 1 in your results table and tick which of the pieces of evidence show that
a chemical change has occurred.
6 Repeat the above steps with the copper II sulfate solution.

Activity 2
1 Place three eye droppers full of ammonium hydroxide into a test tube in a rack.
2 Add the copper sulfate solution, drop by drop, no more than 10 drops, into the ammonium hydroxide.
3 Record your observations for Activity 2 in your results table and tick which of the pieces of evidence show that
a chemical change has occurred.

Activity 3
1 Place a 2  cm strip of magnesium ribbon into a test tube in a rack.
2 Gently stand a thermometer in the test tube also.
3 Add approximately 2  cm of the hydrochloric acid to the test tube.
4 Record your observations for Activity 3 in your results table and tick which of the pieces of evidence show that
a chemical change has occurred.

Activity 4
1 Put approximately 40  mL of lemon juice in a 100  mL glass beaker.
2 Gently stand a thermometer in the beaker.
3 Add 1 teaspoon of baking soda to the lemon juice.
4 Record your observations for Activity 4 in your results table and tick which of the pieces of evidence show that
a chemical change has occurred.
continued…

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248 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

…continued
Results
Copy and complete the table to show the evidence that a chemical change has occurred.

Activity Change in Change in Gas Light Precipitate Observations

colour temperature produced produced produced
1
2
3
4

Evaluation
1 Define ‘chemical change’.
2 Outline the different pieces of evidence that a chemical change has occurred, and provide an example from
your activities.
3 Were there any pieces of evidence that were not demonstrated during these activities? Write an activity that
would allow you to demonstrate this piece of evidence of chemical change. You may need to do some online
research first.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding chemical change? Begin your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. How did you know a chemical change had occurred? Begin your
sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Physical and chemical changes are all around us. Figure 6.25 shows some photos from a family Try this 6.4
holiday. List the physical and chemical changes you can see in the photos. For every change
you notice, state the evidence that a change has occurred or is occurring – for example, colour change,
a gas being produced or a new product being formed.

Figure 6.25 Can you spot the physical and chemical changes in these photos from a family holiday?

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 249

Digestion is all about change! Did you know? 6.2

Thousands of physical and chemical changes take place during the digestion of your
food … yes, thousands!

Part of the body Type of change Details

Mouth Physical Food is chewed by teeth to break it down into smaller pieces, so
that the chemical processes have more surface to work on.
Chemical An enzyme in saliva (called amylase) starts to break down sugars
and carbohydrates into simpler forms that your body can absorb.
Oesophagus Physical As the oesophagus moves food from the mouth to the stomach,
the muscles squeeze, pushing the food along, in a process called
peristalsis.
Stomach Physical The stomach muscles squeeze and churn the food to break it into
smaller pieces so that the chemical processes have more surface
to work on.
Chemical Hydrochloric acid in the stomach reacts with food to break it down
even further, so your body can absorb it. More digestive enzymes
are released here.
Small intestine Physical As the small intestine moves food along towards the large
intestine, the muscles squish the food to help break it down
further.
Chemical Enzymes break down proteins and fats even further, so they can be
absorbed into your bloodstream through the walls of the intestine.
Table 6.1 Some of the many physical and chemical changes that occur in the digestive system

Mouth

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small intestine

Figure 6.26 The digestive system uses physical change and

chemical change to break down your food for absorption.

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250 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

1 Copy and complete the following table. Quick check 6.7

Physical change Chemical change

Reversible
No new products are formed
Change in shape
Expansion/contraction
Change in state
Mixing/dissolving

Forensic detection of fingerprints Science as a human endeavour 6.3

In 2015, an Australian scientist’s home was
broken into. This inspired him to develop
a new technique for fingerprint detection
at a crime scene. Fingerprints can be used
as an identification tool for suspects as
each pattern is unique to each individual.
However, while some fingerprints may be
visible such as those from a dirty hand,
often they are invisible on surfaces.
Dr Liang from the CSIRO found that by
adding a drop of liquid containing crystals
to surfaces, investigators using a UV light
are able to see latent (invisible) fingerprints
‘glow’ in about 30 seconds. The benefits
of the crystals are that they are cheap,
react quickly and can emit a bright light.
The chemical reaction doesn’t create dust
or fumes, reducing waste and the risk of Figure 6.27 Detecting latent (invisible) prints left at a crime scene is now
easier, with new detection methods involving chemical reactions.
inhaling dangerous gases.

Section 6.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Rewrite the following, matching each term from the left column with its correct definition
from the right column.

Term Definition
Physical property a new substance is formed and the process is irreversible
Physical change the way substances look and act, e.g. colour, melting point,
hardness, boiling point, density
Chemical property nothing new has formed and the process is reversible
Chemical change the behaviour of a substance when it reacts with another substance

continued…

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 Section 6.2 Evidence of chemical change 251

…continued
2 State some examples of physical properties.
3 State some examples of chemical properties.
4 List the five common signs that a chemical change has occurred.

Understanding
5 Outline three examples of chemical change occurring in your home.
6 Explain the process of rusting and why it is an example of chemical change.
7 A stoppered test tube of yellow liquid is left on the window sill of a science lab over the weekend. When the
students come back to class, they observe that there is condensation on the inside of the tube, the liquid
has gone green, and the stopper has popped out. Explain whether these observations indicate physical or
chemical changes, and how you know.

Applying
8 Distinguish between bioluminescence and chemiluminescence.
9 Classify each of the following as physical or chemical change.
a vegetable scraps breaking down in the g fruit on the ground going mouldy
compost bin h crushing a can
b separating sand from gravel i trees growing new leaves in spring
c cutting fingernails j breakfast cereal going soggy
d drilling a screw into wood k rain making the ground muddy
e mulching tree branches l dropping and breaking a plate
f a stock cube dissolving in hot water m baking a quiche
10 Identify the types of changes occurring in the following situations. (There may be more than one type.)
a Pastry is defrosted and then used to make a pie.
b To make honeycomb, sugar is mixed with water and honey, heated, and then bicarbonate of soda
is added.
c A candle burns and wax drips down the side.

Analysing
11 For each of the following situations, summarise the signs of chemical change you would observe.
a Birthday candles are burning.
b Glow sticks work when you break them.
c Sandwiches go mouldy.
d Baking soda and vinegar are mixed together.
12 Determine the reasons why galvanised iron does not rust.

Evaluating
13 Give reasons why rusting occurs faster on door hinges of boat sheds compared to door hinges a kilometre
inland from the beach.
14 For each of the following situations, identify whether a physical change, a chemical change, or both, has
occurred. Give reasons for your answers.
a biting, chewing and swallowing noodles
b ice cubes melting in your iced chocolate drink
c petrol burning in a car
d bread dough being kneaded, then rising
e a steel spoon being left out after being washed and little red spots forming on it

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252 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

6.3 Investigating reactions

You now know what evidence to look for the film to produce an image. This reaction
when a physical change occurs, and when a can be represented by a word equation and
WORKSHEET chemical change occurs. And you know the by a chemical equation.
difference between physical and chemical
change. In this section, you will investigate Word equation:
what happens when a chemical change silver chloride → silver + chlorine
occurs – that is, a chemical reaction.
Chemical equation:
Reactants and products 2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2

reactants In a chemical reaction, the substances

the substances that are The reactants or, in this case reactant, is on
you start with are called reactants, and
present at the beginning of a
the left of the arrow – silver chloride. Note
chemical reaction
the substances you finish with are called
products that the formula for silver chloride is AgCl,
products. A chemical reaction can be
the substances that are
one atom of silver joined to one atom of
present at the end of a
represented in different ways, such as a
chemical reaction chlorine.
word equation or a chemical equation.
The products are on the right of the arrow –
An example of a chemical reaction is
silver and chlorine. Note that chlorine has
when light hits photographic film coated
the formula Cl2 as it is exists as a molecule,
with silver chloride. Tiny crystals of the
never as an atom on its own.
compound silver chloride are attached to
film. When the film is exposed to light, a
You may have noticed that in front of
chemical reaction occurs, and this darkens
the AgCl is the number 2, and there is
also a number 2 in front of the Ag. Why
are these extra numbers in the equation
when they are not part of the formula of
the compound AgCl? This is part of the
process of balancing equations, which
you will learn more about in Years 9 and
10. To put it simply, atoms cannot be
destroyed or made, they just move around
during chemical reactions. So this means
the number of silver atoms in the reactants
must be the same as the number in the
products, and the number of chlorine
atoms in the reactants must be the same
as in the products. The extra numbers you
see in the equation are there to balance
Figure 6.28 Photographic film works because of the numbers of atoms on each side of
chemical reactions. the equation.

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 253

Not balanced: Ag Cl Ag + Cl Cl

Balanced: Ag Cl Ag Cl Ag Ag + Cl Cl

Figure 6.29 Keeping it simple: balancing equations is like working out whether you
need one or two cups of flour to make bread. The top equation is not balanced,
because the number of chlorine atoms is not the same on both sides of the reaction.

1 a Do chemical reactions involve physical change or chemical change? Quick check 6.8
b Give examples of what evidence there would be if a chemical reaction occurred.
2 Define the terms ‘reactants’ and ‘products’.
3 Name and give examples of two different ways we can represent chemical equations.

Four types of chemical Figure 6.30 A nail rusting is an example of a synthesis chemical reaction

reactions
There are four basic types of chemical
reactions:
• synthesis reactions (sometimes called
combination)
• decomposition reactions (sometimes
called breaking down)
• precipitation reactions
• combustion reactions.

Synthesis
Synthesis reactions are when two (or more)
elements or reactants combine to form one
synthesis new substance or product.
a reaction in which two (or
more) elements or reactants Synthesis reactions can be
combine to form one new
substance or product represented in this way:
A + B → AB

where A and B are the reactants and AB is

the product.

You have already read about many synthesis

reactions in this chapter, such as the rusting
of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen gas in the
air, to form rust.

Word equation:
iron + oxygen gas → iron oxide

Chemical equation:
2Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

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254 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

The Hulk’s hand Try this 6.5

You are probably familiar with the Hulk and
know that he has large hands when he takes
on his green form. You are going to make the
Hulk’s hand using a chemical reaction! Put
on safety glasses and move over to the sink,
as this can get messy. Take a disposable latex
glove (preferably green) and, working with
a partner, place 10  g of sodium bicarbonate
into the thumb of the glove. Then pour 50  mL
of vinegar into the three fingers of the glove
furthest from the thumb. Carefully seal the
wrist of the glove, ensuring the different
fingers don’t mix. When you are ready, shake
the glove and watch what happens. Can
you guess what is being synthesised in this
chemical reaction? What are the signs that
this is a chemical reaction and chemical
Figure 6.31 You too can have a hand like the Hulk’s.
changes are occurring?

Decomposition – in this case, the reaction is called

Reactions where one substance (reactant) thermal decomposition. thermal decomposition
decomposition that occurs
breaks up into smaller ones (products) is Decomposition reactions are when a substance is heated
called a decomposition reaction. Some essentially the opposite of
compounds break down when heated synthesis reactions and can be represented
in this way:

AB → A + B

where AB is the reactant and A and B are

the products.

For example, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is an

ingredient in soft drinks. When you open a
can of soft drink, a decomposition reaction
takes place.

Word equation:
carbonic acid → water + carbon dioxide

Chemical equation:
H2CO3 → H2O + CO2
Figure 6.32 The foaming and spraying that occurs when you open a can
of soft drink is an example of a decomposition chemical reaction.

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 255

Thermal decomposition Try this 6.6

Many metal carbonates can take part in thermal decomposition reactions. For example, copper
carbonate breaks down easily when it is heated:
Word equation: copper carbonate → copper oxide + carbon dioxide
Chemical equation: CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
Your teacher may demonstrate this. Wearing safety glasses, add two spatulas of copper carbonate to a test tube.
Then, using tongs, gently heat the base of the test tube. Make sure the mouth of the test tube is pointing towards
a wall. You may like to hold a flame or a lit match over the mouth of the test tube. What do you observe? What
evidence is there of a chemical change? What happened to the flame? What gas was produced?
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) behaves in the same way. Can you write both a word equation and a
chemical equation?

Airbags use a decomposition chemical reaction Did you know? 6.3

We all know airbags are essential in cars for safety reasons, but how do they work?
Airbags are not inflated from some gas source but rather from the products of a decomposition chemical
reaction. The chemical responsible for the airbag reaction is called sodium azide, NaN3. An electronic sensor
in the car detects a sudden change of speed and/or direction of the car, and sends a signal to an ignitor, which
provides heat. This causes the sodium azide to break down rapidly into sodium and nitrogen gas, and it is this
gas that causes the airbags to inflate. Amazingly, a handful of sodium azide will produce 67 litres of nitrogen gas!
What is even more amazing is that from the time the sensor detects the collision to the time the airbag is fully
inflated is only 0.03 second!
It is important to know that the sodium produced from the decomposition is dangerous, and so manufacturers
of airbags must add other chemicals into the mix so that the sodium quickly binds with something else to make it
less dangerous.

Figure 6.33 Deflated airbags after an accident. Airbags inflate

because of a decomposition chemical reaction.

1 Name the four different types of chemical reactions. Quick check 6.9
2 Explain how you would identify that a chemical reaction was a synthesis reaction.
3 Explain how you would identify that a chemical reaction was a decomposition reaction.

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256 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Precipitation
Chemical reactions that involve the mixing
of two clear solutions to produce a solid are
precipitation called precipitation reactions.
a reaction that involves the mixing
of two clear solutions to produce a This is because the solid that is
solid called a precipitate
formed is a called a precipitate.
These solids are insoluble, which means
they are unable to dissolve in water. The
beautiful news is that precipitates are often
very colourful and some are even used as
pigments in paint.

For example, when colourless lead nitrate

and colourless potassium iodide are added
together, a canary yellow precipitate forms
(lead iodide).

Word equation:
lead potassium lead potassium
+ → +
nitrate iodide iodide nitrate

Chemical equation:
Figure 6.34 When two clear solutions are mixed
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3 together and a solid forms, this a precipitation reaction.

Practical 6.5: Teacher demonstration

Precipitation reactions
Be careful
Aim Ensure appropriate
To demonstrate and observe how to mix two clear solutions in order to produce personal protective
an insoluble, and often coloured, solid called a precipitate, and to name the equipment is worn.
precipitates formed.

Materials
• 0.1 M solutions of the following chemicals in dropper bottles: sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, lead nitrate,
potassium iodide, sodium hydroxide and potassium chromate
• micro test tubes
• micro test tube rack
• safety glasses

Method
1 Place approximately 10 drops of silver nitrate in six micro test tubes standing in a rack.
2 Add 10 drops of lead nitrate to the first micro test tube containing silver nitrate.
continued…

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 257

…continued
3 Observe whether there is reaction and record your observations in the results table.
4 Repeat steps 2–3 with each of the other solutions in the top row of the results table.
5 Now test lead nitrate with each of the other solutions in the same way.
6 Name the precipitates that were formed. To do this, take the first name of the first solution and add it to the
last name of the second solution. For example,

Lead nitrate and potassium iodide react to form lead iodide (the product).

Follow this rule for the rest of the precipitates formed in this experiment.

Results
Draw up a table like the one shown here, to record the results of mixing two clear solutions to produce a precipitate.

Chemical Silver Lead Copper Potassium Sodium Sodium Potassium

nitrate nitrate sulfate iodide carbonate hydroxide chromate
Silver
nitrate
Lead nitrate Yellow
precipitate
Copper
sulfate
Potassium Yellow
iodide precipitate
Sodium
carbonate
Sodium
hydroxide
Potassium
chromate

Evaluation
1 Define the terms ‘chemical change’ and ‘precipitate’.
2 What observations did you make that suggest a chemical change has taken place?
3 Write word equations for each of the pairs of solutions that reacted to form a precipitate.
4 Challenge: Use formulas to write a chemical equation for each of the pairs of solutions that reacted to form
a precipitate.
5 Suggest some possible faults in the experimental method used and how these would be resolved if the
experiment were to be carried out again.

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding precipitate formation? Begin your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. How did you know a precipitate had been formed and how did you
name them? Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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258 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Combustion
Chemical reactions that involve the burning
or exploding of something are called
combustion reactions. In this case,
combustion
a reaction that involves the there is a substance that reacts with
burning or exploding of a
substance, usually in the oxygen, a chemical reaction occurs,
presence of oxygen
and heat and light are released.

For example, methane is the gas that comes

out of your school Bunsen burner. It reacts
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,
water, light and heat.

Word equation:
methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Chemical equation:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

Another example is octane, the fuel you

use to power your family car. It reacts with
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water,
light and heat.

Word equation:
octane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Chemical equation:
Figure 6.35 A lit Bunsen burner is an example of a
2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O combustion reaction.

Practical 6.6: Teacher demonstration

Sugar snake
Aim
To investigate a combustion reaction

Materials
• fumehood or well-ventilated area (outdoors recommended)
• teaspoons
• aluminium pie tin
• sand
• mixing bowl
• lighter fluid (or isopropyl alcohol)
• matches
• powdered sugar
• baking soda
continued…

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 259

…continued
Method
1 In a bowl, combine 4 teaspoons of powdered sugar with 1 teaspoon of baking soda.
2 Fill the pie tin with sand and create a small mound in the centre. Then use your hand to make an indent in the
middle of the mound.
3 Pour lighter fluid on the mound and in the indentation. Make sure the sand is well soaked.
4 Spoon the sugar and baking soda mixture into the centre of the mound.
5 Carefully light the sand near the sugar mixture.

Results
Take photos of each stage of the method and record the chemical reaction using a phone or video camera.

Evaluation
1 Define the terms ‘chemical change’ and ‘combustion’. What evidence do you see that a chemical change
has occurred?
2 What ingredient do you think is undergoing combustion? What gas is being made?
3 Can you explain why the snake goes black? Why does it keep growing?
4 Explain the purpose of the sand.
5 Why is it recommended that this experiment is done wearing safety glasses, in a well-ventilated area or
fumehood?

Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding the types of reactions that have occurred? Begin
your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. How did you know that certain types of reactions had occurred?
Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

‘Exo’ means ‘releases’ and ‘thermic’ means

1 Explain how Quick check 6.10
you would
‘heat’, and so exothermic is a way of
identify that a chemical reaction was a describing chemical reactions where heat
VIDEO
precipitation reaction. is released. In fact, when chemists use Exothermic

2 Explain how you would identify that a the term ‘exothermic’, they are referring and
endothermic
chemical reaction was a combustion to the release of any form of energy as a chemical
reactions
reaction. consequence of a chemical reaction, so this
could be heat, light or sound and so on.

Exothermic and endothermic Remember the glow sticks you investigated

reactions in Section 6.2? You learned that they work
Another way of categorising or describing because when you break the inner glass
chemical reactions is by identifying whether layer, the solution inside the glass mixes
they use or produce heat energy. with the chemicals around it, causing a
chemical reaction. It is an exothermic
Exothermic reactions reaction, because the fluorescent dye gives
Combustion, the chemical off light, a form of energy.
exothermic
describes a chemical reaction where something burns
reaction in which heat or
another form of energy is in the air to produce heat and Another example of an exothermic
released
light, is said to be exothermic. reaction is when you light a sparkler.

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260 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

A sparkler consists of a chemical mixture

that is moulded onto a rigid wire. When
you light it, a chemical reaction occurs
and the result is heat, light and sound
being released.

Figure 6.36 Sparklers burning are an example of an

exothermic reaction.

Practical 6.7: Teacher demonstration

Elephant’s toothpaste
Aim
To observe the evidence that shows the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is an exothermic reaction

Materials
• empty 500  mL plastic soft drink bottle
• ½ cup hydrogen peroxide (6% for a big reaction or 3% for a smaller reaction)
• 1 packet of dried yeast
• warm water
• dishwashing detergent
• dishwashing gloves
• cup
• food colouring
• funnel
• large plastic tray

Method
1 Pour the peroxide into the bottle using a funnel.
2 Add a large squirt of detergent to the bottle and swirl to mix.
3 Add some food colouring.
4 In the cup, mix about 4 tablespoons of warm water and the dry yeast, and stir to combine.
5 Pour the yeast into the bottle with the peroxide using a funnel. Quickly stand back and observe what happens.
Record your observations.

Results
1 Take photos of each stage of the method, and record the chemical reaction using a phone or video camera.
2 Once the reaction is complete, touch the foam and the edge of the bottle, and record your observations of the
temperature.

Evaluation
1 Define the terms ‘chemical change’ and ‘exothermic’.
2 What evidence was there that a chemical change had occurred?
3 How do you think the foam was formed? Why do you think it is called ‘elephant’s toothpaste’?
4 How was the heat made?
5 Write a word equation for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
6 Write the chemical equation for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
7 Investigate yeast and find out why it is included as an ingredient in this reaction.
continued…

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 261

…continued
Conclusion
1 What claim can be made from this experiment regarding what type of reaction the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide is? Begin your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that … ’.
2 What evidence did you gather? Begin your brief summary with: ‘The results show that … ’ and remember to
include possible faults in the experimental method.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Begin your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Keeping warm Explore! 6.3

Portable hand warmers are used in many different situations. How do they
work? It must be an exothermic reaction, as heat is the energy released
from the reaction. But what are the substances needed to make this
happen?
1 Investigate the chemical reaction involved in disposable portable hand
warmers. Record what you find out by writing a word equation and a
chemical equation.
2 How are disposable and reusable hand warmers different? Explain in
Figure 6.37 How do portable hand
terms of the substances involved and the chemical reactions that occur. warmers work?

Endothermic reactions
How low can you go? Try this 6.7
endothermic An endothermic reaction is a Your task is to achieve the lowest temperature
describes a chemical
reaction in which energy reaction that needs some type by adding powdered citric acid, bicarbonate powder and
is absorbed from the
surroundings
of energy to make it start. water, in different amounts. You may like to draw up a table
‘Endo’ means ‘within’ and like the one shown here and begin with the suggested
‘thermic’ means heat, and so ‘endothermic’ amounts. Record the temperature and then begin mixing.
is a way of describing chemical reactions
in which energy is absorbed from the Amount of Amount of Amount Temperature
surroundings. citric acid bicarb soda of water (°C)
(spatula) (spatula) (mL)
Many of the reactions that occur in 1 2 2
cooking are endothermic, because
you have to supply heat to make them Table 6.2 Mix the chemicals in different amounts to get the lowest
proceed. Examples are cooking an egg possible temperature.
and baking bread.

Keeping cool Explore! 6.4

Portable ice packs are used in many different situations.
How do they work? It must be an endothermic process,
as there is no energy released. In fact, energy is needed
to start this process, but what are the other substances
needed to make this happen?
1 Investigate the chemical process involved in ice packs.
Record what you find out by writing a word equation
and a chemical equation. Figure 6.38 An ice pack uses an endothermic chemical
2 Find out why athletes use ice packs when they are process to help athletes treat an injury. This process is
injured. Explain how the ice packs help. not a chemical reaction, as no new substance is formed.

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262 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Photosynthesis is endothermic and

respiration is exothermic
Photosynthesis is the process that green
plants use to make a sugar, called glucose.
They use the Sun’s light energy, water
from the soil, and carbon dioxide from
the air, to make the glucose. They also
produce oxygen during this process, which
is great for us! Because energy from the
Sun is absorbed during photosynthesis,
this chemical reaction is considered to be
endothermic.
Figure 6.39 Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction,
Respiration is a chemical reaction that as energy from the Sun is absorbed by the plant.
plants and animals use to burn up the
sugar glucose, to make energy. This energy
is used for growth and repair, movement
and keeping warm. Because respiration
produces energy, this chemical reaction
is considered to be exothermic. Now you
know why you feel so hot after running
to catch the tram – your muscles create
heat as they move, because respiration is
happening faster to provide you with the
energy to move quickly.

1 Define the terms ‘exothermic Quick check 6.11

reaction’ and ‘endothermic
reaction’. Include examples.
2 Decide which of these processes are exothermic and
which are endothermic.
a When two compounds are mixed, the temperature
increases.
b Plants take in the Sun’s energy for photosynthesis.
c A solid burns brightly and releases heat, light and
sound.
d When two substances in an ice pack are mixed, their
temperature drops.
e Two chemicals will only undergo a chemical reaction Figure 6.40 Respiration produces energy and this
can make you feel hot when exercising, because
if you heat them continually.
of the exothermic chemical reaction occurring in
your cells.

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 Section 6.3 Investigating reactions 263

Section 6.3 questions

QUIZ
Remembering
1 What are the characteristics of a precipitation reaction?
2 What are the products of a typical combustion reaction?
3 What are the reactants and products of respiration and photosynthesis?
4 Define the term ‘precipitate’.
Understanding
5 Explain what gas is necessary for a combustion reaction.
6 Explain the following:
a how a synthesis reaction is different than a decomposition reaction
b how you could tell whether a precipitation reaction is occurring
c what is some evidence you would look for when an endothermic reaction is occurring.
7 Demonstrate how a reaction might fit into more than one category. Use an example.
Applying
8 Summarise the four types of reactions in a table like the one below.

Reaction type Definition Example

9 Write word equations for each of the following reactions.

a Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas explode to form water.
b When fruit ripens, fructose (a sugar) is formed from starch and water.
c Solid iron is combined with sulfur and forms iron sulfide.
10 Identify the reactants and products in the following reactions.
a 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO + heat
b In fermentation, sugar decomposes to form ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy.
11 A chemical reaction occurs between two clear solutions: baking soda and calcium chloride. Calcium
carbonate is the solid that forms, along with sodium chloride and carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
Chemical equation: 2NaHCO3 + CaCl2 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
a Write the word equation for this reaction.
b Identify the reactants and the products in the reaction.
c Identify the type of reaction.
Analysing
12 Label each of the following reactions as synthesis, decomposition, precipitation or combustion.
a A+B→C
b methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide and water
c Fe + S → FeS
d C6H12O6 → C + H2O
e 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO + heat
f carbon dioxide → carbon + oxygen
g sodium chloride + silver nitrate → silver chloride (solid) + sodium nitrate
13 Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions. Include examples.
Evaluating
14 You and your partner are carrying out a chemical reaction in class and observe that condensation appears on
the inside of the test tube. Is this evidence of a physical change or a chemical change? Has heat energy been
absorbed or released? Give reasons for each of your answers.
15 Respiration is considered to be a combustion reaction. Give reasons why this is the case.

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264 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Review questions

Remembering
1 Define the following key terms: physical property, chemical property, physical change,
SCORCHER chemical change, reactant, product.
2 List the possible evidence that a physical change has occurred.
3 Name the products released when a typical combustion reaction occurs.
4 State whether each of the following processes is a physical or chemical change.
a moth balls evaporating in a cupboard h hand sanitiser evaporating
b building a sand castle i mixing sugar with coffee
c hydrogen burning in chlorine gas j making a paper aeroplane
d fogging up a mirror by breathing on it k pan frying dumplings
e breaking a bone l copper turning green when exposed
f a broken bone mending to the air
g slicing potatoes for making chips m paper ripping
5 For each of the following statements, write T for true or F for false. Rewrite the false statements
so they are true.
a Synthesis reactions are when two (or more) elements or reactants combine to form one new
substance or product.
b Precipitation reactions involve the creation of a colourful and soluble solid that can settle.
c Decomposition reactions are those in which several reactants break up into even smaller
products.
d Combustion occurs anytime there is oxygen.

Understanding
6 a Explain why baking cookies is not an example of physical change.
b Explain why bending metal in half is not an example of chemical change.
7 Summarise the observations you could make if a chemical change had occurred.
8 What is the only real proof that a chemical reaction has occurred?
9 When Tori reacts a lump of calcium carbonate with sulfuric acid, she sees water, carbon
dioxide and calcium sulfate form.
a Write a word equation representing the information given.
b Outline the reactants and the products, and how you know.
10 Write the following as word equations.
a Dean mixed together eggs, flour and milk. He then heated the mixture and ta daa! Delicious
pikelets!
b Suzi dropped a chunk of magnesium into a test tube containing hydrochloric acid, and
magnesium chloride was formed. She also noticed a gas forming and when she held a
glowing splint nearby, it went pop, just like hydrogen gas does when it burns.
11 Which of the following are examples of chemical reactions?

A + +

B + +

C + +

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 Chapter 6 REVIEW QUESTIONS 265

Applying
12 Photosynthesis is a process that green plants use to make the sugar glucose. It is this sugar
that we need to consume to survive. Summarise the reactants and products of photosynthesis,
and where plants get the reactants from.
13 Explain why a colour change occurring is not always a sign that a chemical change has
occurred.
14 Use word equations to demonstrate why some people say respiration and photosynthesis are
the opposite of each other.
15 Write word equations for the following chemical reactions.
a Maisie used some nitric acid from science class to mix with iron oxide and produce iron
nitrate and some water.
b Edward put some copper scraps with some sulfur powder in a test tube and heated it over
a Bunsen burner. At the end of the reaction, he observed a greenish colour on the copper –
a sulfide.

Analysing
16 Contrast endothermic and exothermic reactions.
17 Can atoms that are not in the reactants end up in the products of a chemical reaction? Why or
why not?
18 Barium sulfate, BaSO4, is used in medical imaging of the gastrointestinal tract, because it
absorbs X-rays and can show up in an imaging scan. It is formed when the two clear solutions,
barium chloride and sodium sulfate, react together. Sodium chloride is also formed.
a List the reactants of this chemical reaction.
b List the products of this reaction.
c Barium sulfate is a solid produced during this chemical reaction. What type of chemical
reaction is this an example of?
d What evidence do you have that your answer to part c is correct?
19 When a substance burns, it reacts with a gas in the air and forms an oxide.
a What is the name of this gas?
b What type of chemical reaction is this? i Fe + O Fe O
c Write word equations for the two examples shown
at right. You will need to refer to a periodic table to
ii Mg + O Mg O
determine the names of the elements involved.

Evaluating
20 a When you combine bicarb soda and buttermilk, a gas is produced. Why is the gas
considered evidence that a chemical reaction occurred?
b Can you continue to add more and more of one reactant and expect to get more and more
product? Give reasons why or why not.
21 Determine whether each of the particle diagrams below indicates a chemical or physical
change. Justify your answer.
a Before After b Before After

Figure 6.41 Figure 6.42

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 266 Chapter 6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

STEM activity: Building a rocket

Background information
VCSSU098 VCMNA283 VCMNA285 VCDSTC048
Rockets are exciting machines that are designed by
engineers and used to explore space. It is amazing
to think that someone has worked out how to get
these heavy vehicles into space! Rockets depend VCDSCD050 VCDSCD052 VCSIS108 VCSIS109

on a combustion reaction to provide the thrust they

Chapterneed
1 toSCIENCE
overcome theSKILLS
force of gravity and shoot up
into orbit. Combustion is a fast, exothermic reaction VCSIS110 VCSIS111 VCSIS112
between a fuel and oxygen, in which the fuel burns
and heat is produced. As you know, during a
chemical reaction, new compounds are made –
Practical 1.1 Self-design
in this case, these compounds are the rocket’s models to learn from and experiment with. By
exhaust. The exhaust is pushed out from the bottom testing small-scale models, the engineers make
Aim of the rocket at high pressure, and this pushes the sure the rockets will work, without wasting time and
rocket upward.
You will work in groups, allocating each person with at least oneon
money role covered
testing full-sizeinrockets.
this chapter.
They canYour group will
test the
In a process known as the engineering design thrust and stability and make modifications, in order
act as a team of consultant engineers, working towards finding a solution to a problem by using the engineering
cycle, aerospace engineers design small-scale to design the best rocket they can.
design loop.

Define the problem/

identify the need

Redesign
(as needed)
Research
the problem

Communicate the
design and the process
Engineering
design loop
Brainstorm/develop
solutions
Test and evaluate
prototype

Select the
Build/construct solution
prototype

Figure 6.43 Designing and testing of a model comes before construction of the real thing.
Figure 1.9 The engineering design loop

When brainstorming, remember these rules.

Focus on quantity – come up with as many ideas as you can.

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 STEM activity BUILDING A ROCKET 267

To launch your rocket at exactly 10 seconds, your

team will need to consider what factors affect the
rate or speed of the chemical change that occurs.
For example, you will need to investigate whether
it is affected by the temperature of the water, the
surface area of the tablet, the mass of the tablet, or
other factors. Your team will continue to evaluate
and refine your prototype until it launches at
exactly 10 seconds.

Suggested materials
• 35 mm film canister with an internal snapping lid
• an antacid tablet, such as Alka-Seltzer®
• water
• scissors, sticky tape, textas, paper
• chopping board, mortar and pestle, knife, spoon
• safety glasses

Evaluate and modify

1 Use Microsoft Excel or other graphing tools (such
as Desmos) to graph your data. For example,
create a scatter plot of mass (x-axis) versus time
to launch (y-axis), or temperature versus time to
Figure 6.44 Space launch launch. Identify a line of best fit and determine
the equation for the line of best fit.
2 Discuss the different conditions you investigated
Design brief: Design, build, test and evaluate a and what you found out about the effect of
rocket that will launch in exactly 10 seconds. temperature, surface area and mass on the
rocket launch times.
3 Draw a flow chart to show your original design
Activity instructions
for a 10-second launch and the modifications
In teams, you will take on the role of aerospace that followed, ending with your rocket
engineers. The Super Fast Rocket Company has launching at exactly 10 seconds. Highlight the
hired your team to design, build, test and evaluate change/improvement you made at each step
a rocket that will launch in exactly 10 seconds. along the way.
You will begin investigating the chemical 4 Consider both your rocket and the other rockets
change that occurs when half an antacid tablet you observed being launched. Identify and
(containing stored chemical energy) and water describe the characteristics that make one
are put into a film canister. With the lid snapped rocket perform better than another.
on, the production of carbon dioxide gas inside 5 Discuss what challenges you faced while
the canister causes pressure to build up until designing and testing your rocket, and how you
the lid pops off, propelling the rocket into the air. overcame these challenges.

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268

Chapter 7 Rocks

Chapter introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the Earth’s crust and the rocks it is formed from. You will learn about
the three types of rock – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary – and how rocks can change from one
form to another, according to the rock cycle. You will also learn about the mining industry and how
resources contained in the rocks are extracted to make useful materials, such as metals for technology,
and glass and cement for building.

Curriculum
Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks contain minerals and are formed by processes that
occur within Earth over a variety of timescales (VCSSU102)
• recognising that rocks are a collection of different minerals 7.1
• considering the role of forces and energy in the formation of different types of 7.1, 7.2
rocks and minerals
• identifying a range of common rock types using keys based on observable physical 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
and chemical properties

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 269

Glossary terms
biological weathering deposition magma rock
breccia electrolysis mantle rock cycle
cementation erosion metamorphic sedimentary
central core extrusive meteorite sediments
chemical weathering fossil mineral seismology
cleavage geology Mohs scale smelting
compaction igneous opaque streak test
conglomerate intrusive ore surface mining
crust karst outer core translucent
crystal lava physical weathering transparent
deep time lithosphere radioactivity underground mining

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270 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Concept map

Minerals are
the building
blocks of rocks.

Types of rock • Igneous rock

• Sedimentary rock
The rock cycle
• Metamorphic rock

Rocks can be classified

by their physical and
chemical characteristics.

Resources can be 7.1

extracted from rocks 7.2
in the mining process.
7.3

7.4

• Exploration
• Planning and design
• Construction
• Mining
• Processing
• Closure and rehabilitation

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 271

7.1 Rock formation

Rocks and minerals A mineralogist is a person who studies

minerals. It is a difficult job, because there are
Rocks are a naturally
rock over 5000 minerals to study. Some minerals WORKSHEET
solid material forming the occurring substance made
Earth’s crust; rocks are are found in the form of crystals and this
formed as part of the rock up of one or more minerals. crystal
cycle can be an easy way to identify them. a mineral in which the
Minerals are considered to atoms are arranged in
mineral
a valuable or useful chemical be the building blocks of an ordered way to form a
geometric shape
substance that is formed
naturally in the ground rocks, and each mineral has
igneous a specific chemical structure.
describes rocks made
from lava on the surface or Rocks can be:
magma below the surface
• igneous – formed from
sedimentary
describes rocks made from molten rock
deposited materials that are
the products of weathering • sedimentary – formed
and erosion
from the products of
metamorphic
describes rocks that are erosion
changed by being exposed to
high temperature, pressure
• metamorphic – altered by
or both heat and pressure.
Figure 7.2 Rocks are made of one or more minerals.
They have different physical and chemical
properties, depending on their composition and
how they are formed.

Minerals include gemstones Did you know? 7.1

that are used in jewellery. Most
gemstones are brightly coloured or transparent crystals.
Diamond, for example, is a crystal made from carbon.
Carbon is the same chemical element that is in graphite,
which is used to make pencil leads.

Oxygen

Silicon

Figure 7.3 Diamond (shown at left) and graphite (shown at right)

Figure 7.1 Quartz (shown at top) is a mineral are both made of carbon atoms. However, the arrangement of the
made of silicon and oxygen atoms arranged in a atoms makes a big difference to their properties.
continuous framework.

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272 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Continental
Mid-ocean ridge
crust

Lithosphere
Oceanic
crust

Mantle
Asthenosphere

Crust Outer core

Lithosphere
Upper solid mantle Core

Asthenosphere Central
core

Figure 7.4 The Earth is composed of several layers.

Rocks and the Earth up the Earth’s surface) fascinating, as each

type of rock contains different components
central core The central core of the Earth is
the solid centre of the Earth, and has different properties.
probably made of iron currently thought to be mostly solid
outer core iron, while the outer core is made of
the liquid layer surrounding
liquid iron and nickel. Surrounding Element % of Earth’s mass
the central core, also
probably made of iron the outer core is the mantle, Iron 35
mantle
comprising mostly solid and semi- Oxygen 30
the layer of solid and semi-
molten rock that surrounds molten rock. Earth’s outer layer is Silicon 15
the outer core and extends
up to the Earth’s crust the solid crust. Rocks are formed Magnesium 13
crust
the solid outer layer of the
and reformed in the lithosphere, Table 7.1 These four elements make up most of the
Earth; continental crust is on which includes the crust and the Earth’s mass.
average 50 km thick and the
average thickness of oceanic uppermost mantle.
crust is 20 km
lithosphere
1 Define and Quick check 7.1
the solid outer layer of the The Earth’s mass is predominantly distinguish
Earth; includes the crust and
uppermost mantle made up of iron, then oxygen, silicon between rocks and minerals.
and magnesium. Small amounts of 2 Where are rocks formed in the Earth?
all the other elements can also be found. 3 What elements make up most of the
This is what makes geology (the study of Earth’s mass?
the rocks and similar substances that make

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 273

The rock cycle result in the formation of igneous geology

the study of the rocks that
rock. The process of melting takes make up the surface of the
The Moon has stayed unchanged for
place beneath the Earth’s crust at Earth
millions of years, but the geology of the deep time
temperatures that can be as low as the idea first suggested by
Earth is very different. James Hutton, the
500°C and as high as 1600°C. The James Hutton that the Earth
father of modern geology, tried to explain is very old
process of cooling can happen below rock cycle
why the surface of the Earth is so complex.
or above the Earth’s surface. An the constant process
He came up with two conclusions. of change that rocks
interesting characteristic of igneous go through, between
• The Earth is very old – Hutton called igneous, metamorphic and
rocks is that the minerals in them sedimentary forms
this deep time.
may form crystals. This is because, magma
• The Earth’s surface has been constantly molten rock under the
when magma cools, crystallisation Earth’s surface
changing throughout its history. The
occurs. Below the Earth’s surface, lava
rock component changes constantly due molten rock from inside the
magma takes a long time to cool, Earth (called magma) that
to some key processes, which together has reached the surface
and the crystals formed in it are
are called the rock cycle.
large. Magma that reaches the Earth’s
surface is called lava. Because lava cools
Melting and cooling more quickly, the crystals formed are small
As you can see in Figure 7.5, the melting and may even be microscopic. You will
of rock to form magma (molten rock), learn more about igneous rocks in the next
and then the cooling of that magma, section of this chapter.

Igneous rock

oling
Co g
ltin
Me
Weathering
Magma and erosion

Heat and
M
elt pressure
ing
Sediments
Melting
ion
nd eros
i ng a
ther
Wea Deposition,
compaction and
Weathering cementation
and erosion

Metamorphic
rock Hea
t an
dp
res
sur
e

Sedimentary
rock
Figure 7.5 In the rock cycle, the three types of rock can change through the action of weathering
and erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation, melting and cooling, heat and pressure.

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274 Chapter 7 ROCKS

‘Igneous’ and Did you know? 7.2 What is a meteorite? Explore! 7.1
‘ignite’ come From time to time, rocks
from the same Latin word, ignis, which arrive on Earth from space, in the
meteorite
means ‘fire’. This is an easy way to form of meteorites that land on a rock from space (meteor)
that has entered the
remember that igneous rocks are formed the surface. Use your preferred atmosphere as a ‘shooting
from hot magma. star’ and reached the ground
search engine to answer the
following questions.

Figure 7.7 An iron meteorite that landed on Earth

from space

1 What is the composition of meteorites?

2 How does a meteorite end up on Earth?
3 Propose whether or not meteorites pose
a threat to life on Earth. Justify your
Figure 7.6 ‘Igneous’ comes from a Latin word
argument using examples of meteorites
meaning ‘fire’. that have landed on Earth, and their impact.

Making crystals Try this 7.1

You will need the following materials:
• soluble crystals such as copper sulfate, sugar or salt
• beaker
• warm water
• two Petri dishes.
Stir the crystals in the water until they dissolve. Keep adding crystals
until no more can be dissolved – this will give you a concentrated
solution. Filter the solution to remove any solids. Put the resulting
liquid into two Petri dishes and place one in a hot sunny place and
the other in a dark cupboard at room temperature. Leave for a few
days. The water will evaporate and you should see crystals form.
The liquid placed in direct sunlight will evaporate quickly, leading to
small crystals being formed. The liquid placed in the cupboard will Figure 7.8 Copper sulfate crystals
evaporate more slowly and the crystals should be larger. This same process takes place if a liquid solidifies to
form crystals – the slower the rate at which it cools, the larger the crystals formed.
Use your observations to explain how melting and cooling form rocks. Draw on the similarities between this
activity and the process of rock formation.

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 275

process, because of a process known as

1 What are the Quick check 7.2
three types of
‘freeze–thaw action’. In this process, water
rocks formed in the rock cycle? enters a crack in a rock and freezes. As it
2 What roles do melting and cooling play freezes, it expands with great force and
in the rock cycle? widens the crack. This can happen many
times, widening the crack slowly until
eventually the rock breaks apart.
Weathering
Weathering occurs when exposed rocks
are broken down – for example, by ocean
waves hitting a cliff face. Weathering breaks
up large rocks into small particles called
sediments. It includes physical weathering,
chemical weathering and
sediments
sand, stones, etc. that slowly biological weathering.
form a layer of rock
physical weathering
the breaking down of rocksPhysical weathering is the
into smaller particles by
contact with other rocks, breaking down of rocks
wind, water or ice
into smaller particles by
temperature, pressure or weather – for
example, by extreme temperatures, high
wind, snow, hail, rain and flooding. Ice is
a very powerful agent in the weathering Figure 7.9 A rock split in two by freeze–thaw action

Practical 7.1

Water breaks rock

Aim
To observe how freezing water can break rock

Materials
• milk carton
• ice-cream container
• balloon
• 1 cup of plaster of Paris
• water

Method
1 Fill the balloon with water until it is about 5 cm in diameter, and tie it off. Ensure it can sit in the milk carton
with some space on the sides.
2 Place the plaster of Paris into the ice-cream container and mix while adding water, until it is the consistency
of yoghurt.
3 Add some plaster to the milk carton until it is about 1 cm deep.
4 Hold the water-filled balloon just on top of the plaster so it is touching the surface.
continued…

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276 Chapter 7 ROCKS

…continued
5 Add more plaster until the balloon is just covered. Keep holding it in position until the plaster is firm enough
for the balloon to be let go.
6 Stop holding the balloon and cover about 1 cm above the top of the balloon.
7 Wait for the plaster to set and take a picture of the surface you can see.
8 Place it in the freezer overnight. Think about what you predict will happen.
9 The next day, observe what has happened, and take another picture.

Results
Draw a diagram to represent the before and after pictures.

Evaluation
1 Describe your observations of the plaster before and after it was put in the freezer.
2 Deduce what you think happened overnight.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding water and rocks. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that water … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the water and plaster. Start your sentence with: ‘It was
observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

chemical weathering Chemical weathering occurs

the disintegration of rocks
caused by substances when rocks are slowly dissolved
dissolving in water
by substances in rainwater. It is
more effective on limestone and silicon
compounds, as these are slightly soluble in
water. Rainwater that seeps underground
in a limestone area can slowly create vast
underground caves over millions of years, as
well as long underground rivers. Limestone
caves often contain stalactites hanging from
the roof and stalagmites on the ground;
when these meet, they form columns.
Limestone caves such as the Jenolan Caves
(see Figure 7.10) are often developed as
tourist attractions because of the beautiful
limestone features they contain.

When limestone contains underground Figure 7.10 A pillar in the Jenolan Caves in New
rivers it can give a very characteristic South Wales
landform called a karst landscape
karst (see Figure 7.11), which has caves, gone underground. The Nullarbor Plain
an area of land formed of
rock such as limestone sinkholes, limestone outcrops and between South Australia and Western
that is worn away by water
to make caves and other dry valleys with no water because Australia is the world’s largest karst
formations
the river that formed them has landscape.

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 277

Figure 7.11 The entrance to a cave in a typical karst landscape. Rainwater enters the cave and can travel
underground for many kilometres.

A person who studies caves scientifically is called a ‘speleologist’, but a person who Did you know? 7.3
explores caves as a pastime is called a ‘caver’ or a ‘spelunker’.

Figure 7.12 Cavers explore underground cave systems, looking for amazing rock formations like this.

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278 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Saving limestone buildings Science as a human endeavour 7.1

Researchers from the University of Iowa and Cardiff University
have found that statues and buildings made of limestone can be protected from chemical weathering. A water-
resistant coating can be applied in a thin, single layer, and this will protect the limestone from weathering. The
coating contains fatty acids from olive oil and substances with fluorine additions.

Figure 7.13 This church in Pella, Victoria, was built of limestone from a
nearby quarry.

Practical 7.2

Oxidation and salt

Rocks that are iron-rich are susceptible to oxidation, which is the formation of rust. Rocks in fresh water undergo
oxidation at a different rate than those in a salt lake, because of the presence of salt.

Aim
To investigate the effect of salt on the oxidation process

Materials
• steel wool
• three plastic Petri dishes
• water
• salt
• beaker
• marker

Method
1 Label the Petri dishes ‘Control’, ‘Fresh water’ and ‘Salt water’.
2 Cut three pieces of steel wool. Ensure all the pieces are the same size.
3 Place one piece of steel wool in each Petri dish.
4 Fill the beaker with water and submerge half of the ‘Fresh water’ steel wool in water.
5 Add water and salt to a beaker and submerge half of the ‘Salt water’ steel wool in salt water.
6 Observe the results after three days, and describe what happened, in the results table.
continued…

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 279

…continued
Results
Copy and complete the following table.

Control Fresh water Salt water

Observation

Evaluation
1 What is the purpose of the control dish?
2 Compare what happened in the fresh water and salt water dishes.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding oxidation and salt water. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that
salt water … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed about the steel wool. Start your sentence with: ‘It was
observed that … ’
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

biological weathering Biological weathering

the disintegration of rocks by
Distinguish between the three Quick check 7.3
living things occurs when rock is broken types of weathering: physical,
down into smaller particles chemical and biological.
by living things. For example, human feet
can wear dips into the tops of stone steps
(see Figure 7.14), plant roots grow into small Erosion
cracks in rocks and make the cracks bigger, Erosion occurs when rock that has erosion

and people who do not stay on pathways in been broken loose by weathering the transport of rocks from
one place to another as a
national parks damage the vegetation, which is transported or moved to a new result of weathering

can eventually lead to erosion. location. It includes rocks or rock particles

falling due to gravity, being carried away in
the wind, or moved by waves, ocean currents,
running water or even ice in a glacier.

Figure 7.15 The Twelve Apostles, off the shore of the Port Campbell
Figure 7.14 These steps have been ‘weathered’ by National Park. These limestone stacks were formed on the seabed.
people walking on them. The particles of stone Today the seabed has been raised and the limestone is being
have been washed away or eroded by the rain. weathered and eroded by the ocean waves.

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280 Chapter 7 ROCKS

The size of particle that can be carried Tasmania and the surrounding areas. The
is highly dependent on the way it is landscape was transformed by the ice moving
transported. Only small particles, such as over the rocks, leaving a characteristic
sand, can be blown by the wind, but pebbles smooth surface.
and even boulders can be transported in
rivers and oceans. The size of particle that The profile of Wave Rock in Western
can be moved depends on the speed of the Australia (see Figure 7.17) demonstrates
wind or water – for example, mud can be the erosive power of wind. Sand grains
carried by slow-moving rivers, sand requires carried by wind have worn down this rock
faster water, and stones and boulders can and carried away the debris. Initially it was
only be transported by a river in flood. chemical weathering (vegetation breaking
Glaciers can carry giant boulders trapped down) that weakened the rock, and then
in the ice, for many kilometres. They are the wind-borne sand started its work at the
also powerful weathering agents, because weakened lower levels of rock. Eventually a
the ice leaves a smooth surface as it passes wave-like shape formed.
over the bedrock.

During the ice age, the world, including

Australia, was very different. Large quantities
of water were trapped in giant ice sheets that
spread out from the poles and covered much
of Europe and North America. Because of
this, the sea level was much lower and it was
possible to walk on land from Victoria to
Tasmania and from Queensland to Papua
New Guinea. Although neither Australia
Figure 7.17 Wave Rock in Western Australia is
nor Tasmania was covered in an ice sheet, made of granite that is over two billion years old.
glaciers formed on Cradle Mountain in

Erosion by wind Try this 7.2

You will need the following
materials:
• Petri dish
• water
• dry sand
• pebbles of various sizes
• drinking straw
• newspaper.
Place the Petri dish on the edge of the newspaper.
Moisten the bottom of the Petri dish with just a little
bit of water, before filling it with sand. Place five
pebbles on top of the sand and spread them out
evenly. Gently blow through the straw, away from
the edge of the newspaper, so the sand lands on the
newspaper and does not make a mess.
What do you observe? Does the sand blow away
Figure 7.16 Dove lake on Cradle Mountain in Tasmania. The smooth
appearance of the rocks is due to the action of glaciers twenty more from under the pebbles or around the pebbles?
thousand years ago.

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 281

Deposition, compaction and layers, which become compacted compaction

the process of parts
cementation or compressed by the weight of becoming closely positioned
Particles or sediments that are eroded the layers above, and cemented together, using very little
space
come to rest when the wind or water together. These processes finally cementation
moves more slowly or the ice melts. When form sedimentary rocks. Sometimes the sticking together of
sediment
the particles reach their destination, animal and plant remains are mixed fossil
they are dropped, in a process called in with the sediments and preserved the shape of a bone, shell,
plant or animal that has been
deposition. Often deposition as fossils. On the seabed, this preserved in rock for a very
long time
deposition
process that occurs when occurs on ocean beds or process can continue in the same
eroded particles stop
moving and build up to form lake beds. The particles are place for millions of years and can create
sedimentary rocks
often deposited in visible layers of sediment many metres high.

Figure 7.18 Sedimentary rocks are very common, covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface. Some contain
fossils that are billions of years old. Note the different layers of sediment, all cemented together.

1 Distinguish between weathering and erosion. Quick check 7.4

2 In your own words, explain the processes of deposition, compaction and cementation.

Practical 7.3

Deposits on a riverbed
Aim
To model and observe how sediments are deposited on a river bed

Materials
• soil • water
• sand • jar with lid
• gravel
continued…

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282 Chapter 7 ROCKS

…continued
Method
1 Add soil, sand and gravel to a jar, and mix them. Fill the jar to halfway.
2 Add water. Fill the jar ¾ full and put the lid on.
3 Make sure the lid is tight, and shake the jar for one minute. How do you predict the particles will settle?
4 Observe how the particles settle. Time how long it takes for each layer to form.

Results
Draw a diagram representing the different layers, and label them.

Evaluation
1 Do the larger particles end up on the top layer or the bottom layer?
2 How long does each layer take to settle? Can you explain why this occurred?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the particle size in a layer and how it settles in a river bed. Start your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that in a river bed … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the particles settling. Start your sentence with: ‘It was
observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Heat and pressure denser. These processes create metamorphic

Rocks that are deep underground may rocks. Mudstone is a sedimentary rock
be exposed to extreme pressure, high made from mud. When it is exposed to high
temperature or both. This can change the pressure and temperature it turns into slate,
nature of the rock, often making it harder and a metamorphic rock. If the temperature
and pressure are increased again, it turns into
schist, another type of metamorphic rock.

Figure 7.19 Slate is a metamorphic rock formed when mudstone is Figure 7.20 Pieces of schist, formed when slate is subjected to
subjected to high pressure and temperature. high temperature and pressure.

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 Section 7.1 Rock formation 283

Metamorphic pasta Try this 7.3

You will need the following materials:
• 2 textbooks
• penne pasta (or any long type of pasta).
Scatter the pasta around in a random manner on a flat surface, between the two books, as shown in Figure 7.21.
Keeping the book spines parallel to each other, slowly bring the spines together, with the pasta pieces in
between. As the pasta pieces are compressed, they should align. How does this demonstrate the way in which
metamorphic rock is formed?

Figure 7.21 As you compress the pasta, the pieces align.

1 List the three

Energy sources for the rock cycle
Quick check 7.5
different It takes a lot of energy to move rocks
types of rock. around, break them up, heat them until
2 Distinguish between the three kinds of they melt or change them physically or
rock in terms of how they are formed. chemically.

Type of rock Source of energy Details radioactivity

energy released
Igneous Earth’s formation When the Earth was formed, it contained radioactive from the nucleus
of an atom when
Metamorphic and elements that atoms left over from a supernova. This radioactive the atom decays;
the age of rocks
are radioactive energy has been released ever since and is what keeps can be determined
the centre of the Earth at a high temperature. by measuring their
radioactivity
Sedimentary Sun The energy of the Sun causes weathering through
rain, wind, waves and ice formation. It also causes
rocks to heat up during the day and cool down at night.
Table 7.2 The energy required for the formation of the different rock types comes from different sources.

Radiometric dating Did you know? 7.4

Scientists can measure the radioactivity of an old sample of metamorphic or
igneous rock and compare it with a sample that is more recent. Older rocks are
less radioactive than newer rocks, and this enables the age of a piece of rock
to be established. So far, the oldest rock to be discovered is a piece of gneiss
from Canada that is estimated to be between 3.8 and 4.3 billion years old. It
was formed long before there was life on Earth, and it is almost as old as the
Earth itself.

Figure 7.22 This piece of rock is a sample of Acasta gneiss, the oldest rock yet discovered
on Earth.

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284 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Rock cycle poster Try this 7.4

Make a poster of the rock cycle and annotate it with details of the different
processes you have learned about in this section. You are going to add to this poster in the next
section, so make sure you leave space around the outside for extra information about the types
of rocks.

Section 7.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Recall the name of the layer on Earth in which rocks are formed and reformed.
2 In Scotland, James Hutton saw igneous rock with millions of years’ worth of sedimentary rock
lying on top of it. Outline two observations that Hutton published after seeing this.
3 Name the most common type of rock on the Earth’s surface.

Understanding
4 Contrast rocks, minerals and crystals.
5 Copy this image of the rock cycle and label the missing processes. Then explain each of
the processes.

Igneous rock

Magma

Heat and
pressure
Sediments

Metamorphic
Hea
rock t an
dp
res
sur
e

Sedimentary
rock

Figure 7.23 The rock cycle

6 Outline how the different types of rock from the previous question are formed.

Applying
7 Make use of what you have learned about weathering to identify one reason why weathering
is important to the rock cycle, and one reason why we might want to stop weathering.
continued…

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 285

…continued
8 Imagine that the Earth’s core suddenly lost its thermal energy. Apart from the effect this would have on life on
Earth, which type(s) of rock formation would be affected and why?

Analysing
9 Examine Figure 7.24 and decide whether it is a mineral or a rock. Justify your answer.

Figure 7.24

Evaluating
10 ‘Once igneous rocks are formed, the only physical change they can experience is being broken down into
smaller pieces until they are melted again.’ Assess whether you agree with this statement and provide your
reasoning.

7.2 Types of rocks

Igneous rocks
Beneath the Earth’s thin outer crust is
WORKSHEET
molten and semi-molten rock, called magma.
When the surface crust becomes fractured,
thin or weakened, molten magma can reach
the surface and a volcano is formed. You may
recall from the previous section that igneous
rocks are formed when lava cools quickly
following a volcanic eruption, sometimes
within minutes, or cools and solidifies slowly
underground in a magma chamber after it
has been pushed close to the surface. Figure 7.25 Igneous rock and lava in Hawaii

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286 Chapter 7 ROCKS

The crystals within igneous rocks can be example of a plutonic igneous rock formed
used to identify them. The crystals may be beneath the surface of a volcano. This stone
anything from several centimetres long to is often used to make kitchen benchtops.
visible only with a microscope. The size
of the crystal gives a clue to how long the
igneous rock took to cool and, hence, how
close to the surface the rock was formed.
When magma breaks through the crust
and flows on the surface, it is called lava.
extrusive The lava solidifies to form extrusive
describes rocks formed on
the Earth’s surface; also
igneous rocks. Basalt, an igneous
called volcanic rocks rock, has the interesting property
of forming large hexagonal structures as
it cools. Pumice, also an extrusive igneous
rock, floats on water!

Figure 7.27 An example of intrusive igneous rock. This unusual

landform in New South Wales contains the remains of an
ancient volcano. Belougery Spire, on the left, was the magma
chamber. The Breadknife, running along the right, was a
crack in the volcano that filled with magma.

Figure 7.26 The hexagonal pillars of basalt found at the Giant’s

Causeway in Ireland are an example of magma flowing onto the
surface, solidifying and forming igneous rock. Figure 7.28 Granite has a distinctive mosaic of crystals of
different colours.
Another way for molten magma to form
rocks is if it stops and cools before it gets 1 List some Quick check 7.6
to the surface, and solidifies underground. examples of
This rock will cool more slowly and so igneous rocks.
there is more time for crystals to grow, 2 Describe in your own words how
which means the individual crystals are intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
intrusive bigger. Igneous rock formed in this are formed.
describes igneous rocks
formed underground; also
way is called intrusive or plutonic. 3 Describe the relationship between
called plutonic rocks Although this rock is hidden when it crystal size and the time the crystal
is formed, it can be exposed later when the takes to form.
layers above have been eroded. Granite is an

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 287

Practical 7.4: Self-design

Crystals and cooling rate

Aim
To determine the effect that cooling rate has on crystal size formation

Materials
• saturated potassium nitrate or magnesium sulfate
• water
• test tubes
• beakers
• ice
• hand lens

Method
Using the materials above, design an experiment to investigate how cooling rate affects the size of crystals of
saturated potassium nitrate or magnesium sulfate.
Hint: To create crystals, you need to use a saturated solution of potassium nitrate or magnesium sulfate.

Results
Record your observations.

Evaluation
1 Which test tube produced smaller crystals? Which produced larger crystals? Link this to the cooling rate.
2 Evaluate whether your results support what you have learned so far about crystals.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding cooling rate and the crystal size of rocks. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that cooling rate … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the crystal sizes. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed
that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Sedimentary rocks
Uluru is an example of sedimentary rock
The Earth’s surface is covered partly by that you are probably very familiar with.
water and partly by land. As you saw in Uluru is made of sandstone, but the
the previous section, weathering from sedimentary layers are almost vertical.
waves, flowing water, wind, frost, rain, ice, This is evidence that the Earth is very old
chemicals and even living organisms, can indeed. The rock that forms Uluru would
break down the surface of exposed rocks. originally have been horizontal, but over
The particles of weathered rock are eroded: time the movement of the Earth’s crust
carried away by water, gravity, wind or tilted it. The top of the rock has been
ice. Eventually the particles can no longer weathered and eroded, until today just the
be carried, and sedimentary rocks are end is showing.
formed when these particles or sediments
are deposited, compacted and cemented The type of sedimentary rock formed
together. Sedimentary rocks take thousands depends on the particles that are deposited.
to millions of years to form. Chalk is a common sedimentary rock and

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288 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Sea creatures that had tiny skeletons made

of carbonates formed beds of chalk. Any
gaps in the chalk filled with dissolved
silica (also from sea creatures) and formed
flint nodules. Flint is a type of chert
and was one of the first substances used
to make tools.

Sand made of quartz is another familiar

material that forms sedimentary rocks.
Sand is commonly found all over the world
on beaches, and at the bottom of rivers,
lakes and the sea. The sedimentary rock
formed from sand is called sandstone.
Figure 7.29 Uluru is an ancient sedimentary rock turned through 90° by
It is a common building material because
the movement of the Earth’s crust. it is relatively easy to cut and is strong.
Parliament House in Melbourne was
is formed from the remains of sea creatures originally built from sandstone mined in
whose bodies fell to the ocean floor. Chalk the Grampians National Park.
is made of calcium carbonate and can be
identified by a simple test: when acid is Mud sediment forms mudstone and shale.
placed on the surface, bubbles form. Chalk It is not used extensively for building
often contains fossils, and the age of the because it breaks easily. However, mudstone
chalk can be determined from the fossils it turns into slate at high temperature and
contains. pressure, and slate is used as a roofing

Figure 7.30 A chert nodule, found in chalk. Chert is also a Figure 7.31 Parliament House in Melbourne is one of many
sedimentary rock. buildings in Australia made from sandstone.

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 289

material in some parts of the world. Half of

How coal is made Explore! 7.2
the sedimentary rocks on Earth are made of Organic material from living creatures
mudstone or similar. can also form sedimentary layers. Layers of plant material
form coal, while bacteria decomposes to form oil. Although
oil is a liquid, it is still sedimentary.

Figure 7.34 How coal is formed. Left: In the Carboniferous

Period, trees die and form a layer of wood. Middle: The wood
is compressed by the layers of sediment above. Right: The
compressed wood is transformed by heat and pressure into coal.

Use your preferred browser to research the following

questions.
1 List three different uses for coal.
2 Coal is a non-renewable resource. Are there any
alternatives to coal for the uses you listed in the previous
Figure 7.32 Fossilised leaves in mudstone
question?

conglomerate Sedimentary rock formed

sedimentary rock composed
of rounded rock fragments from small stones is called
larger than 2 millimetres While most beaches are made of Did you know? 7.5
either conglomerate or
breccia quartz sand, some beaches near
sedimentary rock composed breccia. Conglomerate is
coral reefs are entirely composed of tiny fragments of coral
of angular broken pieces of
rock larger than 2 millimetres
formed from rounded stones,
made of calcium carbonate.
whereas breccia consists
of angular stones.

Figure 7.35 Fragments of coral found on a coral beach

Figure 7.33 Sedimentary rock made from rounded pebbles is
called conglomerate.

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290 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Fossils fossils. Evidence of extinction events can be

The bodies of different organisms may be seen, when a certain type of fossil suddenly
deposited in sediment and form part of the disappears. For example, by studying
sedimentary rock – this is how they become sedimentary rocks, it is known that all the
fossils. Generally, fossils are only formed in dinosaurs became extinct at the same time,
rocks that start as sedimentary rocks. But, about 60 million years ago.
as we know from the rock cycle, rocks are
always changing and so it is possible that Fossil formation Explore! 7.3
the rock may later change its nature and Use your preferred
become metamorphic without the fossil search engine to find out about the
being destroyed. process of fossilisation.
1 Not all living things become fossils.
Fossils can be used to trace the history of Describe the conditions necessary for
life on Earth. Because sedimentary rocks fossils to form.
form slowly, the passage of time is traced 2 Evaluate some things that scientists
in their layers, with the oldest rocks at the have learned from fossils.
bottom. Fossils found in the same layer
must have lived at the same time in the
same location, and so were part of the Types of fossils
same ecosystem. Fossils found in different There are various types of fossils, depending
layers must have lived at different times, on how the impression was formed. Some
with newer fossils being found above older common types are listed in Table 7.3.

Fossil type Details Image

Mould When a plant or animal decays
in sediment, it may leave a
hollow impression of itself.

Figure 7.36 The mould of an ammonite

Cast When an animal or plant dies,
its body creates a space in
the sediment. This gap fills
with minerals, such as silica,
over time and the shape of the
animal is preserved as rock.

Figure 7.37 A fossilised trilobite, extinct

creatures that once dominated life on Earth

Table 7.3 Five common types of fossils

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 291

Fossil type Details Image

Imprint These fossils leave behind a
two-dimensional (flat) print.

Figure 7.38 Leaves are pressed flat by the

pressure in the sedimentary layers and all
that is left is a dark area, like a shadow.
Whole body This is the most common type
of fossil. It consists of parts of
the remains of living things,
mainly the hard parts, e.g.
teeth, shells, bones.

Figure 7.39 Whole body fossils are also found

intact in a medium such as amber (tree resin
that has become fossilised).
Indirect or trace These fossils do not consist of
part of the organism. They are
indirect records of biological
activities, such as footprints,
teeth marks or burrow marks.

Figure 7.40 From a set of footprints, scientists

can tell how fast the animal was moving,
whether it was solitary or moved in groups,
and how heavy it was.

Table 7.3 (continued)

1 Recall how sedimentary rocks are formed. Quick check 7.7

2 List some examples of sedimentary rocks.
3 Distinguish between the five types of fossils discussed in this section.

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292 Chapter 7 ROCKS

How did it become extinct? Science as a human endeavour 7.2

The fossil record is the history of life as it is seen from fossils. It
can tell us about groups of animals that are extinct, such as dinosaurs, and how animals and plants relate to
each other. Unfortunately, the fossil record is incomplete because, as you investigated in Explore! 7.3, specific
conditions are required for fossilisation to take place. Not all dead things become fossils.
Interpretation of the fossil record has always
presented difficulties for paleontologists (scientists
who study fossils). For example, for many years it was
believed that the extinction of dinosaurs was gradual,
but in 1980 evidence was found of a meteor impact that
is now thought to have caused the mass extinction.
Disappearance from the fossil record also does not
always mean that a species is extinct; there may be
many other reasons for its absence from the record.
Paleontologists Steven Holland and Mark
Patzkowsky designed computer models to aid the study
of mass extinction, and are using the models to more
accurately decipher the fossil record. Their work is still
in progress; however, it provides an initial guideline for Figure 7.41 Computer models can aid research in various
fields, including the study of fossils.
analysis and assessment of extinction events.

Metamorphic rocks
The third type of rock in the rock cycle is
metamorphic rock. Recall that metamorphic
rocks are either igneous or sedimentary
rocks that have been irreversibly changed
by being subjected to high temperature or
pressure. The Earth’s crust is very thin in
proportion to its size, and rocks that lie
beneath the surface can be subject to high
pressure and temperature. The crystals
inside these rocks may become deformed
and the chemical nature of the rock may
Figure 7.42 Folded layers are a feature of
change. Rocks that have been changed into metamorphic rock.
metamorphic rock tend to be denser and
harder than before. Layers may become 10% of the Earth’s surface. Because of
twisted when rocks are metamorphosed. their toughness, they are often used for
building materials. For example, chalk
Over millions of years, these rocks can (sedimentary) is a very soft rock but
eventually make their way to the surface when it is exposed to high temperature
again. These rocks are found all over and pressure, it turns into limestone
the world and they constitute about (sedimentary). If limestone is then

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 293

subjected to even higher temperature metamorphic rocks are slate, which is

and pressure, it turns into marble metamorphosed shale (sedimentary),
(metamorphic). Can you think of what and quartzite, which is metamorphosed
VIDEO
marble is used for? Other common sandstone (sedimentary). Describe the
three rock
types

Figure 7.43 Chalk (left) is a sedimentary rock made from the skeletons of sea creatures. Limestone (middle) is a metamorphic form
of chalk. Marble (right) is a metamorphic form of limestone.

Heat, changes and pizza Try this 7.5

The same level of heat affects different foods to various extents. For example, in the pizza
shown below, the bread mostly appears the same before and after heating. The meat is caramelised. The grated
cheese has undergone major physical and chemical change, as it has melted and joined. What does this tell you
about the effects of heat on different materials? How can this apply to rock formation?

Figure 7.44 The same level of heat affects different substances differently.

1 In your own words, describe how metamorphic rock is formed. Quick check 7.8
2 List some examples of metamorphic rock and what they are made of.

Summing up Try this 7.6

Using the poster you began in Section 7.1, annotate it with information about the three
different rock types you have learned about, and their characteristics and examples.

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294 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Rocks and their uses Explore! 7.4

You encounter different types of rocks every day. Copy and complete the table below by
investigating some of these rocks and how they are formed.

Material Common uses Rock type and formation process

Granite Kitchens, bathrooms Igneous –
Pumice Removing dead skin Igneous –
Sandstone Ornamental decorations Sedimentary –
Slate Roofing, flooring Metamorphic –

Section 7.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 What name is given to rocks formed during a volcanic eruption?
2 What is the name given to rocks formed when sedimentary rocks change due to high temperature
and pressure?
3 Recall what sedimentary rocks formed from small rounded rocks are called.
4 Name five common fossil types.

Understanding
5 Outline how marble is formed and determine what type of rocks are involved.
6 Explain how the vertical layering of the rock forming Uluru indicates that the Earth is old.

Applying
7 Figure 7.45 shows the Organ Pipes rock formation at the Organ Pipes National Park in Victoria.
Use what you have learned about igneous rocks to explain how this formation came to be.

Figure 7.45 A set of basalt columns at Organ Pipes National Park in Victoria
continued…

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 Section 7.2 Types of rocks 295

…continued
Analysing
8 Examine the following igneous rocks. Decide which one is intrusive and which is extrusive. Explain your
reasoning by first recalling the difference between intrusive and extrusive.

Figure 7.46 Which one is intrusive and which is extrusive?

9 Analyse and classify the types of fossils shown in Figure 7.47.

a b c

Figure 7.47

Evaluating
10 Evaluate why the water in the Yarra River is brown (see Figure 7.48). Use the following terms in your
explanation: particles, sediment, weathering, erosion, deposit, rock.

Figure 7.48 Why is the water brown?

11 ‘A rock is clearly seen to be made of distinct and different layers. Therefore it must be a rock, not mineral.’
Evaluate this statement and explain your reasoning.

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296 Chapter 7 ROCKS

7.3 Classifying rocks

Classifying rocks is a skilled job, but it can

be simplified by knowing some of the key
WORKSHEET characteristics of the different rock types, as
well as the tests that can be done on rocks,
and by using a dichotomous key.

Figure 7.50 Asbestos is a dangerous mineral and should not

be handled.

Characteristics of the different

rock types
Recall that rocks are made of one or more
minerals and can be classified into three
groups according to how they have been
formed.
1 Igneous rocks – formed from cooling
Figure 7.49 Painite, the world’s rarest gem
magma. They can differ in colour and
texture. Some have holes because of gas
Are all rocks harmless? that is trapped as the lava cools. Some
are characterised by visible crystals.
Most rocks are harmless. However,
because the minerals in them are made of
chemicals, some can pose a hazard and need
ore to be handled with care. Beware of
a rock that can be mined and
smelted to produce a metal handling some metal ores, especially
those containing mercury, lead or
copper, and always wash your hands after
handling rocks. Asbestos, which contains
crystals in the form of fibres, is dangerous Figure 7.51 Examples of igneous rock are pumice (left) and
and should be avoided. diorite (right).

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 Section 7.3 Classifying rocks 297

2 Sedimentary rocks – formed from

Describing rocks Try this 7.7
layers of sediment being compacted and
In groups of three or four, take a careful
cemented together. They often appear
look at the rocks your teacher has supplied, and try to
grainy, and may contain fossils. They separate the rocks into groups. Some characteristics by
may be easy to crumble. which you may want to classify your rocks are size, colour,
hardness, crystal size and shape.

What tests can help us

classify rocks?
Some common types of rocks are easy to
Figure 7.52 Examples of sedimentary rock are rock identify, but others can be challenging.
salt (left) and limestone (right).
There are many different tests geologists
use to help classify a rock. Each test allows
3 Metamorphic rocks – igneous or you to identify the presence or absence
sedimentary rocks that have been of a chemical or the physical property of
subjected to high pressure. They often the substance, and this then allows you to
appear layered, and may have crystals classify the rock and name it.
arranged in bands.
Crystal size and shape
Does the rock contain crystals? Crystals are
a feature of rocks, especially igneous rocks.
Some rocks, such as quartz or diamond,
are one giant crystal. These are known as
crystalline rocks. Other rocks are made of
tiny crystals or have crystals that can only
Figure 7.53 Examples of metamorphic rock are be seen with a microscope. The shape and
gneiss (left) and granulite (right). size of the crystals can help in identifying
the rock. Earlier you learned that fast-
cooling magma can produce small crystals
Classifying rocks Explore! 7.5 in extrusive igneous rock, while slow-
You now know that cooling magma can produce larger crystals
rocks are made of minerals, there are
in intrusive igneous rock.
three groups of rocks, and that rocks
come in various shapes, sizes, colours
and other characteristics. Conduct
some research and find out how a rock’s
characteristics can be used to determine
whether the rock is igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic.
1 What are the characteristics of
igneous rock?
2 What are the characteristics of
sedimentary rock?
3 What are the characteristics of
metamorphic rock?
Figure 7.54 Table salt contains tiny crystals that are
cubic in shape.

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298 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Hardness
How hard is the rock? A useful method
to help identify rocks is to determine how
hard the rock surface is. In 1812, Friedrich
Mohs classified all minerals according to
their ability to scratch each other, on a scale
Mohs scale from 1 to 10. Any mineral with a
a scale from 1 to 10 that
indicates the hardness of
high Mohs scale number can scratch
a rock any mineral with a lower number.
The softest mineral, with a 1 on the Mohs
scale, is talc (metamorphic), and the hardest
is diamond (metamorphic) with a 10. Your Figure 7.56 Amethyst (mineral) is a translucent
fingernail is about 2.5 and a steel knife is crystal and can be found inside igneous,
metamorphic or even sedimentary rocks.
about 5.5. A set of tools called Mohs picks can
be used to determine where on the Mohs
Transparent rock, such as transparent
scale a mineral in an unknown rock lies. For allowing light to pass
diamond (metamorphic) and through, and a clear image
example, if a mineral can be scratched by can be seen through the
quartz (igneous), allow light substance
pick number 7 and not by pick number 6,
to pass through and images
then it has a hardness of 6.
are visible through them.

Behaviour in acid
3

Weak hydrochloric acid can be used to

test for carbonates. Bubbles form on the
5

surface of marble (metamorphic), limestone

(sedimentary) and chalk (sedimentary)
6
7

when acid is dropped onto their surface.

Rocks that do not contain carbonates will
9

not fizz or bubble in acid.

Figure 7.55 A set of Mohs hardness picks, which can be used to help
identify a rock by its hardness
Behaviour when struck
opaque Behaviour in light Some rocks break more easily in some
blocking light completely
Most rocks are opaque, which means directions than others. This feature is
translucent
allowing some light through, no light can pass through them. called cleavage and can help
but no clear image can be cleavage
seen through the substance Some are translucent, which means identify rock (such as slate, the tendency of a mineral
or a rock to break in a
light can pass through the rock but which is a metamorphic rock particular way because of its
structure
no clear image is visible through it. containing mica).

Figure 7.57 Slate (left) can be split into thin sheets for building. Slate is composed mostly of quartz and mica
(middle). Galena (right) is another mineral which, like mica, has an identifiable cleavage plane.

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 Section 7.3 Classifying rocks 299

Behaviour with magnets

Some iron-bearing rocks are attracted by a
magnet, and others are naturally occurring
magnets themselves. One of the most
common magnetic minerals found in rocks is
magnetite, named for its magnetic properties.

Figure 7.60 The streak test for gold (left) shows up as gold, while the
streak test for chalcopyrite (right) – also known as ‘fool’s gold’ – shows
up as dark green-grey.

1 What are ores? Why are some Quick check 7.9

ores harmful?
2 List seven characteristics that can be used to help
classify rocks, and explain each characteristic.
3 Which of the characteristics from the previous question
involves a chemical property?

Figure 7.58 Magnetite is a mineral found in

igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. It is Classifying and identifying
also found in meteorites.
rocks
The streak test In order to classify and identify types of WIDGET
A key to
When a rock is scratched onto a hard, sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic identify rocks

ceramic surface, it can leave behind a rocks, you need to use a magnifying glass
coloured streak, which is a more reliable and work your way through the different
indicator of its colour than the colour of its tests. A dichotomous key, like the ones you
surface. For example, gold and chalcopyrite used in Year 7, will also help.
streak test have a similar surface colour,
a test used to help identify a
so a streak test is useful to Table 7.4 gives the general characteristics of
mineral by scratching a rock
on a hard ceramic tile
distinguish between them. the three different rock types.

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

rock rock rock
• May contain • Grains are • Sometimes
holes cemented has a layered
• Crystals can together look
be small or • Can be soft • Can often
large be cleaved
• Usually hard to a straight
plane
• Ranges from
soft to hard
Figure 7.59 Examples of a streak test Table 7.4 Some characteristics of rocks

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300 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Practical 7.5

Identifying 12 common rocks

Aim
To practise identifying and finding patterns, by classifying 12 of the most common rocks found in the Earth’s
crust

Materials
• hydrochloric acid 0.1 M
• dropper
• beaker of water
• hand lens
• disposable gloves
• 12 Petri dishes for the hydrochloric acid test
• two of each of the following rocks: basalt, chalk, gneiss, granite, limestone, mica, pumice, quartz, quartzite,
sandstone, schist, slate

Figure 7.61 Twelve common rocks found on the Earth’s crust, in random order
continued…

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 Section 7.3 Classifying rocks 301

…continued
Method
1 Use this dichotomous chart to identify the rock and the rock type. You can work in 12 groups, each group
being responsible for one rock (each group will hold two rocks: one for the general test, and one for the
hydrochloric acid test).
Rocks are composed of one or more minerals. For this practical, if a rock is made up of only one type of
mineral, identify the rock as a ‘mineral’.

Yes Go to 2
1 Is the rock composed of crystals?
No Go to 5
Yes Mica (igneous,
2 Are the crystals flat and silvery? metamorphic)
No Go to 3
Yes Quartz (igneous)
3 Are the crystals large and transparent?
No Go to 4
Yes Sandstone (sedimentary)
4 Are the crystals small, easily removed by rubbing, and layered?
No Granite (igneous)
Do bubbles appear when acid is placed on the rock? Yes Go to 6
You will need to place the rock in the Petri dish and use the
5
dropper to place 1–2 drops of hydrochloric acid on the rock. Do No Go to 7
not handle the rock after hydrochloric acid has been added to it.
Yes Chalk (sedimentary)
6 Using a fresh rock, can the rock be scratched easily with a nail?
No Limestone (sedimentary)
Place the rock in a beaker of water. Does the rock float on the Yes Pumice (igneous)
7
water? No Go to 8
Yes Quartzite (metamorphic)
8 Is the rock translucent (allows some light to pass through)?
No Go to 9
Yes Gneiss (metamorphic)
9 Does the rock have visible layers that may be curved or bent?
No Go to 10
Yes Schist (metamorphic)
10 Does the surface of the rock appear to be made up of plates?
No Go to 11
Yes Slate (metamorphic)
11 Does the rock break to form layers with a flat surface?
No Basalt (igneous)
Figure 7.62 Dichotomous key for rock identification

2 Once you have identified your rock, label it. When all the rocks have been identified, sort them into the four
groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks and rocks made up of only one type of mineral.
Copy and complete the results table.

Results
Copy and complete this table to identify common characteristics of the different types of rocks.

Rocks made up of Igneous rocks Metamorphic Sedimentary

only one type of rocks rocks
mineral
Common
characteristics
continued…

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302 Chapter 7 ROCKS

…continued
Evaluation
1 Recall what the hydrochloric acid test reveals about the rock material.
2 Discuss why you think pumice floats in water.
3 Design some rules and a different dichotomous key or chart to classify rocks as minerals, or igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Identify any difficulties you encounter in doing this.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding the difference between the different types of rocks. Start your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that it is possible/not possible to identify rock type based on … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the characteristics of rock types. Start your sentence with:
‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

It used to be hotter Science as a human endeavour 7.3

Studying the first billion years of the Earth’s evolution has always
been uncertain. It is difficult to compare ancient rocks with modern rocks, as the original rocks have often been
destroyed or changed over time. Researchers at Louisiana State University have shown that komatiites (three
billion year old volcanic rocks) were formed from the hottest lava that ever erupted on Earth. Temperatures were
close to 1600°C, which is about 400°C hotter than the volcanic eruptions in modern-day Hawaii!

Figure 7.63 Komatiite

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 Section 7.3 Classifying rocks 303

Section 7.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 List seven characteristics that can be used to help classify rocks.

Understanding
2 Igneous rocks may contain holes. Explain why this is the case.
3 Sedimentary rocks often look like the grains are cemented together, and they are often soft.
Explain why this is the case.
4 Metamorphic rocks sometimes have a layered look. Explain why this is the case.

Applying
5 Identify the following rocks, using the dichotomous key in Practical 7.5.
a The rock in Figure 7.64 does not bubble b The rock in Figure 7.65 does not bubble
when acid is placed on it. when acid is placed on it.

Figure 7.64 Figure 7.65

c The rock in Figure 7.66 bubbles when d The rock in Figure 7.67 does not bubble
acid is placed on it. It cannot be when acid is placed on it. The crystals
scratched with a nail. are not easily removed.

Figure 7.66 Figure 7.67

Analysing
6 Using the rocks in Question 5 and the dichotomous key in Practical 7.5, determine the rock
type of each rock, and explain how the appearance of each rock links to the rock type.

Evaluating
7 ‘All types of rock can be classified according to their physical characteristics only’. Assess
whether or not you agree with this statement.

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304 Chapter 7 ROCKS

7.4 The mining process

Some minerals are useful to humans and 1 Exploration

can be mined. Mining is the process by
Before any mining project begins, mining
WORKSHEET which minerals and other useful materials
companies enlist the expertise of geologists
are extracted from the Earth. Salt, slate,
to scout areas and search for mineral
gold, marble and coal can be used as they
deposits. It is important that they find out
are found. Others need to be processed to
the quality of the mineral and the size of the
make useful products such as metals, or
VIDEO site in which the mineral is deposited. This
The mining building materials such as cement.
process is to determine whether it would be cost
effective for the mineral to be mined, as a
The mining process has several stages:
mining project is extremely expensive once
exploration, planning and design,
it has started.
construction, mining, processing and closure.

Figure 7.68 Geologists sampling rocks during iron ore exploration in the outback (Pilbara, Australia)

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 Section 7.4 The mining process 305

PMI guns Science as a human endeavour 7.4

In modern mining, new technology is available to confirm a
geologist’s identification of a rock, in just a few seconds. A positive material identification (PMI) gun uses
high-energy radiation (X-rays) to excite the material in a rock, and records the response. Each different
material has a unique response, like a fingerprint. By
analysing the signal given out by the rock, the percentage
of each element can be found.
Geologists use a technique seismology
called seismology to determine the the use of shockwaves to
investigate the structure of
structure of the rocks that lie beneath rocks underground
the surface. An explosive charge is
detonated at a location and, as the sound travels down, it is
reflected from the layers beneath the surface. Once an area
has been identified, a thin cylinder of rock, called a core
sample, is extracted to positively identify any minerals found.

Figure 7.69 Miners can use a PMI gun to determine

the composition of a rock. Figure 7.70 Core samples taken from a diamond mine

2 Planning and design

If the results of the exploration strongly
suggest that mining in a certain area would
yield good results, then the project moves
into the planning stage. Collaboration
occurs among project managers, mining
engineers, finance consultants and other
experts to design safe, sound, economically
viable and socially responsible plans.

Figure 7.71 Social responsibility in planning includes

considering how a new mine will affect society and the
natural environment.

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306 Chapter 7 ROCKS

3 Construction Underground mining underground mining

traditional method of
is highly skilled and can mining by digging tunnels
After research, planning and permits
also be dangerous. The underground to extract ore
are approved, the project moves to the
advantages of underground mining are
construction stage. This may involve building
that there is generally little impact on
roads, mining facilities and housing.
the environment, and minerals can be
extracted from deep underground.

Another method of mining surface mining

is called surface mining, method of mining that
extracts a mineral by digging
or open-cut mining. Large an open pit

quantities of a mineral can be extracted

using this technique. Surface mining
can only be used if the mineral is close
to the surface. This method has become
much more common in recent years,
especially for the extraction of metal
ores. It is relatively safe compared with
underground mining, but there is a
significant impact on the environment.
Coal and iron ore are usually mined in
Figure 7.72 Constructing a mining site involves many people, such as this way in Australia.
construction workers, builders, landscape architects and engineers.

4 Mining
Mining is the process by which the
minerals are recovered, using various
tools and machines. When you think
of mining, most people imagine an
underground tunnel, which is a technique
of mining that goes back to Roman times.

Figure 7.74 An open-cut coal mine in New South Wales.

Australia supplies about 20% of the world’s coal and about
Figure 7.73 An underground coal mine 40% of the world’s iron ore.

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 Section 7.4 The mining process 307

Mining extraction processes Explore! 7.6

There are four main types of mining. Underground mining and surface mining are two
of these; the other two are placer mining and in-situ leach mining. Research these methods and answer the
following questions.
1 What is involved in placer mining and in-situ leach mining?
2 List some advantages and disadvantages of all four types of mining.
3 Which of the mining types are most environmentally friendly? Justify your answer.
4 Describe some of the ethical issues that need to be considered with regards to mining.

World’s first fully automated mine Explore! 7.7

Use your preferred web browser to search for ‘Syama automated mine’. Do some research
with regards to advances in mining technology and automation, and answer the following questions.
1 Identify the advantages of fully automated mining technology.
2 Assess the concerns that fully automated mining may present. Do you think these concerns are justified?

Copy and complete the following table to summarise what you have learned about the Quick check 7.10
mining process so far. Remember, there are still two stages to go, so leave space in your
table for these stages.

Mining process Details Examples of people involved

1 Exploration
2 Planning and designing
3 Construction
4 Mining
5
6

5 Processing
Recall that ore is rock that contains the metal ore consists of the metal combined
metal being mined. There are several ways with oxygen in the rock. The ore is heated
to process the ore so that only the intended in the presence of carbon (charcoal) and a
metal is extracted. chemical reaction takes place.

yields
Grinding metal oxide + carbon → metal + carbon dioxide
The ore is usually first crushed so that the
pieces are smaller and easier to process. The extraction of metals, ores and other
materials from the earth has a very long
Smelting history. Archaeologists have named two
smelting The process of extracting the periods of human history, the Bronze Age
the process of getting a
metal from rock by heating it metal from its ore is called and the Iron Age, according to the metals
to a very high temperature
smelting. Basically, the that people were producing at that time.

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308 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Purifying + –
Electricity can be used to purify an impure
sample of metal, in a process called
e–
electrolysis electrolysis. The sample is connected
a method of extracting
a metal from its ore or to a positive terminal, and a pure
purifying it using electricity
piece of the metal is connected to the e–
Zinc
negative terminal. The terminals are placed
in a solution containing the metal and, Iron
when the circuit is connected, the metal Copper Copper
slowly moves through the solution from Pure
Gold
positive to negative. Any impurities are copper
Silver
deposited near the positive terminal. When
Copper sulfate
this is done with copper, the impurities may solution
contain valuable metals such as gold.
Figure 7.75 Electrolysis in purifying copper

Practical 7.6

Electrolysis of copper
Aim
To see how metals can be purified using electricity, and to demonstrate electroplating

Materials
• 2 copper plates to act as electrodes
Be careful
Ensure personal protective equipment is
• 2 alligator leads
worn. All materials and solutions are to
• an old metal fork or spoon
be collected. Electrical shocks may occur.
• copper sulfate solution, 0.5 M
Ensure the voltage output is not exceeded.
• beaker
Turn off the power supply when changing
• 3 V DC power supply
the circuit.
Method
Part 1
1 Place two copper electrodes in a beaker containing a solution of copper sulfate.
2 Connect the electrodes to a battery or low-power direct current supply (make sure it is switched off when you
do this) using alligator leads.
3 Switch it on and leave it for a while. The cathode will slowly grow, and the anode will become smaller.
4 Switch the power supply off.

Part 2
1 Replace the copper plate connected to the negative terminal with a fork.
2 Switch the power supply on. Copper will move from the other plate to the fork. When it reaches the fork, it will
be deposited on the surface and a thin layer of copper will appear. This is called electroplating.

Results
Record your observations for each part of the experiment.
continued…

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 Section 7.4 The mining process 309

…continued
Evaluation
1 Describe what you think happened when the power supply was switched on in Part 1 of the experiment.
2 Deduce some uses for electroplating, which you saw in Part 2 of the experiment.
3 Distinguish between electrolysis and electroplating.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding electrolysis and purifying metals. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that the process of electrolysis … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed of the crystal sizes. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed
that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

6 Closure and rehabilitation

state it was in before the mine was built.
The final step in mining is closure and For example, if it was agricultural land, then
rehabilitation. When the resources in a the plan would involve trying to restore the
mining site have been exhausted, the site land to its original level of productivity.
closes down, all facilities are packed up Rehabilitation involves scientists,
and a rehabilitation plan is developed. The government personnel, bush regenerators
purpose of this is to return the land to the and local wildlife experts, among others.

Rehabilitation and biodiversity Did you know? 7.6

Rehabilitation of the land also takes into consideration
the native plants and animals that were in the site
before it was mined. Disturbed areas are reshaped to
reflect their original state as closely as possible, and
care is taken to preserve plant species. An example
of mining rehabilitation is the Woodcutters lead–zinc
mine in the Northern Territory, which was closed in
1999. In 2002 it was acquired by Newmont, a mining
corporation, which has rehabilitated and monitored the
site as part of its commitment to sustainable business,
in partnership with the Kungarakan and Warai
people, who are the traditional owners of the land.
The rehabilitation process has several stages, and the
latest stage started in 2018, with the planting of wetland
vegetation. The final goal is to hand back the land to
the traditional owners.

Figure 7.76 Another example of rehabilitation is the Westside

Mine, a coal mine near Lake Macquarie in New South Wales
The rehabilitation was completed in 2012, two months after
operations stopped.

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310 Chapter 7 ROCKS

The mining industry in (sedimentary) is used to make cement; and

Australia when sand is combined with small amounts
of limestone and sodium carbonate,
The mining industry is one of the most
heated until it melts and allowed to cool, it
important industries in Australia. Table 7.5
becomes glass.
shows a summary of some of the metal
resources mined in this country.
Gemstones such as diamonds and opals
are mined in Australia, and gemstone
It is not just metals that are mined or
mining is a major source of income for
quarried. Stones are used to make roads.
some Australian towns. Coober Pedy, for
Coal (sedimentary) is mined as a source of
example, is the largest opal mining area in
energy; Australia is ranked fourth in the
the world.
world in terms of coal supply. Limestone

Resource Details
Iron Australia is the world’s largest exporter of iron ore.
Uranium The worldwide nuclear power industry needs
uranium ore as fuel. There are no nuclear power
stations in Australia, but 10% of the world’s
uranium is mined here.
Gold Australia’s early history was highly influenced
by gold, as many immigrants came during
the gold rush days. Gold mining is still a large
industry and ore containing even a small amount
of gold is mined, because it is so valuable. Gold
mines in Australia account for 9% of the world’s
production and some of these mines are huge
operations, occupying many hectares. Figure 7.77 An Australian opal. Australia produces 80% of the
world’s opals.
Table 7.5 Some important metals mined in Australia

Figure 7.78 A gold mine in Western Australia

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 Section 7.4 The mining process 311

Figure 7.79 Coober Pedy

is an opal mining town
in South Australia.

1 Add the last two mining processes to your table from Quick check 7.10. Quick check 7.11

Mining process Details Examples of people involved

5 Processing
6 Closure and
rehabilitation

2 List some of the metals, rocks and minerals mined in Australia.

Section 7.4 questions

Remembering
1 Recall the steps of the mining process, in chronological order. QUIZ
2 Name three processes that can be used in the processing stage of mining to obtain the
intended metal.
3 List some metals and resources that are significant for the Australian mining industry.

Understanding
4 Explain the importance of performing the exploration stage before designing a mine.
5 Outline how geologists determine the content and structure of the rocks under the surface.

Applying
6 List an example of technological progress in the mining industry and explain how it helps
the mining process.

Analysing
7 Give at least two advantages and disadvantages of open-cut or surface mining compared
with underground mining.

Evaluating
8 Evaluate why electroplating with silver or gold is a very popular technique in jewellery making.

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312 Chapter 7 ROCKS

Review questions

Remembering
1 Why is the centre of the Earth still hot, despite the fact that the Earth is very old?
SCORCHER
2 Name the two types of igneous rock.
3 Name the process of extracting metals from their ores.
4 Recall the stages in the formation of sedimentary rock.
5 Name the two conditions that are required for metamorphic rocks to form.

Understanding
6 Distinguish between rocks and minerals.
7 Propose how you can physically distinguish between a rock and a mineral.

Applying
8 Figure 7.80 shows limestone in the Naracoorte caves of South Australia.
a Identify the property of the limestone that allows the caves to form.
b What is the geological name for this type of weathering?

Figure 7.80 Naracoorte caves, South Australia

Analysing
9 Examine the image in Figure 7.81 and determine whether it is a rock or a mineral.

Figure 7.81

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 Chapter 7 REVIEW QUESTIONS 313

10 a Infer the geological process that b One feature of metamorphic rock

occurred to produce the formation is that it can appear layered. The
shown in Figure 7.82. rock shown in Figure 7.83 is layered.
However, it is sedimentary rock.
Evaluate why this might be the case.

Figure 7.82 Figure 7.83

Evaluating
11 A rock is made of a single crystal. Evaluate whether or not this rock is a mineral, and explain
your reasoning.
12 a The sedimentary rocks in Figure 7.84 b Figure 7.85 shows a fossil lying on a
are lying at an angle. Determine the beach. Deduce where the sedimentary
geological event that might have rock would have come from.
caused this to happen.

Figure 7.84 Figure 7.85

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314 Chapter 7 ROCKS

STEM activity: Underground bunkers and asteroids

Background information
VCSSU102 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
A bunker is a structure built underground for
people to shelter or live in, protecting them from
dangers on the surface of the Earth. For example,
many homes in parts of the world that are prone to need to have access to food, fresh water and toilets,
tornados have a bunker to protect the home owners. and somewhere to sleep. Engineers calculate
During the Second World War, many major cities the amount of space that will be required for the
had huge bunkers built beneath them, to protect number of people intending to use the bunker.
residents from bombs. Engineers also need to consider the type of rock
When designing a bunker, engineers need to and soil that the bunker will be built beneath. They
think about how people live and what requirements work alongside geologists to determine suitable
exist for people to be able to live underground for a locations, with rock that is not too soft, so it will
period of time. They obviously do not need to take support the structure of the bunker, and not too
creature comforts into account, but people will still hard, so it is not too difficult to cut into.

Figure 7.86 A bunker provides protection from dangers above.

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 STEM activity UNDERGROUND BUNKERS AND ASTEROIDS 315

of rocks and soil in a large container, place your

Design brief: Design an underground bunker
model bunker in the middle and test its strength by
to survive the imminent impact of an asteroid!
dropping several different masses from the same
height. Record the largest mass that your bunker
Activity instructions can withstand before being damaged.

BREAKING NEWS: AN ASTEROID IS HEADING

FOR EARTH!
Suggested materials/presentation
Scientists have calculated that the asteroid will
formats
collide with Earth in 20 days. The impact will be • large plastic container
so destructive that all humans will need to stay in • soil and crushed rock
bunkers underground for at least three months. • cardboard
Your team of engineers has been tasked with • icy pole sticks
building an underground bunker for the people • scissors
in your local area. There are several factors that • sticky tape
you will need to take into consideration before • glue
designing and constructing your bunker. • masses
• How many people live in your local area, and
who need to be housed? Evaluate and modify
• What volume does the bunker need to be?
1 Describe some of the difficulties you
Consider that each person will need a bed
encountered while calculating and estimating
(can be double or triple bunks) plus some extra
the amount of space people will need to live in.
communal space for a kitchen and a bathroom
2 Did you need to make compromises about
area. Decide how high the ceilings need to be,
quality of life for the people living in your
and calculate the volume required using length
bunker, to save space? Explain how you came to
× width × height.
your decisions.
• You will need to research the most common
3 Describe some modifications you could make to
types of rock that are found in your area, and
your bunker to withstand more force.
their rating on the hardness scale. Decide on a
4 Evaluate the feasibility of constructing a bunker
location for your bunker, based on the rock types
located within the rock type you have chosen.
you have found in your research.
You will need to test your bunker for impact
resistance by building a scale model. Using layers

Figure 7.87 Only 20 days to find cover!

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316

Chapter 8 Energy

Chapter introduction
This chapter provides an introduction to the different forms of energy that we encounter in our
everyday lives.
The idea of energy is already familiar to you. Your senses can detect several types of energy – your
eyes detect light, your ears detect sound, and your skin can feel hot and cold. You use your muscles
to move, gaining kinetic energy, or to lift things, giving them gravitational potential energy. The food
you eat contains chemical energy, which allows you to move and keep warm. The cells in your brain
are constantly exchanging electrical energy, and your nervous system uses electrical energy to send
messages between your brain and the rest of your body.
Our homes are full of machines that use energy for lighting, cooking, cleaning, heating, cooling
and entertainment. You will learn about how energy can be converted from one form to another, always
leaving the total amount of energy the same. This is because energy cannot be created or destroyed;
it can only be only changed from one form to another. It is also true that mass can be transformed
into energy. In the final section you will learn how the energy we use in our homes is generated, and
investigate whether the methods used are renewable and sustainable.

Curriculum
Energy appears in different forms including movement (kinetic energy), heat, light, chemical energy and
potential energy; devices can change energy from one form to another (VCSSU104)
• recognising that kinetic energy is the energy possessed by moving bodies 8.1
• recognising that potential energy is stored energy, for example, gravitational, 8.1
chemical and elastic energy
• using flow diagrams to illustrate changes between different forms of energy 8.2, 8.3
• investigating the energy transformations in devices, for example, a catapult or a 8.2, 8.3
water wheel

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 317

Glossary terms
chemical potential energy heat radioactive
conduction hydroelectric power renewable
conductor input energy rotational kinetic energy
convection insulator solar energy
efficiency joule sound energy
elastic potential energy kinetic energy sustainable
electrical energy law of conservation of energy temperature
electromagnetic spectrum light energy thermal energy
energy magma travelling wave
energy transfer non-renewable turbine
fossil fuel nuclear energy useful energy
generator output energy waste energy
geothermal energy potential energy wave energy
gravitational potential energy radiation

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318 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Concept map

There are various types of energy.

8.1
8.2
8.3
Fundamental
forms of
energy

Kinetic Potential
energy energy (PE)

Other types of energy are forms of kinetic energy,

potential energy or a mixture of the two

Thermal energy Gravitational PE

Wave energy Electrical PE
Sound energy Chemical PE
Light energy Elastic PE

Kinetic transfer

Energy transfer
Thermal energy transfer
Energy is
Energy transformation
conserved

Energy efficiency

Applications of energy include:

• Efficiency in housing
• Sustainability of non-renewable sources
• Developing methods of harvesting renewable sources

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 319

8.1 What is energy?

WORKSHEET

energy Energy is the ability to Objects that are spinning also have rotational kinetic energy
the capacity to do work; the
total amount of energy is do work or make things kinetic energy, but this energy is the energy an object has
because it is rotating
conserved in any process
happen. It can’t be created or called rotational kinetic energy.
destroyed – that is, the amount of energy in
our universe is always the same. However, Potential energy
energy can change form, be transferred Some objects can store energy until it is
from one object to another, or stored for ready to be used. This stored energy is VIDEO
later use. For all the different called potential energy, because it has Types of
joule stored energy
the unit of energy or work types of energy, the unit of the potential to do work or make things
done
measurement is joules (J). happen. For example, a stretched rubber
band has stored elastic potential energy.
Our senses enable us to experience energy The energy is not being used at that
potential energy
in different ways such as heat, light and point, but it has the potential to make the energy stored in
something because of its
movement. There are several different ways something happen. Some forms of height above the ground, or
because it is stretched or
to classify these different types, but actually stored energy are summarised in compressed, or in chemical
there are just two fundamental forms of Table 8.1. form

energy: kinetic energy and potential energy.

All the other forms are one or other of Form of potential Description
these, or a mixture of the two. energy
Gravitational potential Energy stored when an object is lifted
Kinetic energy energy (GPE) off the ground; energy released when
The energy an object has when it is the object falls
moving or spinning is called kinetic Electrical energy Energy stored in electrostatic situations
energy. The amount of (eg thunderclouds, capacitors); energy
kinetic energy
the energy an object has energy depends on the mass released when current flows (includes
because it is moving
of the object and its speed. sparks like lightning)
Chemical potential Energy stored in chemicals such as
energy fuel and in batteries (when connected
to an electric circuit, the chemical
energy is converted to electrical
energy); energy released in a
chemical reaction
Elastic potential Energy stored when an object is
energy stretched or compressed; energy
released when object returns to
original size and shape
Nuclear energy Energy stored in unstable (radioactive)
atoms; energy released when atoms
decay or undergo fission or fusion in
unstable (radioactive) atoms
Figure 8.1 Fast-moving cars have a lot of kinetic energy. Table 8.1 Forms of energy that can be stored

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320 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Forms of energy we can detect with The total thermal energy depends on all
our senses three factors. For example, a warm bath
We can detect kinetic energy with our contains a lot more thermal energy than
senses, and there are other types listed in a burning match. This is because, even
Table 8.2. Although these are forms of though the match has a higher temperature,
kinetic or potential energy or a mixture of the the hot bath is much bigger, and water is
two, it is still useful to treat them as different very good at storing thermal energy.
forms of energy for practical purposes.
Increasing the temperature of water is one
Form of energy Description of the most expensive energy costs in the
Thermal energy The energy in an object home, because hot water requires a lot of
due to the random heating and therefore thermal energy.
motion of its particles
Wave energy The energy carried by
a wave Figure 8.2 A warm bath contains more thermal
Sound energy The energy carried by a energy than a burning match.
sound wave
Light energy The energy carried by
light (electromagnetic
energy)
Table 8.2 Types of energy, other than kinetic
energy, that we can sense

Forms of energy
Thermal energy
In Year 7 you learned in particle theory
that heat is related to the vibration and
heat movement of the particles of matter.
thermal energy that is in
transit due to differences in
So heat is related to the kinetic
temperature energy of particles of matter. Now
thermal energy
the kinetic energy of
that you are in Year 8, you can use
particles of matter the more technical term for ‘heat’
temperature
a measure of the average
and that is thermal energy. To
kinetic energy of the
particles making up the
change an object’s temperature
material thermal energy needs to be
either added (to raise it, i.e. heating) or
subtracted (to lower it, i.e. cooling). The
amount of thermal energy in an object
depends on three things:
• temperature – hotter objects have more
thermal energy than identical cold objects
• mass – heavier objects have more
thermal energy than lighter ones of the
same material and temperature
• material – some materials are better at
storing thermal energy than others.

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 321

Practical 8.1

Investigating thermal energy

Aim
To investigate the heating of different volumes of water when provided with the same amount of energy

Materials
Be careful
• microwave oven
Ensure safety equipment is worn at all
• glass beaker
times. Do not stand over beaker once it
• thermometer
has come out of the microwave oven.
Method
1 Put 200 mL of water in a beaker and measure the temperature. Record this in your results table.
2 Remove the thermometer and place the beaker in the microwave for 30 seconds.
3 Stir the water and measure the final temperature after it has been heated. Record in your results table.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 using 300 mL, 400 mL and 500 mL of water. Make sure the glass beaker is cooled between
experiments, so that the initial temperature is the same. It might save time to start with four identical beakers
with water at room temperature.

Results
Complete the following table with your results.

Volume Initial temperature Final temperature Change in Volume × change in

(mL) (°C) (°C) temperature (°C) temperature
200
300
400
500

Evaluation
1 How did the change in temperature differ between volumes of water? Discuss your results.
2 What do you think would happen if a different liquid was used? Explain the reasoning behind your prediction.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding temperature change and volume, from this experiment. Start your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that the temperature increased … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential faults with the experiment. Start
your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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322 Chapter 8 ENERGY

1 Recall the unit for energy. Quick check 8.1

2 Look at Figure 8.3 and identify
some of the different forms of energy you can see.

Figure 8.4 Water waves can have a lot of energy.

Water waves are not the only type of waves

that can carry energy. Waves can travel
through the Earth after an earthquake.
These are also an example of a travelling
wave. They occur when the ground
suddenly moves, and can transmit a huge
amount of energy.

Figure 8.3 Birthday parties always involve energy!

3 Define the term ‘thermal energy’ of an object.

4 List the three factors that the total thermal energy of any
object depends on.
5 Explain why a warm bath contains more thermal energy
than a burning match.

Wave energy
Water waves carry wave energy as the waves
move on the surface of the water. The waves Figure 8.5 An earthquake-damaged road in New Zealand

can vary in size from small ripples formed

wave energy when a stone is thrown into water, Sound energy
the energy carried by a
travelling wave (e.g. an all the way up to ocean swell, long Sound energy is a form of sound energy
ocean swell) or trapped in a
standing wave (e.g. a guitar waves that travel along the surface of wave energy; it consists of a form of travelling wave;
sound consists of vibrations
string) the ocean. Because waves in water are vibrations in the air. You will in the air
travelling wave
a wave that can carry energy
generally able to move from place to learn more about sound in the
from one place to another place, they are called travelling waves. next chapter.

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 323

Printing using sound Science as a human endeavour 8.1

Researchers at Harvard University have developed
a method of printing using sound waves. The
researchers used sound to control the size
of the droplet being ejected from the printer
nozzle, regardless of the viscosity (thickness) of
the liquid. A higher amplitude of sound wave
makes a smaller droplet. A wide range of liquids
can be used, which means this technology has
applications in many different industries, from
pharmaceuticals to food.

Figure 8.6 Using sound waves in printing

Light energy 1 Provide five examples of objects Quick check 8.2

Light energy is a special kind that could have kinetic energy.
light energy of wave that is part of the 2 Give two types of wave energy.
a form of energy that we can
see with our eyes; part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
electromagnetic spectrum
Light can travel through air
electromagnetic
spectrum or through a vacuum (such as Gravitational potential energy
a way of organising
electromagnetic waves space). You will learn more When an object is lifted, it gains gravitational potential
according to their frequency
about light in the next chapter. gravitational potential energy. energy
a type of mechanical
‘Gravitational’ means related to the energy; the energy an
object has because of its
Light waves Did you know? 8.1 pull of the Earth, and ‘potential’ means height; GPE = mgh
A light wave is made the energy is stored for later. Gravitational
up of energy in the form of magnetic and electric potential energy (GPE) depends on three
fields. These fields vibrate at right angles to the
things: the strength of gravity, the mass of
wave’s direction of movement and at right angles to
the object, and the height the object is lifted.
each other.

Electric field

Magnetic field

Figure 8.7 A light wave has an electric field and a

magnetic field.
Figure 8.8 Rock climbers gain gravitational
potential energy as they climb.

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324 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Investigating energy with a Try this 8.1 Tiny charges Did you know? 8.2
bouncy ball An electron is
Take a bouncy ball and hold it higher than your head. Allow so small that the unit we use for charge
the ball to fall onto the floor and continue bouncing until it contains 6.24 million million million
comes to rest. electrons.
Describe the transformations involved as GPE changes
to KE until the ball stops. Explain where elastic potential
energy fits in. energy as they do. Voltage (V) is related to
the amount of electrical energy each electron
carries. For example: AAA batteries supply
Electrical energy 1.5 joules of electrical energy per unit of
electrical energy Electrical energy is carried by tiny, charge, so they have a voltage of 1.5 volts;
energy carried by electricity
moving in a wire; voltage is
negatively charged particles, called cell phones operate at 5 volts; car batteries
used to measure how much electrons, that can move from one are 12 volts; in Australia, electricity in the
energy is carried by each
unit of eletricity atom in a wire to the next, carrying home is 230 volts.

Lightning strikes Did you know? 8.3

Electrical energy can be very dangerous when it causes a large electric current to flow
through the body. The highest voltages on Earth are in lightning strikes, which can be hundreds of millions of
volts. Think about lightning strikes: what other forms of energy are released when lightning strikes?

Figure 8.9 Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela holds the Guinness World Record for the highest concentration of lightning strikes.
The phenomenon is called 'Catatumbo lightning', named after the river which empties into the lake.

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 325

1 List some types of energy that can be stored. Quick check 8.3
2 Look at the following image of a playground. Explain where you would stand, to have
the greatest gravitational potential energy.

Figure 8.10 Where is GPE greatest?

3 Figure 8.11 shows a roller coaster. Roller coasters are a great example of GPE. Answer the following
questions, remembering that as an object loses GPE, it gains KE (kinetic energy).

B
D
E

Figure 8.11 Roller coaster

a Identify the step (A, B, C, D or E) where the cart would have the greatest GPE.
b Identify the step where the cart would have the greatest KE.

Chemical potential energy (chemical • Trees store chemical potential energy in

energy) their wood, and it is released when the
Many substances contain stored chemical wood is burned.
potential energy, which can be released in a • The food we eat contains chemical
chemical reaction. For example: potential energy, which is released slowly
• W hen fireworks are lit, in our bodies, giving us the energy we
chemical potential
energy chemical potential energy need to keep warm and move around.
the energy stored in the
molecules of a chemical is released as heat, sound • Cars that use petrol as fuel have engines
and light. that convert the chemical energy in
petrol to kinetic energy, heat and sound.

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326 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Figure 8.12 Fireworks over Melbourne. Fireworks contain chemical potential energy, which is released when the fireworks are lit.

Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy is energy that is Figure 8.14 A bungee cord stores elastic potential energy
stored whenever an elastic material is either when it is stretched.
stretched or compressed by a force. For
elastic potential energy example, energy is stored in a rubber
the energy stored when
an elastic material is band when it is stretched, and in a
compressed or stretched rubber ball when it is compressed.
Trampolines, bungee cords and metal
springs are all examples of objects that
can store elastic energy. Another name for
elastic potential energy is ‘spring energy’.

Figure 8.13 A giant rubber band stores energy

when it is stretched.

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 327

Exploring elastic Try this 8.2 Nuclear energy and the Sun Did you know? 8.4
potential energy Energy can also be released when
Take a rubber band and stretch it as two smaller atoms join to make a bigger atom, in a process
tightly as possible. Explain how the called fusion. The Sun generates all its energy from this
stretched rubber band is an example of process. In fact, it is not just the Sun – the whole universe is
potential energy. Point the rubber band full of stars that are fusing hydrogen into helium, releasing
at the wall and let it go. Explain how the light and heat as they do so. Two atoms of hydrogen are
potential energy stored in the band was fused to make one atom of helium, and a small amount of
converted to a different form of energy. mass is turned into a large amount of heat.

Nuclear energy
The nucleus (plural nuclei) of an atom
contains nuclear energy,
nuclear energy
a non-renewable source of a form of potential energy.
energy that uses the energy
released by the nucleus of Most atoms are stable and
radioactive atoms
don’t release the energy but
radioactive
having or producing the the radioactive atoms of
energy that comes from the
breaking up of atoms some elements break down,
emitting electromagnetic
wave energy and/or particles with kinetic
energy. The energy released shows up as
heat when absorbed by the surrounding
material. One kind of radioactivity is called
fission (‘splitting’). Nuclear power stations
use fission reactions in radioactive material
such as uranium to produce thermal energy
which in turn is used to generate electricity.

Unfortunately, such radiation can be

Figure 8.15 Nuclear energy has allowed the Sun to keep shining for
hazardous to health. Great care has to be at least 4 billion years.
taken to prevent people being exposed to it
in nuclear power stations.

1 State three examples of chemical potential energy. Quick check 8.4

2 Explain when elastic potential energy is stored.
3 State the name of the process in which energy is released from the nucleus when it breaks apart or releases
a particle.

A world without energy Try this 8.3

Think about a world in which there is no electrical energy. Suppose there was no light or
sound energy either. Could life exist in such a world? Write down a few sentences to say if you think it could,
and what it would be like. Now imagine that there is no potential or kinetic energy of any type. What would that
world be like? Discuss and collate your ideas as a class and see if you agree.

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328 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Section 8.1 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Copy and complete the table below.

Form of energy Definition Is this an

example of
potential energy?
Kinetic energy
Energy an object possesses
when it is lifted
Chemical energy Yes

2 Describe a situation that involves elasic potential

energy.
3 Describe how sound energy travels.
4 Recall the three factors that determine how much
thermal energy is present in an object.
5 State the form of energy contained in a piece of wood.
6 State the form of energy a piece of wood gives out
when it burns (Figure 8.16).
Figure 8.16
Understanding
7 Explain what is meant by the term ‘potential energy’.
8 Explain why it is harder to stop a bicycle when it is
going downhill than when it is going uphill.
9 Identify the form of energy other than heat gained
when a person climbs stairs (Figure 8.17).
10 Identify the forms of energy emitted by lightning
(Figure 8.18).
11 Identify a form of energy that is not a form of wave Figure 8.17
energy.
12 Identify the forms of energy possessed by a hot air balloon when it is aloft (Figure 8.19).
13 Identify the main form of energy that peanuts contain.

Figure 8.18 Figure 8.19

continued…

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 Section 8.1 What is energy? 329

…continued
Applying
14 Look at the diagram in Figure 8.20 and use it to answer the following questions.

Potential energy
B
C
A

Figure 8.20

a Which letter represents the position where the ball has the most GPE?
b If the ball moved from C to A, would there be an overall gain or loss of GPE?
15 Explain which balloon in Figure 8.21 has the most elastic potential energy.

A B
r
Ai

Figure 8.21

Analysing
16 Analyse the following list of energy sources, and rank
them from most used to least used in your household.
Electrical energy
Chemical energy
Sound energy
Light energy
Thermal energy
17 List all the different forms of energy that you can see
evidence of in Figure 8.22.

Evaluating
18 List the devices in your home that use energy. Include
at least two that don’t use electricity, and at least one of Figure 8.22
these should be a manual (unpowered) device. For each
device in the list, state the form of energy used as the input (that operates them) and the forms of energy that
they output (include the ‘useful’ output as well as the outputs that represent wasted energy).

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330 Chapter 8 ENERGY

8.2 Energy is conserved

Objects possess energy, and energy can

be changed from one form to another.
WORKSHEET
When energy changes from one form to
another, it obeys the
law of conservation of energy
the law that states that energy cannot be law of conservation of
created or destroyed
energy, which states
that ‘Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed’. In any process, the amount of
energy present at the beginning must equal
the amount of energy present at the end,
taking into account all the energy gained or
lost. In everyday life this law always holds.
However, early in the last century, Einstein
found an exception. He discovered that Figure 8.23 Street lights in Melbourne. The law of
conservation of energy means the amount of electrical
mass and energy are equivalent and can be energy used by each light is exactly the same as the
converted into one another! amount of heat and light energy given out.

Where does the Sun get its energy from? Did you know? 8.5
Einstein stunned the world when he proposed that mass can be converted into energy
(and vice versa), according to a simple and famous formula:

E = mc2

In this formula, E = energy, m = mass and c = the

speed of light (3 × 108 m/s). Basically, the formula
means that a small amount of mass can be
converted into a lot of energy, or the reverse.
This explains where the Sun has been
getting its energy from, to shine so bright for
so long. Deep inside the Sun, nuclear reactions
are converting 4300 million kilograms of matter
into energy every second. This energy is
emitted at the Sun’s surface as heat and light.
Will the Sun ever run out of fuel? Luckily for
us, the answer is: not for a very long time. The
Sun is so big that, even at its current rate, much
less than 1% of its mass has been radiated away
since it was formed. Current estimates indicate Figure 8.24 The Sun will not run out of fuel any time soon – phew!
that it will be at least 1.75 billion years before
the Earth becomes uninhabitable.

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 331

1 State the Quick check 8.5

law of Hot Cold
conservation of energy.
2 Explain the meaning of the law of
conservation of energy. Before:
Heat flows from hot to cold.

Energy transfer
Warm Warm
Kinetic transfer
Energy is the ability of an object to do work,
and this energy can be transferred from one After:
object to another. This is The objects are the same temperature.
energy transfer
the movement of energy
from one place or object to
known as an energy transfer. Figure 8.26 Heat (thermal energy in transit) flows
from hot to cold, until the objects are at the same
another For example, a golf club has
temperature.
kinetic energy when it swings through the
air. When the club hits a golf ball, this
kinetic energy is transferred to the ball,

Insulator
making it move. Hot Cold

Before:
The flow of heat is reduced by the insulator.
Insulator

Hot Cold

After an hour or two:

The temperature of the objects
has not changed much.
Figure 8.27 If an insulator, such as plastic or foam,
is placed between the hot and cold objects, the
heat flow between them is reduced.

There are three different ways in which

Figure 8.25 A golfer preparing to transfer kinetic energy
thermal energy can be transferred from a
from the golf club to the ball hot object to a cold object:
• conduction
Heat transfer • convection
• radiation.
Thermal energy is another type of energy
that can be transferred. If a hot object is
conduction
placed next to a cold object, thermal energy the process by which thermal energy travels through a
material or between materials from hot regions to cooler
will flow from the hot object to the cold regions by the collisions of molecules
object. The thermal energy will continue convection
the flow of thermal energy though a fluid material by
to flow until the objects are the same the movement of the material itself, often caused by
temperature differences.
temperature. Thermal energy always flows
radiation
naturally from hot to cold, never the other one of the three ways that thermal energy can travel, and
way around. the only way that heat can travel through a vacuum

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332 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Conduction How would holding the hot drink feel

When heat is transferred between particles different if it was a polystyrene cup?
of matter (molecules), it is referred to as Or a metal cup? Some substances, such as
conduction. A hotter particle, object or metals, are good conductors conductor
a substance or material that
region naturally transfers thermal energy of heat. Other materials, allows heat to pass through
it easily
to a colder particle, object or region. When such as polystyrene, do not
insulator
substances are heated, their particles start conduct heat well and so we a substance or material that
does not allow heat to pass
to vibrate faster. If a hot faster-vibrating call them insulators. through it easily
particle bumps into a cooler slower-
vibrating one, it transfers some energy to
Heat-sensitive slime Try this 8.4
it. This causes the cooler slower-vibrating
You will need:
particle to vibrate faster, making it hotter. 1
• 4 cup PVA glue
• 1 tablespoon of water
Note that conduction does not happen
• food colouring
only in the solid state. A hot solid surface
• 3 teaspoons of thermochromatic pigment
transfers heat to cooler gas or liquid 1
• 4 cup liquid starch.
particles in contact with it by conduction.
Mix together the glue, water and food colouring.
Then mix in the thermochromatic pigment. Add half
of the liquid starch and mix until combined. Your
slime should be thick and slimy.
Mix in the rest of the starch, bit by bit, until well
combined. Your slime will no longer be sticky.
Figure 8.28 A time sequence showing heat flowing through the Observe what happens as the slime cools.
particles of a solid by conduction. The heat source (not shown) is When it is hot, it will be the colour of the food
on the left of the particles. At first only the particles next to the heat colouring. When it is cold, it will be the colour of the
become hot and vibrate. They bump into the particles next to them,
which warm up, and so on. thermochromatic pigment.

Conduction occurs when you warm up your Convection

hands when holding a hot drink. Your hands
Convection is the flow of thermal
warm up because thermal energy is being
energy through a liquid or a gas caused
transferred from the mug to your hand.
by movement of the liquid or gas itself.
Heating water in a pot and warming up a
room with an oil heater are both examples
of heating via convection.

Have you ever heard the saying, ‘Hot air

rises’? That’s because it does. When a liquid
or a gas is heated, the particles vibrate faster
and the liquid or gas expand. This means
that the hot regions are less dense than the
cooler regions, and so the hotter regions
rise. Figure 8.30 on the following page
shows water in a pot being heated from the
bottom, causing the hot water to rise. The
cold water sinks and takes its place at the
Figure 8.29 Warming up your hands with a hot bottom, and is heated. This cycle is called a
drink on a cold day is an example of conduction. ‘convection current’.
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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 333

• Particles move faster Radiation

• Particles spread out
Any hot object radiates heat. You do not
• Hot fluid is less dense
and rises need to be in contact with the object to
feel the radiant heat. This is why you can
feel the warmth of a radiant heater when
you stand in front of it, or feel the Sun’s
warmth when you are outside. Radiant
heat travels in waves because it is a form
of electromagnetic radiation (infrared
radiation). It does not rely on particle
movement. Your toaster also works via
radiant heat. The bread does not touch
the source of heat but gets toasted because
Cold of the transfer of thermal energy through
water Cold
sinks Hot water
space by radiation.
water sinks
rises

• Particles move slower

• Particles come together
• Cold fluid is more dense
sinks
Figure 8.30 When water is heated, the hotter less dense water
at the bottom rises and the colder more dense water sinks to
take its place.

Convection is a major factor driving weather

patterns. The Sun heats the Earth’s surface,
warming the air, which then rises, creating
an upward current in the atmosphere. That Figure 8.31 Bread being toasted via radiant heat transfer
current can result in wind, clouds or other
weather. Within the Earth, convection
How do animals stay warm? Explore! 8.1
currents move layers of
magma Conduction, convection and radiation all
molten rock under the magma. In the oceans,
Earth's surface play an essential role in nature. All warm-blooded animals can
convection creates currents.
generate their own body heat, and radiate thermal energy.
Cold-blooded animals need to lie in the sun to get warm.
Convection spiral Try this 8.5 Research how animals living in cold environments
Take a piece of paper prevent heat loss via conduction, convection and radiation.
and cut out a spiral that is 6 cm in
diameter. Attach a piece of string to the
centre of the spiral. Turn on a desk lamp
and shine it towards the ceiling. Hold 1 Define the term ‘energy Quick check 8.6
the spiral by the string, suspended 10 cm transfer’.
over the top of the lamp. Observe what 2 Provide three examples of energy transfer.
happens, and explain why. 3 Explain how thermal energy travels around a liquid or a gas.

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334 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Practical 8.2: Self-design

Self-design: Modelling heat transfer

Aim
To design your own experiment that models the three types of heat transfer

Materials
• metal, wooden and plastic spoons
• water
• Bunsen burner
• tea bags and tea leaves
• ice blocks
• radiant heater

Method
Design an experiment that demonstrates the three types of heat transfer. In a group, discuss ways in which you
could do this. Choose the best method and write a step-by-step method for how you will carry out the experiment.

Results
Record your observations for each of the experiments in an appropriate manner.

Evaluation
1 Explain how your self-designed experiments demonstrated how thermal energy is transferred through
conduction, convection and radiation.
2 Propose some ways in which your experiments could have been improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding how thermal energy can be transferred. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that thermal energy … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered, and include potential sources of error in any
measurements you make. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Powered by the Sun Science as a human endeavour 8.2

Researchers have discovered a new material
that could provide solar thermal power cheaper,
and of course solar power has zero greenhouse
gas emissions. By combining ceramic zirconium
carbide and the metal tungsten, scientists at Purdue
University have created a composite material
that can withstand high heat and pressure. This
technology will allow heat exchangers at solar
thermal power plants to run at extremely high
temperatures, generating electricity more efficiently.
It is also more efficient to store energy as heat rather
than in batteries. This may make solar thermal power
stations an attractive alternative to solar power
Figure 8.32 A solar furnace like this turns the Sun's radiation
stations that use photovoltaic panels which convert into heat, reaching above 3500°C. Such a furnace could be
sunlight directly into electricity.. used to generate electricity, though this one in France is used
for research into materials at high temperatures.

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 335

Energy transformations Some energy flow diagrams may have

intermediate steps involving another form
There are many ways in which energy can
of energy. For example, a battery-powered
be converted from one form to another.
torch has a more complex energy flow
Combustion involves burning, and converts
diagram (see Figure 8.35).
chemical energy into heat and light.
Machines use fuel or electrical Investigating an electric kettle
generator
a device that converts energy and convert it into An electric kettle uses electrical energy to
rotational kinetic energy
into electrical energy, the kinetic energy. Generators, boil water. It contains a heating element
opposite of a motor
powered by steam turbines, that gets hot when electricity passes through
turbine
a device that converts the can convert kinetic energy it. The heating element then heats up the
kinetic energy of a fluid
into rotational motion, for into electrical energy. water in the kettle to 100°C, at which point
example a windmill
In leaves, the biological the water boils.
processes in photosynthesis convert light
energy from the Sun into chemical energy
in the form of carbohydrates, such as sugars.

Energy transformations can be represented in

a flow diagram (see Figure 8.33). On the left-
hand side of the flow diagram are the energy
inputs. On the right-hand side are the energy
outputs. Waste energy may be included as an
energy output, but is sometimes omitted. A
brief description of how the machine works
may be placed between them, and arrows can
be added to show the flow of energy.

Input Description of Output

energy the machine energy

Figure 8.33 A simple energy flow diagram

Figure 8.36 An electric kettle converts electrical energy into thermal energy.

For example, Figure 8.34 shows the energy

flow diagram for a candle that has been lit. Figure 8.37 shows a flow diagram
representing the changes in energy in the
Light example of the kettle.
energy
Chemical
The candle
potential energy
is lit Turn on the kettle Thermal energy
(candle wax) Electrical
Thermal to allow the (hot water and
energy
energy electricity to flow steam)

Figure 8.37 Energy flow diagram for an electric kettle

Figure 8.34 Energy flow diagram for a candle burning

Light
energy
Chemical Press button Electrical Electricity
energy to complete energy passes through
(battery) the circuit (wires) light bulb
Thermal
energy

Figure 8.35 Energy flow diagram for a battery-powered torch

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336 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Quick check 8.7

If the car was powered by an electric
1 Explain what
occurs during
battery, then the energy flow diagram would
an energy transformation. be slightly different (Figure 8.40).
2 Provide two examples of an appliance
Chemical Electrical Kinetic
that transforms energy. Car
energy energy energy
accelerates
(battery) (wires) (car)

Figure 8.40 Flow diagram for a battery-powered car

Investigating a car accelerating accelerating from rest
from rest
A petrol-powered car accelerating on a flat Transforming potential energy Try this 8.6
road uses its engine to convert the chemical into kinetic energy
potential energy of the fuel into kinetic Stand with your legs far apart and your arms above
energy as the car increases its speed. your head, in a star-jump position. Discuss what
type of energy you are storing as you hold this
position. As you complete a star-jump, think about
what type of energy your stored energy is being
transformed into. With your classmates, discuss
which parts of your star-jump contain stored energy
and which parts use kinetic energy.

Investigating a bow and arrow

When a bow is stretched to shoot an arrow,
the wood bends with an elastic force, and
this stores energy. The further the bow is
pulled, the more energy is stored. When
the arrow is released, the elastic potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy as the
arrow increases its speed.

Figure 8.38 An accelerating car is gaining kinetic

energy.

Figure 8.39 shows a flow diagram for a

Figure 8.41 A bow converts elastic potential energy
petrol-driven car accelerating from rest. to kinetic energy.

Chemical Kinetic Elastic Arrow Kinetic

Car potential energy
energy energy is
accelerates energy (bow) (arrow)
(petrol) (car) released

Figure 8.39 Energy flow diagram for a petrol-driven Figure 8.42 Energy flow diagram for an arrow being
car accelerating from rest shot from a bow

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 337

Investigating a hot air balloon Investigating an aircraft taking off

The operation of a hot air balloon involves Sometimes a machine can convert a
two energy changes. When the hot air balloon source of energy into two forms at the
VIDEO
first takes off, chemical potential energy is same time. When an aeroplane takes off, Energy
transformations
stored in the form of natural gas (in the gas it starts moving slowly from one end of in a hot air
cylinder in the basket of the balloon). When the runway and then accelerates under balloon

the gas is burned, it releases thermal energy, full power until it leaves the ground at
which heats up the air in the balloon. The air the other end. When it first starts its
in the balloon expands as it warms up, and take-off, the jet has chemical potential
this makes the air inside the balloon lighter energy stored in the form of aviation fuel
than the air around the balloon. The balloon in its tanks. The fuel is ignited in the jet
then rises, due to buoyancy forces, gaining engines to create a force that accelerates
kinetic energy and gravitational potential the aircraft along the runway, gaining
energy as it gains altitude. kinetic energy as it does so. When the

Chemical Thermal Hot air expands Gravitational

Gas burns to
potential energy to create a Kinetic energy potential energy
create hot air
energy (gas) (air) buoyancy force (balloon)

Figure 8.43 Energy flow diagram for a hot air balloon

Figure 8.44 A hot air balloon converts chemical energy to thermal energy, then kinetic energy as it moves,
then gravitational potential energy.

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338 Chapter 8 ENERGY

aeroplane reaches sufficient speed,

Kinetic
it lifts off and gains gravitational energy 45%
potential energy as it rises into the air. (aircraft)

Look closely at the picture of the aircraft Gravitational

taking off, and you can see that the air potential energy 15%
behind the aircraft’s engines is blurred. (aircraft)
Chemical Fuel burns in
This is because it is hot. The thermal energy, 100% the jet engines
(aviation fuel) to create thrust
energy produced by the aircraft’s engines Thermal
should be added to the energy flow energy 39%
(waste)
diagram. Aircraft are also very noisy
when taking off, so sound energy is
also produced. To describe the flow of Sound
WIDGET
energy in an aircraft engine, you need to energy 1%
Energy forms and (waste)
transformations remember to include waste energy, such
as heat and sound. Figure 8.47 Energy flow diagram for a jet aircraft
taking off, with waste energy added

percentages of each type of energy have also

been added. These can be included if they
are known. Remember, the input energy
the energy that a machine
total amount of input energy or device uses as its source
of energy
must exactly equal the total
output energy
output energy when waste the energy that a machine or
device provides or wastes
energy is included.

In this example, the useful energy is

kinetic energy (45%) and gravitational
potential energy (15%), which adds up to
60%. This means that 60% of the energy
input is converted to useful energy and the
Figure 8.45 An aircraft converts chemical potential energy to kinetic efficiency rating of the aircraft’s engines is
energy and gravitational potential energy. 60%. The other 40% is wasted through heat
and sound energy.
Kinetic
energy
1 Draw flow Quick check 8.8
(aircraft)
Chemical Fuel burns in diagrams for
potential energy the jet engines
(aviation fuel) the following energy transformations.
to create thrust
Gravitational a A television converting electrical
potential energy
energy to sound and light
(aircraft)
b A light bulb converting electrical
Figure 8.46 Energy flow diagram for a jet aircraft taking off energy to light and heat
c A human converting chemical
In Figure 8.47, the two forms of waste potential energy from food into
energy have been added to the flow diagram kinetic energy when moving
for the jet aircraft. The approximate

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 339

Practical 8.3
Spool racer
Aim
To demonstrate how a rubber band can store and transform energy

Materials
• wooden spool (from spools of thread) Spool
• rubber band
• washer Rubberband
• toothpick
• tape Tape
Pencil Washer
• pencil
Toothpick
Method
1 Insert the rubber band through the
hole of the spool so some of it is
sticking out at
each end.
2 Insert a toothpick into the rubber band
loop that sticks out of the spool hole,
and tape the toothpick and rubber band
loop to the spool. Break off any length of the toothpick that is wider than the spool diameter.
3 On the other side of the spool, insert the other end of the rubber band through a washer.
4 Insert a pencil through the rubber band loop that sticks out from the washer.
5 Give the pencil two twists, so it winds up the rubber band inside the spool.
6 Set the spool and pencil down on a counter or floor and let go.
7 Record your results as per the results table.
8 Increase the number of twists for subsequent trials and repeat steps 6–7.

Results

Trial Number of turns of Observations

rubber band
1 2
2
3

Evaluation
1 Describe what happens as the spool racer is released.
2 Explain where the energy used to drive the racer comes from.
3 Describe what happened as the number of turns of the rubber band increased.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding energy storage and transformation in rubber bands. Start your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that rubber bands … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’ .
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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340 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Energy efficiency Examples of efficiency calculations

Example 1
efficiency The efficiency of a machine is a
the percentage of input A kettle uses 261 500 J of electrical energy
energy that is converted to measure of how good the machine
useful energy by a machine to heat 500 mL of water. If the thermal
is at converting the input energy
useful energy energy of the water is 209 200 J, calculate
the output energy that to useful energy. The percentage
a machine is designed the efficiency of the kettle.
to produce; an efficient
of input energy that is converted
machine will maximise the to useful energy is used to give the useful output energy
useful energy it creates Efficiency (%) = × 100
machine an efficiency rating. input energy
209 200
The formula used to calculate the efficiency = × 100
261500
rating of a machine is:
= 80%
useful output energy
Efficiency (%) = × 100 Example 2
input energy
A girl runs upstairs and uses up 4000 J
of energy from food she has eaten. If she
gains 1000 J of gravitational potential
energy, calculate the efficiency of
her muscles.

useful output energy

Efficiency (%) = × 100
input energy
1000
= × 100
40000
= 25.0%

The other 75% would be waste energy, lost

mainly as heat as she climbs.

Figure 8.48 Running upstairs converts chemical energy into GPE.

Calculating energy efficiency Try this 8.7

Calculate the energy efficiency of each of the globes shown below. State which globe is no
longer recommended for household use, and justify your choice.

Light Light
Light 720 J 1800 J
360 J
Heat
2880 J Heat
Heat 1800 J
3240 J
3600 J 3600 J 3600 J

Filament Fluorescent LED

Figure 8.49 How efficient is each type of globe?

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 341

Waste energy A two-step example is a battery-powered

An electric light uses electrical energy torch. The input energy source is
to create light as useful energy; any heat chemical potential energy in the battery.
waste energy produced is waste energy. This is converted first to electrical energy
the output energy that a
machine creates that is not A petrol-driven lawnmower and then to light energy in the bulb, with
useful; waste energy is often
in the form of thermal energy
converts chemical energy in some waste heat also. In the same way, a
and sound the petrol into kinetic energy battery-powered radio converts chemical
and rotational kinetic energy, with heat and energy (in the batteries) to electrical
sound as waste forms of energy. energy, then to sound.

Useful energy is the output energy the

process is designed to produce. Waste
energy is any other form of energy, usually
heat or sound, that is not wanted.

Figure 8.50 A petrol-powered lawnmower

When a candle burns, chemical potential

energy is converted by combustion into
light, with heat released as waste energy.
A television converts electrical energy to
light and sound, which are useful, and Figure 8.51 A battery radio converts chemical
thermal energy, which is waste. energy in the batteries into sound energy.

Efficient light globes Did you know? 8.6

Old-fashioned incandescent light bulbs work by passing electricity through a thin
metal filament, which glows white hot. However, about 90% of that electrical energy is transformed into thermal
energy. These days, compact fluorescent lights (CFLs) and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are more efficient.
About 50% of the electrical energy is wasted as heat.

1 Define ‘energy efficiency’. Quick check 8.9

2 Give an example of the useful and waste energy produced by each of the
following devices.

Device Useful energy output Waste energy output

Light bulb
Car
Lawnmower

3 A light bulb uses 3000 J of electrical energy. Of this, 600 J is transformed into light energy and 2400 J is
transformed into thermal energy. Calculate the energy efficiency of this globe.

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342 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Practical 8.4: Self-design

Energy efficiency of bouncy balls

Aim
To investigate which type of bouncy ball is most energy efficient

Materials
• a range of bouncy balls
• meter rulers

Method
Design an experiment that will test the rebound height of a range of bouncy balls. In a group, discuss how you
will carry out this experiment, and write out a step-by-step method.

Results
Record your results in a results table.

Evaluation
1 By using the energy efficiency equation, calculate the efficiency of each type of ball. Use the drop height and
the rebound height in your calculations.
2 Identify sources of uncertainty in your experiment.
3 Suggest how your experiment may be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding bouncy balls and energy efficiency from this experiment. Start your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that the bouncy balls … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error in any measurements
you made. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Section 8.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Describe the difference between an energy transfer and an energy transformation.
2 Recall the three ways in which heat can be transferred.
3 Complete the following sentences.
Heat naturally moves from a ____________ object to a ____________ object. A liquid or gas is
generally heated through the process of ____________. Heat moves through ____________ in
a process called conduction.

Understanding
4 Using the law of conservation of energy, explain why a light bulb gives off thermal energy.
5 Explain how the Sun’s thermal energy reaches Earth, if space is a vacuum.
6 Explain why the process of convection is important in nature.
7 Describe the energy transformation that occurs in the Sun.
8 Describe four situations that involve potential energy.
continued…

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 Section 8.2 Energy is conserved 343

…continued
Applying
9 Draw an energy flow diagram for each of the following situations.
a A stone is dropped from the top of a building.
b A car is slowing down as it moves up a hill.
c A charcoal fire is burning in a barbeque.
d A bungee jumper jumps from the top of the jump to the bottom.
e An electric tram starts from rest and builds up to full speed.
f A person rides on an escalator from the bottom to the top.
g A sheepdog runs up a hill.

Figure 8.52 Figure 8.53 Figure 8.54 Figure 8.55

Analysing
10 Think about all the different types of energy we encounter every day – driving a car is one example. Pick
another example and suggest how you can make the process more energy efficient.
11 Look closely at Figure 8.56.
a Identify the components of the playground that involve gravitational potential energy.
b Suggest ways in which elastic potential energy could be incorporated into this playground setting.

Figure 8.56

Evaluating
12 Cars are energy inefficient. State the input form of energy and the useful and wasted forms of energy.
Propose some other forms of transport that are more energy efficient.

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344 Chapter 8 ENERGY

8.3 Applications of energy

Energy in housing Energy ratings

Most appliances have an energy rating
In our homes, there are machines or
WORKSHEET label. This is to help people make an
appliances that we use in our daily lives.
informed decision about an appliance they
Some appliances use little energy, others
are thinking of buying, by giving them
use a lot, some are very efficient and some
information about its energy efficiency.
are inefficient. The energy source for most
appliances in the typical home is
solar energy The star rating of an appliance allows you
a renewable source of mainly electricity, although gas and
energy that converts sunlight to compare the energy efficiency of similar
directly into electrical solar energy are also widely used.
energy or thermal energy models. The more stars an appliance has,
Items that use little energy, such as
the more energy efficient it is. The label
radios and torches, can use batteries as the
also informs you of the energy consumption
source of energy.
of the appliance. The lower this number,
the less it will cost to run the machine.
One of the big expenses in maintaining
a home is the cost of energy. Electricity
and gas are both expensive; however,
solar energy is free (once you have paid
for the solar panels and their installation).
Electricity can be generated on the roofs of
houses, using solar panels. Thermal energy
from the Sun can also be used to heat water
directly, using solar water heaters.

Figure 8.57 This house has solar panels on the roof to generate
electricity. It also has two panels (at the top right-hand side of the
picture) for generating hot water. Figure 8.58 Energy rating label on a washing machine

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 Section 8.3 Applications of energy 345

Home electricity audit Try this 8.8

Use the Australian Government’s ‘Energy rating calculator’ website to audit the energy
efficiency of appliances around your house. You may choose to investigate your TV, washing machine,
dishwasher or fridge. Compare how much it costs to run each appliance for a year.
Which appliance costs the most to use? Choose one appliance and compare its yearly running costs with a
classmate. Who has the more cost-saving model?

Homes of the future Explore! 8.2

Imagine it is the year 2100. The way homes are designed and constructed has changed, as
we have been tackling energy efficiency problems. Passive housing has become commonplace. Passive housing
means designing houses so they are as efficient as they can be without having to rely on technology such as
heaters and air conditioners. Go online to research the following questions.
1 What is passive housing?
2 What are the benefits of passive housing?
3 Which parts of a house lose and gain the most thermal energy?
4 Explain the five design principles of passive housing.

Net zero home Science as a human endeavour 8.3

Leading climate scientist Mark Z. Jacobson is
helping the world transition to renewable energy
sources. To show us how it can be done, he has
built a ‘net zero’ home, which uses only renewable
energy sources.
The house features a thermal shell, which
acts as an insulating layer and reduces heating
requirements, and is equipped with solar panels.
Battery packs store any extra energy generated by
the solar panels. This alone is enough to not only
meet the energy needs of the home, but to put
power back into the grid.
Figure 8.59 An illustration of a net zero house

Figure 8.60 The house has battery packs to store solar energy.

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346 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Practical 8.5

Insulation
Aim
To test different materials for their insulating properties

Materials
• 6 empty soft drink cans • sticky tape
• 6 thermometers • measuring cylinder
• a range of materials to test insulation • funnel
• hot water

Method
1 Cover each can in a different material, leaving one can with no covering.
2 Fill each can with 100 mL of hot water using a funnel. Ensure the water is as close to 80°C as possible when
you start measuring.
3 Measure the temperature in each can every 5 minutes, for 20 minutes.
4 Record your results in the results table.

Results
Copy and complete the following table.

Can covering Temperature (°C)

0 min 5 min 10 min 15 min 20 min
None
…

Evaluation
1 Which material was the best insulator? How did you know this?
2 Which of the three methods of heat transfer is responsible for the most heat loss from the can?
3 How can the results from this experiment be used in the construction industry when considering energy
efficient/passive housing?
4 Are you confident that you would get the same result if you repeat the experiment? Were there any sources of
error and, if so, how could you reduce or minimise these?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding materials and insulation properties. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that various materials … ’.
2 Support your claim by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error. Start your sentence
with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

1 Name one type of renewable energy that can be easily used in households. Quick check 8.10
2 Explain how you can easily compare the energy efficiency of two models of a
washing machine.
3 Explain why it is beneficial to buy energy-efficient appliances, even though they can be more expensive than
other models.

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 Section 8.3 Applications of energy 347

Energy problems make the production of energy more efficient

and to reduce the effect of energy production
You may remember from Year 7 that
on the environment. Some of the main ways
some energy sources, such as wind and
of generating energy are summarised below.
solar, will never run out. Methods of
energy production that do not use up
natural resources are called
renewable
can be produced as quickly renewable. Other energy
as it is used
sources, such as coal, oil and
gas, are not renewable. Once these sources
run out, they are gone forever.

Another major consideration in choosing

an energy source is the effect it has on the
environment. Some methods of energy
production, such as burning coal, create
pollution that damages the environment.
In addition, when wood, oil, gas or coal
is burnt, greenhouse gases, which have
the potential to cause climate change, are
created. Methods of energy production Figure 8.62 A wind-energy turbine with a coal-fired power station in the
background
that are non-polluting or
sustainable
causing little or no damage have a small effect on the Non-renewable sources
to the environment and
therefore able to continue environment are called of energy
for a long time
sustainable.
Coal
Fossil fuels are a non-renewable fossil fuel
source of energy. Most deposits of a non-renewable source of
energy obtained from oil,
coal formed 300 million years ago coal or gas

during the Carboniferous Period. non-renewable

existing in limited quantities
This was 100 million years before that cannot be replaced after
they have all been used
the dinosaurs, when the Earth was
warm, wet and covered with giant forests.

Figure 8.61 The production of greenhouse gas from burning

fossil fuels is leading to habitat loss for many animals,
including polar bears in the Arctic.

The demand for energy has increased

steadily since the Industrial Revolution
300 years ago, and it is still increasing today
as more countries become industrialised. Figure 8.63 An open-cut coal mine in Australia, showing how coal is
Scientists are constantly looking for ways to formed in layers

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348 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Figure 8.64 The Loy Yang power station converts the chemical potential energy in coal into
electrical energy.

Light energy from The coal is

the Sun was converted burned and Electrical
Thermal Kinetic
to chemical energy by boils water Turbine Generator energy
energy energy
plants which became to make (supply)
coal over time steam

Figure 8.65 Energy flow diagram for a coal-fired power station

Eventually the forests died and layers of Nuclear energy

sand, which later turned into rock, covered Nuclear energy is an option for countries
the dead trees. Deep underground and that have the technology to build nuclear
under high temperature and pressure, the power stations. Unlike all other forms of
remains of the forest trees changed into coal. energy production, nuclear energy does not
rely ultimately on the Sun. Instead, the fuel
Coal is mined and then transported to comes from radioactive materials, mainly
a power station to be used to generate uranium, found within the Earth’s crust.
electricity. When all the coal has been used These materials were inside the Earth when
up, there will be no more left. That is why it formed, around 4.5 billion years ago. The
coal is considered non-renewable. mass of fuel required is a tiny fraction of the
fuel required to run a coal-burning power
The energy flow diagram for a coal-fired station. Although the materials used in
power station is shown in Figure 8.65. nuclear power generation are not renewable,

Nuclear Radioactive
Electrical
energy decay Thermal Kinetic
Turbine Generator energy
(radioactive releases energy energy
(supply)
atoms) heat

Figure 8.66 Energy flow diagram for a nuclear power station

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 Section 8.3 Applications of energy 349

it is unlikely that the world will ever run will run out. This has led to a great deal
out of nuclear fuel. Nuclear power stations of research into finding and implementing
do not release greenhouse gases and though renewable energy sources.
potentially reliable and inexpensive, may not
be so in practice. Wind energy
Wind energy is a renewable energy source
Although nuclear energy has the potential in which electrical energy is generated
to supply the world’s energy needs when using large wind turbines, usually built in
fossil fuels start to run out, there are some groups, called wind farms. The advantage
problems with nuclear energy that need to of wind energy is that, once the wind
be taken into account. Can you remember turbine has been built, wind energy is free,
the problems associated with nuclear energy non-polluting and available at night. The
from your investigations in Year 7? main disadvantage is that it depends on the
availability of the wind. For this reason,
Australia is the world’s Did you know? 8.7 the energy that wind turbines produce is
third-largest uranium intermittent and must be combined with
producer, after Kazakhstan and Canada. a storage capability, such as a battery, to
All the uranium mined in Australia is exported, provide a continuous energy supply.
because there is no nuclear power plant here to
use it. However there is a nuclear reactor at Lucas
Heights on the outskirts of Sydney operated by
the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation. It is used for research and nuclear
medicine purposes. It generates 20 MW.

1 Define the term ‘non- Quick check 8.11

renewable’.
2 Recall the types of non-renewable energy
sources used in Australia.
3 State where non-renewable energy sources in
Australia can be found.
4 State how and why the demand for energy has
changed over the years.

Renewable energy sources

Most people recognise that our current
use of fossil fuels cannot be sustained Figure 8.67 Wind turbines are a striking sight in the
indefinitely, because eventually these fuels countryside.

A generator
The wind
Kinetic converts
Kinetic energy of pushes the Electrical
energy kinetic
the wind, caused by the blades of energy
(turning energy to
heat from the Sun the wind (supply)
blades) electrical
turbine
energy

Figure 8.68 Energy flow diagram for a wind turbine

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350 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Solar energy
Solar energy is a renewable energy source.
Solar panels are used to convert the energy
in sunlight directly into electrical energy
and can also supply energy to provide hot
water. The advantages of solar panels are
that the energy they produce is free once
the initial cost is met, and they are non-
polluting to use. When solar panels are
combined with storage batteries, they can
provide a constant supply of energy, as the
Figure 8.69 Solar panels at Royalla in New South Wales batteries store energy during the day and
release it at night.
Chemical
energy
(storage Hydroelectric power
battery)
Interacts with Hydroelectric power is hydroelectric power
Light energy the solar panel
(sunlight) to make
generated by using the a renewable source of energy
harnessing the gravitational
electrical energy gravitational potential energy potential energy of water to
Electrical generate electrical energy
energy
of water held in dams to drive
(for use) turbines that generate electricity. You may
recall from Year 7 that dams are designed
Figure 8.70 Energy flow diagram for a photovoltaic solar panel with a so that the water surface is as high above
storage battery
the turbines and generators as possible. The
water’s gravitational potential energy is then
converted to kinetic energy by turbines at
the base of the dam or as far below it as
possible. These turbines turn generators
that convert this kinetic energy into
electrical energy.

Some countries are mountainous and

are well suited to hydroelectric energy
generation. Norway, for example,
generates around 95% of its energy in this
way. In Australia, hydroelectric energy
accounts for around 6% of total energy
Figure 8.71 In this hydroelectric power station in the Snowy Mountains,
production. The biggest single producer
water is carried by gravity through the pipes shown from a dam located of hydroelectric power in Australia is the
near the top of the mountain down to turbines and generators in the power Snowy Mountains Scheme.
station, converting gravitational potential energy into electrical energy.

Gravitational Water flows Kinetic Turbine Electrical

potential energy through the energy turns energy
(water in dam) turbine (turbine) generator (power lines)

Figure 8.72 Energy flow diagram for hydroelectricity generation

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 Section 8.3 Applications of energy 351

Geothermal energy
geothermal energy Geothermal energy is,
thermal energy that originates
from inside the Earth in practical terms, both
sustainable and renewable.
Recall Table 7.2 in the previous chapter:
its source is thermal energy left over from
the Earth’s formation, plus thermal energy
produced by radioactive decay, as with
nuclear energy. Recall also that the Earth’s
crust may be fractured or thin, and at these
locations, it is possible to drill down to
find rocks hot enough to boil water. Cold
water is pumped down to this hot rock.
The water boils, producing steam, which is
brought to the surface and used to generate
Figure 8.73 The Wairakei Power Station in New Zealand
electrical energy. uses geothermal energy to produce electricity.

Thermal
energy
from Earth’s Water Thermal Electrical
Kinetic
formation pumped energy Turbine Generator energy
energy
into rock (steam) (supply)

Nuclear energy Thermal

in radioactive energy
elements

Figure 8.74 Energy flow diagram for geothermal energy

1 Define the term ‘renewable energy source’. Quick check 8.12

2 Recall some different types of renewable energy.
3 Draw a flow diagram to show the energy transformations that occur while producing electricity from
wind turbines.

Turning waste into energy Explore! 8.3

A lot of energy in modern life goes unused in the form of food scraps and animal wastes.
A UK-based company is trying to change that, and harness the power of detritus (waste material). Use the website
of SEaB Energy (a UK company that converts organic waste into energy) to answer the following questions.
1 Why is food and animal waste such an issue for the world and the environment?
2 Explain how SEaB Energy’s two main products, the Muckbuster® and the Flexibuster®, work.
3 Draw a flow diagram showing the energy transformations that would occur in harnessing energy from food
and animal waste.

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352 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Section 8.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 List the fossil fuels used to provide energy in Australia.
2 Recall approximately how many years ago coal deposits were formed.
3 State some sources of energy that harness water.
4 Describe the main reason behind switching to renewable energy sources.

Understanding
5 Explain how energy is produced using thermal energy from the Earth.
6 Draw an energy flow diagram for a hydroelectric power station.
7 Explain the difference between the terms ‘renewable’ and ‘sustainable’.
8 Explain why nuclear energy is not considered renewable.
9 Explain how non-renewable energy sources are causing global warming.
10 Explain why each of the renewable sources of energy is considered ‘renewable’.

Applying
11 Draw an energy flow diagram for a petrol engine car travelling at a constant speed on a flat
road.
12 Make a list of ways in which you can make your house more energy efficient. For each
suggestion, explain how it works.
13 A cyclist used 1000 kJ of energy riding to work. Of this, 250 kJ was transformed into kinetic
energy to move his muscles. The other 750 kJ was transformed into heat. Calculate the
energy efficiency of the cyclist.

Analysing
14 The following information applies to two different models of fridge. Note that the cost of
electricity in Victoria is about $0.1/kWh.

Model 1 Model 2
Energy star rating 4 3
Energy consumption per year (kWh) 195 234
Price ($) 600 499

State which fridge you would buy. Justify your choice.

15 Take a look at Figure 8.75. Explain what is happening in the picture and why.

Figure 8.75
continued…

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 Chapter 8 REVIEW QUESTIONS 353

…continued
Evaluating
16 Suggest one drawback of using solar energy as an energy source.
17 Suggest two reasons why coal may not be suitable as a long-term energy source.
18 Suggest why inner city trains and trams are powered by electrical energy.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Recall the name of the energy associated with moving.
2 What kind of energy do you increase if you climb a mountain? SCORCHER
3 Recall the term for energy that is stored when a spring is compressed.
4 Rewrite the following words with their correct descriptions.

Word Description
Sound energy Moving objects have this sort of energy
Kinetic energy A form of wave energy that can travel through space
Wave energy A form of wave energy consisting of vibrations in the air
Thermal energy Energy carried by a wave travelling on or through a substance
Light energy Hot objects contain this sort of energy

5 Recall what is meant by the term ‘energy efficiency’.

Understanding
6 State the energy transformations that occur when someone climbs a set of stairs.
7 State whether each of the following sentences is true or false.
a When bouncing a ball, elastic potential energy is involved.
b An object can have energy even when it is stationary.
c An object must be moving to transform energy from one form to another.
d When driving a car, chemical potential, gravitational potential and kinetic energy are involved.
8 Explain why a light globe with an input energy of 1200 J cannot produce 1500 J of light energy.
9 Explain the difference between an energy-efficient light globe and a less efficient light globe.
10 Name an object that transforms:
a electrical energy into thermal energy
b elastic energy into kinetic energy
c chemical potential energy into kinetic energy
d chemical potential energy into thermal energy.

Applying
11 List as many sources of light energy as you can think of.
12 Look around your environment and list as many examples of energy as you can see.
13 As you go about your day, make a list of all the different types of energy transformations
that occur.
14 Draw a flow diagram showing the energy transformation that occurs in a gas stove.

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354 Chapter 8 ENERGY

Analysing
15 Use the diagram of a waterwheel in Figure 8.76 to draw an energy flow diagram for this process.

Figure 8.76 An overshot waterwheel

16 Some people use wood-burning stoves to heat their homes. Conclude whether or not this
source of energy is renewable and/or sustainable. Explain your answer.

Figure 8.77 A wood-burning stove

17 Consider the Sun’s role in life on Earth. Explain why there would be no life on Earth without
the Sun.

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 Chapter 8 REVIEW QUESTIONS 355

Evaluating
18 Heavy items of freight are often sent by cargo ships. These boats are powered by diesel, which
has replaced coal during the past 100 years.
Evaluate the alternative modern sources of energy and determine whether you think diesel is
likely to be replaced soon. Possible alternatives to consider are: wind turbines, solar panels,
nuclear power.

Figure 8.78 A modern container ship

19 List the pros and cons of using nuclear energy.

Figure 8.79 An operator in a nuclear power station

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356 Chapter 8 ENERGY

STEM activity: Wind power

Background information
VCSSU104 VCMMG258 VCSIS110 VCSIS111 VCSIS112
Nepal is a small country located in Asia between
India and China, and it is home to Mount Everest
(Nepali name: Sagamartha), the tallest mountain
in the world. On the morning of 25 April 2015, a
including lack of funding for individual families,
powerful earthquake (magnitude 7.8) struck the
the remoteness of the country areas, absence of
capital, Kathmandu, causing mass destruction and
good roads to transport materials and, sadly, the
killing 9000 people. Unfortunately, most of these
fact that most people in small isolated villages
people died beneath the rubble. This is because, in
died. Many non-government agencies (NGOs)
Nepal, most people can only afford to build with the
advocated for the use of renewable energy to
cheapest materials available.
assist the local population during the recovery
Unfortunately, the rebuilding effort in Nepal
process.
has been extremely slow for a number of reasons,

Figure 8.80 Different types of wind turbines

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 STEM activity WIND POWER 357

Design brief: Design a wind turbine capable of

Evaluate and modify
lifting an object. 1 Propose a measure of design efficiency. Think
about how you can quantitatively measure how
Activity instructions effective one design/prototype is compared
with another. This may include measures for
In this task, you will work in a group (three students
sturdiness, speed of lift, and maximum capacity.
maximum) to design a simple wind turbine capable
2 Discuss with your colleagues the relationship
of lifting weight from the floor up to bench height.
between blade shape and blade spin for your
The aim of this activity is to simulate how energy
designed wind turbine. In other words, describe
from the wind could be used to lift objects, livestock
what factors (such as material, shape, thickness
or even people from a dangerous location within a
of cardboard) make the turbine’s blades spin
natural disaster zone.
faster or slower.
3 How can you improve your design? Incorporate
Suggested materials these modifications into your design and
• a medium-sized fan (to simulate a constant flow test it again. How does it compare to the first
of wind) prototype?
• cardboard (different thicknesses if possible) 4 Imagine that the attachment used to allow the
• masking tape (optional) shaft to spin is not sturdy enough, which would
• string make it less reliable during a rescue operation.
• pencils Discuss and suggest three possible solutions to
• scissors the problems you encounter, and decide on the
• paper or plastic cup for carrying the load best course of action to modify your design.
• weights (you can use Lego® characters as well) 5 Predict what would happen to the cup (there
• electronic scale (optional) might be people inside!) if you turn the fan
(wind) off when the cup is halfway between the
floor and the tabletop. Now test this scenario
and write down your observations. Does it match
your prediction?

Attachment allowing
shaft to spin (made
from masking tape)

Pencil
(shaft)

Blades made
of card
String

Paper/plastic cup
containing weights

Figure 8.81 You can build ideas around this basic design.

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358

Chapter 9 Light and sound

Chapter introduction
In this chapter, you will explore two types of wave energy: light and sound. You will learn how light
interacts with objects and why you can see your reflection in some objects and not others. You will also
take a look at the human eye, and learn how light interacts with the structures in the eye to form an image
for our brain to interpret. This chapter also explores sound – how fast sound travels, and how sound is
produced by musical instruments. You will also see how the wave model can be used to describe the
properties of both light and sound.

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 359

Curriculum
Light can form images using the reflective feature of curved mirrors and the refractive feature of lenses,
and can disperse to produce a spectrum which is part of a larger spectrum of radiation (VCSSU105)
• exploring how images can change when the arrangement of the mirror or lens 9.2
system is altered
• exploring the mechanism of the human eye and corrective technologies 9.4
• observing the spread and order of colours in the visible spectrum 9.1
• describing the different types of radiation in the larger spectrum of radiation 9.1
The properties of sound can be explained by a wave model (VCSSU106)
• describing how sounds are produced by different musical instruments 9.3
• measuring the speed of sound 9.3
• using a wave model to describe the measured properties of sound, wavelength and 9.3
frequency

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
absorb hertz rarefaction
accommodation incident ray reflect
amplitude infrared reflected ray
angle of incidence iris refraction
angle of reflection lens refractive index
cochlea lens (eye) retina
compression longitudinal wave short-sighted
concave long-sighted standing wave
convex medium subtractive colour mixing
cornea microwaves translucent
diffraction normal transparent
ear canal opaque transverse wave
eardrum percussion instrument ultraviolet
electromagnetic spectrum pitch vibration
electromagnetic wave plane mirror visible light
frequency prism visible spectrum
fluorescent pupil wavelength
gamma rays radar wind instrument
Global Positioning System (GPS) radio waves X-rays

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360 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Concept map

Waves 9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

Sound
The electromagnetic spectrum
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
Sensed • Visible spectrum
through • Ultraviolet
our ears • X-rays
• Gamma rays

Music Noise

Described Light that

through we can see is Sensed
part of the through
visible our eyes
spectrum
• Pitch
• Loudness

Can be

Material
properties
Absorbed
determine
colour

Shapes of
mirrors include:
Reflected
flat, concave
and convex

Shapes of
lenses include:
Refracted rectangular
prisms, concave
and convex

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 Section 9.1 Light 361

9.1 Light

Light is an electromagnetic Looking at wavelength and Try this 9.1

wave amplitude
WORKSHEET In the diagram below, label the wavelength and amplitude of
In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell proposed
the theory that light is an electromagnetic the transverse waves. Use a ruler to measure these properties.

electromagnetic wave wave. This means it has

a wave that has both electrical
and magnetic components;
both electrical and magnetic
one of the ways energy travels components, travelling at
right angles to each other.

All electromagnetic waves, including light,

ultraviolet, infrared, radio waves and X-rays,
Figure 9.1 A wave
travel at the same speed: 299 792 458 m/s in
a vacuum.

Properties of waves 1 Explain what the word Quick check 9.1

Mechanical waves, such as vibrations, ‘transverse’ means in relation
sound and water waves, transfer energy to waves.
without transferring matter. When sound 2 Recall the three properties of waves discussed in this
travels through air it transmits energy but section.
the air molecules only move backwards
and forwards, they return to their original
position after the sound has passed. Light
The electromagnetic spectrum
is even more impressive; it can carry energy
through space where there is no matter at James Clerk Maxwell also proposed that
transverse wave all. Transverse waves are a visible light is just a small part of
a wave moving through a electromagnetic
substance in which the type of wave in which the a much bigger spectrum, called spectrum
a way of organising
particles are vibrating at right
angles to the direction of
particles move at right angles the electromagnetic spectrum. electromagnetic waves
according to their frequency
motion of the wave to the direction of motion of Figure 9.2 shows an illustration
the wave. Light is an example of a transverse of the full electromagnetic spectrum.
wave. The number of waves produced Notice that we use a wave image to
every second is called the frequency, and demonstrate the differences between
is measured in hertz (Hz). different parts of the spectrum. For
frequency
the number of vibrations of a The distance between two example, radio waves have lower frequency
wave per second
consecutive waves is called and a longer wavelength than the rest
hertz
a unit for measuring the the wavelength. As you of the electromagnetic spectrum. There
number of cycles that happen
every second (frequency); will see in the next section, is a long distance between the start of
abbreviation is Hz
wavelengths can range from one wave and the start of the next wave.
wavelength
the distance from one wave kilometres to nanometres. Gamma rays, on the other hand, have the
crest to the next
The amplitude of a wave shortest wavelength of all the waves in the
amplitude
the distance of a wave crest is how far the wave extends electromagnetic spectrum, and this means
from the middle position
from its middle position. they have the highest frequency.

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362 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

The electromagnetic spectrum

Non-ionising radiation Ionising radiation
Frequency
[Hz]

0 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
Gamma
Radio waves Microwaves Infrared Ultraviolet X-rays rays

Mobile phone Microwave Daylight

Television X-rays Gamma
Power
rays
line

Smart meter Tanning bed

Infared
Computer Radio remote
control

Baby monitor Wi-Fi

Visible
spectrum
Figure 9.2 The electromagnetic spectrum extends beyond the visible spectrum.

The frequency of a wave determines its or when you feel the heat of the Sun. It
position on the electromagnetic spectrum is also used in home remote controls.
and can be used to determine the • Visible light is light that you can see
wavelength of a wave. with your eyes.
• Ultraviolet is invisible visible light
the part of the
The different types of electromagnetic radiation that can cause electromagnetic spectrum
waves and their uses are listed below. sunburn and skin cancer. that we can see
ultraviolet
radio waves • Radio waves are useful for Not all ultraviolet is radiation that lies between
electromagnetic radiation
that has the longest communications and signals over bad. Skin cells use low- visible light and X-rays;
is needed by our bodies
wavelength
long distances. Radio waves were frequency ultraviolet to to make vitamin D; short
wavelength UV can cause
originally used for television and make vitamin D. sunburn and cancer

radio station broadcasts, and are now • X-rays are high-energy X-rays
short wavelength
microwaves also used to send communications electromagnetic waves that electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic radiation that can pass through flesh
used for cooking, around the world via satellites. are used to create images to give images of bones;
hazardous and can cause
communications and Wi-Fi;
lies between radio waves
• Microwaves are used for cooking, of bones. cancer
and infrared radiation Wi-Fi communications and • Gamma rays are high- gamma rays
high-energy rays produced
infrared
a form of electromagnetic
mobile phone technology. energy rays that are when radioactive atoms
decay; they have a very short
radiation that lies between
microwaves and visible light;
• Infrared radiation is the radiation released when atomic wavelength and can cause
also known as heat radiation you feel when you stand near a fire nuclei decay. cancer

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 Section 9.1 Light 363

Super fast! Did you know? 9.1

The speed of light in a vacuum is 299 792 458 metres per second. This is one of the most
accurately known values in science. Light, radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation X-rays and gamma rays
all travel at the speed of light. The electrical signals in wires that carry information from computer to computer
on the internet, and carry the signal of your voice in a telephone wire, also travel at close to the speed of light.

Figure 9.3 The electrical signals that carry information through telephone wires are extremely fast.

The visible spectrum of high ground and are used to broadcast

The colours of the visible spectrum are the radio signals for TV and radio stations.
colours of the rainbow: red, Because they have a long wavelength,
visible spectrum
the part of the orange, yellow, green, blue, radio waves can bend around the edges
electromagnetic spectrum
that we can see; includes all indigo and violet. White light of mountains and other obstacles,
the colours of visible light
can be split up into these in a process called diffraction. diffraction
the bending of waves with
individual colours. These colours can also be Radio waves travel easily through long wavelengths around a
barrier
recombined to form white light. the atmosphere and can be received
radar
hundreds of kilometres from where a system that uses radio
waves to show the position
they were transmitted. Radar of objects that cannot be
seen
location is a method of finding

Figure 9.4 The visible spectrum

Making a rainbow Try this 9.2

Put a mirror inside a glass, and
fill the glass with water. Then position the mirror
so sunlight or light from a torch falls directly onto
it. Adjust the angle of the mirror until a rainbow
appears on the wall.

Radio waves
Radio waves can have a wavelength
anywhere from a metre to a 100 kilometres.
They are produced using radio masts or
towers, which are often placed on the top Figure 9.5 Radar is used in air traffic control.

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364 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

objects by sending out a pulse of radio pastry contains little water and is largely
waves and collecting an echo. The locations unaffected, but the mince, which is moist,
of aircraft are tracked using radar, and radar is heated strongly. So if you eat a pie that
is also used in fishing, to locate shoals of has been in a microwave too long, the inside
fish and to show the sea bed. will be at a much higher temperature than
the outside. This is why it is a good idea to
Observing the universe Did you know? 9.2 allow pies to stand for a few minutes before
Radio astronomy is an important eating them!
tool for exploring the universe. Objects called pulsars were
first discovered in the 1960s and were initially thought to Microwaves are not just used for cooking.
be radio signals from aliens! It turned out that they were Here are some other uses:
small dense stars made of neutrons, which were emitting • Speed cameras use microwaves to
radio waves and spinning very quickly. Most galaxies have measure the speed of cars, and even
a giant black hole at their centre – we know this because of measure the speed of a tennis ball during
the radio waves they emit. Astronomers can also use radio the Australian Open.
waves to search for quasars, which are strange objects that • Wi-Fi uses microwaves to allow
typically produce thousands of times more light and energy computers and mobile devices to
than a whole galaxy. communicate wirelessly with the
internet.
• Mobile phones use microwaves to
send signals to and from mobile phone
towers.
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
devices continuously receive microwave
signals from human-built
Global Positioning
satellites orbiting the System (GPS)
a system of satellites that
Earth. Unlike mobile transmit microwaves and
are used to find the precise
phones, GPS devices do location of objects on the
not transmit microwaves. Earth

Figure 9.6 Radio telescopes collect radio waves from distant galaxies.

Microwaves
Microwaves have a wavelength from around
one millimetre to one metre. You have
probably heard of microwaves in the context
of cooking food. The microwaves used in
microwave ovens are at exactly the right
wavelength to heat up water molecules.
This explains why a mince pie cooked Figure 9.7 This AFL player is having a GPS device attached to
in a microwave can be dangerous. The his shirt during a training session, to track his movements.

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 Section 9.1 Light 365

A GPS device needs to receive a signal devices are used to monitor a player’s
from at least four satellites in order movements during a game. If a player
to determine position and time. GPS is being monitored, the device is
navigation is used by motorists, and in visible at the back of their shirt, just
aircraft and shipping. In sport, GPS below the collar.

Wi-Fi Explore! 9.1

Did you know that an Australian invented Wi-Fi? This physicist and
engineer was actually studying radio waves being emitted from black holes, and built
a machine to detect these weak signals. He used his machine to allow computers to
communicate wirelessly.
1 Who is credited with inventing Wi-Fi?
2 When was Wi-Fi patented?
3 How does Wi-Fi work?

New uses for Wi-Fi Science as a human endeavour 9.1

Wi-Fi can be used not only to connect computers wirelessly,
but also to detect dangerous objects. Wi-Fi signals are able to
penetrate bags, so they can be used to identify objects such as
weapons or bombs, being carried around public places.
Researchers have also created 3D printed objects, known as
‘smart objects’, that can connect to other Wi-Fi devices without
other electronics. The technology within each object allows
it to sense certain aspects of its environment and send this
information to your smart phone. So a smart object might, for
instance, let you know when you are running low on detergent.

Figure 9.8 This attachment senses how much laundry liquid is being
used and can automatically order more when it is running low.

1 Recall the colours of the visible spectrum. Quick check 9.2

2 State two uses of radio waves.
3 Recall the wavelength range of microwaves.
4 State one similarity and one difference between radio waves and microwaves.

Very small waves Did you know? 9.3

Some wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum are so small
that they are measured in special units.
A micrometre (µm) is 1/1000th of a millimetre (or one millionth of a metre).
A nanometre (nm) is 1/1000th of a micrometre (or one billionth of a metre).
A picometre (pm) is 1/1000th of a nanometre (or one trillionth of a metre).
These units are tiny: an atom is about 100 pm across!

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366 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Infrared radiation
You may recall from Chapter 8 that when
a metal bar is heated, it starts to glow. In
addition to emitting visible energy, it also
emits a lot of infrared radiation energy. This
is radiation being given out by the surface
of the metal bar. Infrared waves have a
wavelength between those of microwaves
and red light – that is, from one millimetre
(1 mm) to just under one-thousandth of a
millimetre (0.7 µm). During the heating
process, the metal takes on the colours of
light in the order of the spectrum: red first,
then yellow, then white. Very hot steel is
white, because it is emitting all the colours
of the spectrum, as well as infrared radiation.

Infrared cameras produce images of heat

radiation, called thermal images. These
images can be used to investigate the
Figure 9.10 A thermal image of people arriving at
effectiveness of thermal insulation in a hospital can quickly detect anyone who has a
houses. Thermal images of people can be high temperature. You may have seen this same
technology being used in airports.
used to detect whether a person has a high
temperature and might be ill, or to find a
person in a search and rescue operation,
especially at night.

Figure 9.11 This infrared photograph of a house has

had false colour added. Hot areas are white or red,
while cooler areas are green or blue. It indicates
that although this house has very good roof
Figure 9.9 As hot steel glows, it gives out light. It insulation, heat is being lost through the windows
also produces a lot of infrared radiation. and walls.

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 Section 9.1 Light 367

Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has wavelengths
between 400 nm and 10 nm. It starts where
the violet end of the visible spectrum ends,
and ends where X-rays start. You will
already be familiar with UV rays, because in
Australia we have a lot of them! Exposure
of our skin to some longer-wavelength
ultraviolet light (UVB) is necessary for the
production of vitamin D. However, too
much exposure to these rays is dangerous,
because it can cause skin cancer. Of the
Sun’s total output, 10% is ultraviolet. The
Earth’s atmosphere, especially the ozone
layer, absorbs 75% of these potentially
harmful rays, including nearly all the very
dangerous wavelengths.

The energy contained in ultraviolet light

can cause some chemicals and minerals to
glow or fluoresce. Fluorescent chemicals
fluorescent are added to washing
describes a substance
that emits light under an
powder to make white
ultraviolet light source clothes appear even whiter,
and fluorescent patterns are added to
passports and banknotes to help prevent
people copying them.

Ultraviolet radiation can be used to identify Figure 9.13 Fluorescent minerals emit visible light
minerals that are known to fluoresce. when they are exposed to ultraviolet light.

X-rays
X-rays have wavelengths shorter than 10 nm
(10 nm = one millionth of a centimetre).
They were first discovered by Wilhelm
Röntgen late in the nineteenth century.
At first, people considered X-rays a novelty
and had images of their bones made for
entertainment. Soon after, doctors began
to use X-rays for medical purposes. X-rays
are able to pass through flesh easily, but
they are blocked by bones, teeth and metal,
and so an X-ray image can be used to
look at bones or teeth inside the body. If
Figure 9.12 A passport viewed under ultraviolet light doctors want more detail, they can ask for

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368 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

a three-dimensional X-ray image, called a

CT scans Explore! 9.2
CT scan. X-rays are dangerous, however,
A computed
and so exposure to them is limited and tomography scan (CT scan) uses X-rays
must be authorised by a doctor or a dentist. to generate cross-sectional pictures of the
Low-energy X-rays are also used in airports human body.
for screening luggage, and sometimes for 1 How does a CT scan work?
screening passengers, to detect metal. 2 When would someone get a CT scan?
3 Are there any risks involved in getting
a CT scan?

Figure 9.16 A person undergoing a CT scan

Gamma rays
Gamma rays generally have an even
shorter wavelength than X-rays (less than
10 picometres), but the main difference
between these two types of rays is the way
Figure 9.14 One of the first X-ray photographs. This
they are made. Most X-rays are made by
was taken in 1896 by Wilhelm Röntgen. firing high-energy electrons into a piece
of metal. Gamma rays are emitted by
radioactive substances when the nucleus of
an atom decays and releases energy. Because
of their very short wavelength, gamma
rays are more dangerous than X-rays, and
they are used mainly in cancer treatment.
Gamma rays are so penetrating that they
can only be blocked by several centimetres
of lead. The Earth’s atmosphere protects
us from gamma rays and other high-
energy rays originating from outer space.
These rays, called cosmic rays, are the most
energetic and have the shortest wavelength
of any electromagnetic radiation that we
Figure 9.15 A radiologist inspects an X-ray of a head and neck. know of.

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 Section 9.1 Light 369

1 State which forms of radiation can be harmful to humans. Quick check 9.3
2 State what kinds of objects emit infrared radiation.
3 Explain the role of Earth’s atmosphere in protecting us from harmful radiation.

Section 9.1 questions

Remembering
1 State the name of the person who proposed that light was an electromagnetic wave QUIZ
electromagnetic radiation.
2 State the types of electromagnetic radiation that are outside the visible spectrum.
3 List the colours of the visible spectrum.
4 Recall the wavelength range of radio waves.
5 What other things can microwave radiation be used for, aside from heating food?
6 List some types of electromagnetic radiation that would be in your environment at this moment.

Understanding
7 List all the types of electromagnetic radiation, in order of decreasing energy or increasing
wavelength.
8 Explain what occurs when white light is broken up.
9 Explain how microwaves heat up food.
10 Explain why it can be dangerous to heat items of food that have moist and dry components.
11 Explain how X-rays can be used to produce an image of bones.
12 Using your knowledge of infrared radiation, explain how night vision goggles work.

Applying
13 The speed of light in air is 299 704 645 m/s. Calculate how long it would take for light to
reach the following destinations from Melbourne. Hints: Convert the distances to metres.
Divide each distance by the speed of light.
a Adelaide (726 km)
b Brisbane (1781 km)
c Canberra (662 km)
d Perth (3406 km)
14 Explain why you may need a Wi-Fi booster if you live in a large house.
15 Provide examples of objects that are similar in size to the wavelengths of the following types
of radiation. One has been completed for you.

Type of radiation Wavelength Object

Radio waves 1 metre to a few kilometres Buildings
Microwaves 1 mm to 1 m
Infrared 1 mm to 0.7 µm
Visible light 700 nm to 400 nm
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 10 nm
X-rays shorter than 10 nm
Gamma rays 10 pm (picometres)
continued…

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370 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

…continued
Analysing
16 Propose one conclusion that can be made from the table of data below.

Material Speed of light (m/s)

Vacuum 299 792 458
Air 299 704 645
Water 224 900 569
Glass 197 231 880
Diamond 123 881 181

17 Figure 9.17 shows an infrared picture of a house. Suggest

what the different colours mean.
18 Compare and contrast microwaves with gamma rays.

Evaluating
19 Describe why it is important to find a balance between
getting too much or too little UV radiation exposure.
20 Discuss the medical benefits versus risks associated with
X-ray machines. Figure 9.17

9.2 Absorption, reflection
and refraction

Absorption White light

Red light
Surfaces are able to reflect or absorb light.
WORKSHEET
Reflected colours are those we can see or
detect with our eyes. For example,
reflect
to throw back the energy of a
white objects reflect all the colours in
wave (e.g. heat, light, sound) the visible spectrum and absorb none.
without absorbing it
absorb
Black objects absorb all the colours
to take up the energy of a and reflect none. A red car has a Figure 9.18 A red car reflects all red wavelengths of
wave (e.g. absorb light)
light and absorbs all the other colours of the visible
pigment in its surface that reflects the
spectrum.
red wavelengths in the visible spectrum and
absorbs all the other colours, and so we see
it as a red car.

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 371

The pigments in the surface of a blue car

reflect blue wavelengths of visible light and
absorb the other colours, so we see the car
as blue.

As you know, white light is made up of

all the colours. However, white light can
also be created by overlapping the three
primary colours (red, green and blue).
Overlapping two of the primary colours
creates one of the secondary colours
(magenta, cyan or yellow).

A colour filter only allows light of a certain

wavelength (colour) to be transmitted
through it. Cellophane is an example of a
filter. Blue cellophane only allows blue light
to be transmitted, and absorbs all other
colours. In photography, combinations of
filters are used to achieve different effects in
the final picture. Figure 9.19 Can you identify the different primary
and secondary colours? Where is the white light?

What colour is an apple? Did you know? 9.4

A red apple appears red when looked at in red light. But what if the light is blue?
Because a red apple only reflects red, and does not reflect any blue light, it appears dark when viewed in blue light.

Figure 9.20 A red apple can look different, depending on the colour of light
hitting the pigments on its surface.

A yellow shirt reflects both red and green light. So if you look at a yellow shirt in red light, it will appear red. If you
look at the same yellow shirt in green light, it will appear green. If you look at the yellow shirt in blue light, it will
appear dark, because it does not reflect blue light.

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372 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Practical 9.1

Mixing primary colours

Aim
Be careful
To investigate the effects of different combinations of colour filters
Take care when changing the
Materials colour filters, as the light box can
• light box become hot with prolonged use.
• darkened room
• colour filters: red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow
• coloured cards: white, red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow

Teacher notes
The light box has three windows for light to emerge: the front window allows light to emerge directly and the side
windows are fitted with mirrors. Coloured filters can be fitted to each window, and the light can be directed to a
screen, where combinations of colours falling on different-coloured cards can be observed.

Method
1 Place the light box in front of a white wall or piece of paper.
2 Darken the room as much as possible.
3 Use the blue, red and green colour filters. Choose two of these colours to insert into the light box and use the
mirrors to adjust the direction of light to combine the two colours onto the white paper.
4 Record the colour produced in results Table 1.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until you have tried all colour combinations.
6 Use all three colours to make white.
7 Use the secondary colour filters (cyan, yellow and magenta) and the primary colour cards (red, green and
blue) to find out what happens if a secondary colour is shone on a primary colour card. Complete results
Table 2 with your observations.

Results

Red filter Blue filter Yellow filter

Red filter
Blue filter
Green filter
Table 1 Colours produced when primary colours are combined

Secondary colour filter Primary card colour

Red Green Blue
Cyan Dark
Magenta Blue
Yellow Green

Table 2 Colours produced when secondary colours are shone onto primary-coloured cards
continued…

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 373

…continued
Evaluation
1 State the colours made when each of the primary colours were combined.
2 State the colours made when secondary colours were shone onto red paper.
3 Explain why white is formed when cyan and red are mixed.
4 Suggest how the experiment may be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding light and colours. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that light … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed when you combined different coloured lights. Start your
sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

You already know what you get when you

1 State what Quick check 9.4
colour an
mix all the colours of light: white light!
object appears if it: However, as you add different colours of
a absorbs all colours paint to a mixture, it tends to get darker.
b absorbs no colours Paint contains pigments that absorb colours.
c absorbs all colours except red. For example, yellow paint absorbs blue and
2 Explain how a colour filter works. reflects red and green, and cyan paint absorbs
3 Explain why black cars get hotter than red and reflects blue and green. So when
white cars on a sunny day. more and more paints are added, more subtractive colour mixing
a way of forming new colours
and more colours are absorbed rather by combining different
than reflected. This process is called coloured paints or pigments,
e.g. mixing red and yellow
subtractive colour mixing. paint to make orange

Figure 9.21 Cyan (blue) paint mixed with yellow paint makes green paint.

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374 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

All materials are either opaque, translucent

or transparent to light.

Opaque
A substance that blocks light completely
is said to be opaque. An example of an
opaque opaque material is aluminium foil,
blocking light completely
which can be used to cover windows
to block the light and make a room
completely dark, even in the daytime. All
metals, not just aluminium, are opaque. So
are wood, most plastics and most minerals.
Figure 9.22 Glass and water are two common
Translucent examples of transparent materials.
translucent Some materials are translucent.
allowing some light through,
but no clear image can be
This means they allow light to pass
seen through the substance through, but no clear image can be 1 Explain the difference Quick check 9.5
between the following
seen through them. Frosted glass, ice made
terms: opaque, translucent, transparent.
from snow, paper, clouds and milk are
2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘subtractive
examples of translucent materials.
colour mixing’.

Transparent
Transparent materials, such as diamond,
glass, perspex and water, allow light Polarising filters Explore! 9.3
transparent
allowing light to pass to pass through them with little or no Recall from the start of the
through, and a clear image
can be seen through the alteration, allowing clear images to be chapter that light is an electromagnetic wave.
substance
seen through them. Polarising filters take advantage of this and are used
widely in photography, theatre and sunglasses.
Figure 9.23 Ice made from snow is translucent.
Conduct some research to answer the following
questions.
1 What is polarisation?
2 Explain how polarising filters work.
3 What are some examples of the uses of
polarising lenses?

Figure 9.24 A polarising lens from a camera

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 375

Figure 9.25 The light from the mountain and the cloud is reflected by the smooth surface of the
lake, giving a very clear image.

Reflection Pepper’s Ghost Did you know? 9.5

When light comes into contact with a Pepper’s Ghost is an application
surface, some or all of it may be reflected. of light being reflected from a glass surface to make an
If the surface is rough, the light rays actor appear as a ghost. It was commonly used in theatres
bounce off the surface at different angles. in Victorian times as a special effect. If your school has
a dark room, you might like to try and make your own
The light is reflected but does not form
Pepper’s Ghost.
an image.

Figure 9.26 Light rays hitting a rough surface are

reflected at different angles and scatter the light.
No image is formed.

The light rays reflecting from a smooth

surface bounce off at the same angle, and an Pepper’s Ghost
Sheet of glass
image is seen.
Image of ghost

Audience see image

reflected in glass
Stage Mirror

Ghost
actor

Figure 9.27 Light rays hitting a smooth surface are

all reflected at the same angle, and an image can
Figure 9.28 Pepper’s Ghost apparatus being used in the theatre
be formed.

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376 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Law of reflection of light

To understand the law of reflection of light,
you first need to learn some definitions.
incident ray
• The incoming ray of light that hits
a ray of light arriving at a the reflecting surface is called the
surface
reflected ray
incident ray.
a ray of light that is reflected • The outgoing ray of light that is
off a surface
normal
reflected off the surface is called
an imaginary line that is at the reflected ray.
right angles to a surface
• The normal is an imaginary line
angle of incidence
the angle between an that is at right angles to the surface.
incident light ray and the Figure 9.30 Mirrors arranged at an angle to each other can
normal when the ray arrives • The angle between the incident give more than one image.
at a surface
ray and the normal is the angle of
angle of reflection
the angle between a incidence (i).
reflected light ray and the many times in glass mirrors and windows,
normal, when the ray leaves • The angle between the reflected
a surface polished metal and even the surface of still
ray and the normal is the angle of
water. You have probably noticed that the
reflection (r).
image formed in a mirror is upright but is
The law of reflection of light states that
inverted from left to right (called a lateral
the angle of incidence and the angle of
inversion), so if you raise your right hand
reflection are equal to each other.
in front of a mirror you will see your image
angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r) raise its left hand.

Incident ray Normal Reflected ray

When you look at an object in a plane
mirror, the image appears to be behind the
mirror. This is known as a virtual image.
The image appears to be the same distance
r behind the mirror as the object is in front
i
of it. What other characteristics of this
virtual image do you notice? Is it the same
size as the real object?
Figure 9.29 The law of reflection of light states that
the angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the
angle of reflection (r). Mirror
Object

Virtual
1 State the law of reflection. Quick check 9.6 image
2 Explain what the law of
reflection means.

Flat mirror
The reflection you see in a flat mirror, also
plane mirror known as a plane mirror, is called an
a flat reflective surface
image. The actual thing that is being Observer
reflected in the mirror is called the object. Figure 9.31 A mirror produces a virtual image,
You will have seen your own reflection which appears to be behind the mirror.

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 377

Virtual images Did you know? 9.6

A virtual image is an image that appears to be in a particular place, but is not really
there. An example of a virtual image is your reflection in the bathroom mirror. When you look in the mirror, there
appears to be a person and a room on the other side of the mirror. But of course, in reality the only thing behind
the mirror is the wall. A virtual image is always upright – your reflection in the bathroom mirror is never upside
down. In a ray diagram, the virtual image is located where the light appears to be coming from, not where it really
is coming from. (Note: a ray diagram represents the paths light takes from a certain point of view to a point on the
image of an object.)

Practical 9.2

Investigating reflections
Aim
To investigate the difference between images formed from plane mirrors and those formed from curved mirrors.

Materials
• plane mirror
• metal tablespoon (or spherical curved mirrors)

Method
1 Observe your reflection in the back of the metal tablespoon. This is the convex (bulging outwards) side of the
spoon. Move the spoon as close as you can to your face and back.
2 Record your observations in the results table.
3 Observe your reflection in the front of the spoon. This is the concave (curving inwards) side of the spoon.
Move the spoon as close as you can to your face and back.
4 Record your observations in the results table.
5 Observe your reflection in the plane mirror. Raise your left eyebrow and observe which one of the reflection’s
eyebrows moves.

Results

Side of spoon Observation of reflection

First observation Close to your face Far from your face
Concave side
Convex side

Evaluation
1 What happened to your reflection as you moved the spoon towards and away from your face?
2 Which eyebrow appeared to be raised in the reflection?
3 Based on your observations, where might a concave mirror be used? Where might a convex mirror be used?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding plane and curved mirrors. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that
the shape of the mirror … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that: … ’.

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378 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Concave mirror Convex mirror

concave A concave mirror curves inwards, Convex mirrors bulge convex
having an outline that is having an outline that is
thinner in the middle, or like a cave. Concave mirrors can outwards and give a wider thicker in the middle, or a
a mirror that is curved
inwards, like a cave
be used to magnify images and field of view. They are used in mirror that bulges outwards
are commonly used for shaving or car rear view mirrors to allow drivers greater
applying make-up. visibility. You may also see large convex
mirrors at intersections that have limited
When parallel rays are reflected from a visibility, or in the hallways of hospitals to
concave mirror, they converge at a focal provide a view of what is around the corner.
point. The focal point is where an image
forms. In Figure 9.33, the image is in front When light rays are reflected from a
of the mirror, and is known as a real image. convex mirror, the light rays diverge. An
image forms behind the mirror – this is a
virtual image.

Figure 9.32 If you hold a concave mirror close, it

will magnify your image (a virtual image), as shown
here. But if you moved a long distance away from
the mirror, it would turn your image upside down (a
real image).
Figure 9.34 A car’s side view mirror is often a
convex mirror. It gives a wider field of view, but
also makes objects appear smaller and closer than
they actually are.

Convex
mirror
Concave
mirror
Focal point

Focal point

Figure 9.33 When an object is far from a concave

mirror, the reflected light rays converge to form a
real image. If the object was close to the mirror, it
would form a large virtual image, as in the shaving Figure 9.35 Reflected light rays diverge from a
mirror shown in Figure 9.32. convex mirror. The image formed is a virtual image.

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 379

Real images Did you know? 9.7

A real image is an image that can be projected onto a screen, like a film projected onto
a cinema screen. In a ray diagram, a real image forms where the light rays actually do converge. A real image is
always upside down, like the image that forms on the retina of your eye.

1 Describe the image formed in a plane mirror. Quick check 9.7

2 Describe three differences between images formed in convex mirrors and those
formed in concave mirrors.

Practical 9.3

Investigating ray diagrams with concave and convex mirrors

Aim
To observe and record the way in which light rays are reflected from
Be careful
curved mirrors
Take care as the light box can
Materials become hot with prolonged use.
• light box • concave mirror
• clear ruler • convex mirror
• pencil • white A4 paper

Method
1 Plug in the light box and position it at the edge of a piece of A4 white paper.
2 Place the triple ray-forming plate into the slot and turn on the light box. Adjust the position of the bulb until
you see three parallel rays of light on the paper.
3 Place the concave mirror about 10 cm in front of the rays, and align it so that the middle ray reflects back
on itself.
4 Use a pencil to outline the mirror, and use a clear plastic ruler to trace the incident and reflected rays.
5 Label the point at which they meet the ‘focal point’.
6 Get a new piece of paper and repeat steps 3 and 4 with a convex mirror.
7 Trace the reflected rays back behind the outline of the mirror with dotted lines.
8 Label the point at which the dotted lines meet the ‘virtual focal point’.

Results
On your ray tracing diagrams, measure how far the focal point or virtual focal point is from the mirrors. Include
this in your diagrams.

Evaluation
1 Do the focal lengths for the convex and concave mirrors differ?
2 Why does the convex mirror produce a ‘virtual focal point’?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding light rays reflected from curved mirrors. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that with curved mirrors … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed when you used convex and concave mirrors. Start your
sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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380 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Refraction Material Speed of light Refractive

(m/s) index
When light travels from one substance into a
Vacuum 299 792 458 1
different substance at an angle, it bends. This
Air 299 704 645 1.000 277
refraction bending of light is called refraction.
Water 224 900 569 1.33
the bending of light as it
passes from one medium
Refraction happens because light
Glass 197 231 880 1.52
to another may slow down or speed up when it
Diamond 123 881 181 2.42
enters a different substance. Imagine a line
of people running on a hard surface. When Table 9.1 The speed of light in different materials, and their
refractive indexes
one end of the line encounters sand, it has
to slow down. The runners in the sand will
move slowly, while the rest of the runners
continue to run fast. Eventually all the
runners will enter the sand, but by now the
direction of the runners has changed. The
same thing happens when light travels from
air into water.

Air Figure 9.37 The pencil appears bent due to the refraction of
light at the surface of the water.
Water

Place a 20 cent coin in the bottom Try this 9.3

of a cup and move back just until
Figure 9.36 The direction the light is travelling in you can’t see it. Then add water without moving
(shown by red arrows) changes when it moves from
your head. As you do so, the coin will appear.
air (fast) into water (slow).

refractive index Each material has a refractive

a measure of how much the speed
of light changes as it passes from aindex, which is a measure of the Trick of the light Did you know? 9.8
vacuum into a particular substance
change in the speed of light as When travelling through
it moves from a vacuum into that material a hot desert, people often think they can see water
(see Table 9.1). Light travels fastest in a or trees on the ground ahead of them. In reality,
vacuum, and it slows down if it enters other there is nothing there. It is a trick of the light, called
materials such as air, glass or water. It only a mirage. Light rays coming from distant objects are
slows down a little bit in air. In water, the refracted by cold and warm air. This tricks our
speed decreases by a factor of 1.33, and in eyes into thinking that the light rays are coming from
glass it decreases by a factor of 1.52. objects on the ground instead of the sky.

Light bends in a certain direction as it

enters and leaves different materials. When Conversely, when light travels from a
light travels from a material with a lower material with a higher refractive index into
refractive index into a material with a higher a material with a lower refractive index
index (for example, from air into water), it (for example, from water into air), it speeds
slows down and bends towards the normal up and bends away from the normal
(see Figure 9.38, left). (Figure 9.38, right).

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 381

Normal Normal

i i
Air Water

Water Air
r
r
Light bends
Light bends away from
towards the normal the normal

Figure 9.38 The direction light bends is dependent on the refractive index of the materials it enters and leaves
from. Water has a higher refractive index than air.

1 Define the term

A triangular glass prism has a prism
Quick check 9.8 a piece of glass with a
‘refraction’. triangular face, usually an equilateral triangular cross-section that

2 Explain how refraction differs from reflection. triangle, which is the same throughout can be used to separate
white light into its colours
3 Describe the difference between a material with its length.
a refractive index of 1.32 and one with an index
of 1.74.
4 State whether light will bend towards or away
from the normal when it is travelling from a
material with a refractive index of 1.02 into a
material with a refractive index of 1.4.

Prisms
Figure 9.40 A prism
Light bends when it enters a rectangular
block, and bends back to its original To use a prism, light is shone at an angle
direction when it leaves the block. through the side of the prism. The light
that emerges from the other side has been
bent twice – when going into the prism and
when coming out.

Air

Glass

A B
Air

Air Glass
Air

Figure 9.39 Light passing through a sheet of Figure 9.41 As light enters a prism, it slows and
glass or a rectangular block emerges in the same bends (A). It travels through the prism and bends a
direction as when it entered. second time when it speeds up as it leaves (B).

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382 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Different colours bend through different

angles, and so a prism is able to separate
white light into its separate colours. Isaac
Newton discovered that white light is a
mixture of different colours, which he called
the spectrum. Newton was the first person
to use a prism to separate the colours. He
also discovered that once a colour (say, red)
is separated, it cannot be separated again.
It stays the same in all further experiments.
He concluded from this that white light
Figure 9.42 A strong beam of white light is
is a mixture of the different colours of the refracted by a prism to form a spectrum. There are
spectrum. some reflected rays, and these remain white. Only
the refracted rays form a spectrum.

Making a rainbow Try this 9.4

You will need:
• a light box
• a prism
• a piece of white card.
Set up the light box in a dark room with a single-ray forming plate, so that a thin beam of white
light is shining from one end. Place the prism so that the light enters one of the rectangular
faces at an angle. Play around with the angle of the beam of light until you get a rainbow.

1 Explain how a prism separates white light into its different colours. Quick check 9.9
2 Describe how light bends when it enters and leaves a
rectangular block.

Practical 9.4

Refracting light
Aim
To investigate refraction of light through a glass block

Materials
• glass rectangular block Be careful
• light box Take care as the light
• sheet of A4 white paper box can become hot with
• protractor prolonged use.
• clear plastic ruler
• pencil
continued…

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 383

…continued
Method
1 Connect the light box to a power source and insert a single-ray forming plate.
2 Place the light box on the piece of white paper and switch it on.
3 Direct the single ray towards the glass block, as shown in in Figure 9.43.

Light box

Glass block

Figure 9.43 Experimental set-up

4 Trace the outline of the glass block onto the white paper. Use the clear ruler to trace the
path of the incident ray and the refracted ray.
5 Remove the glass block and connect the two lines to visualise the path of the light through
the glass.
6 Use the protractor to make measurements of the angles, and record your results in the
results table.

Results

Angle of incidence Angle of refraction

Light entering glass
Light leaving glass

Evaluation
1 Does light bend towards or away from the normal when:
a entering glass
b leaving glass?
2 What do you notice about the beam of light that is entering the glass and the beam of light
that is leaving the glass?
3 Does all the light travel through the glass and emerge from the other side?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding light refraction through materials. Start your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that light … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed
that … ’ and include potential measurement uncertainties and experimental faults.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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384 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Convex lens the opposite effect to a magnifying glass

lens There are two types of lens: convex – it makes a smaller image. Rays that pass
a glass disc used to make
images with light; a convex and concave. through a concave lens bend in the opposite
lens makes both enlarged
and smaller images image
direction to those passing through a convex
and a concave lens makes Convex lenses are thick in the middle lens (see Figure 9.46).
a smaller image
and thin at the edges. An example of
a convex lens that you are probably familiar
with is a magnifying glass. If you look
carefully at a magnifying glass, you will see
that it is fatter in the middle and thinner
at the edges. The magnifying glass makes
VIDEO the image appear bigger than the original
Lens object. Figure 9.45 shows how this happens.
demonstration

However, when the distance between the

convex lens and the object increases, the
image can be upside down and sometimes
smaller. This type of image is a real image.

Concave lens
Concave lenses are thin in the middle and Figure 9.44 A magnifying glass creates an image
thick around the edges. A concave lens has that is larger than the actual object.

Object
Image
Convex lens
Figure 9.45 How a magnifying glass works. A convex lens makes the light rays
converge, or bend inwards from their original path. The black lines represent the
actual path of the light, the red dashed lines show where the light appears to come
from. The image is upright, virtual and magnified.

Image
Object
Concave lens
Figure 9.46 A concave lens makes an image that is smaller than the object. A concave
lens makes the light rays diverge, or bend outwards from their original path. The black
lines represent the actual path of the light, the red dashed lines show where the light
appears to come from. The image is upright, virtual and smaller than the real object.

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 385

Practical 9.5

Focusing light
Aim
To investigate the refraction of light through different lenses

Materials Be careful
• light box Take care as the light box can
• A4 white paper become hot with prolonged use.
• clear ruler
• pencil
• biconvex lens
• biconcave lens

Method
1 Connect the light box to a power source and place it on the white paper.
2 Insert a triple-ray forming plate into the light box so that three parallel light rays fall onto the paper.

Biconvex
lens

Light box

Figure 9.47 Experimental set-up

3 Place the biconvex lens onto the paper and trace its outline. Use the clear ruler to trace the three incident
rays and the three refracted rays.
4 Repeat step 3 on a new piece of paper, but replace the biconvex lens with a biconcave lens.

Results
1 Label all your diagrams and give each page a title.
2 Measure and record the distance from the centre of each lens to the focal point.

Evaluation
1 Describe the difference in the refraction of light between biconcave and biconvex lenses.
2 Which lens produces a real focal point and which lens produces a virtual focal point?
3 Do all the incident rays refract? If not, which ones do not?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding refraction through curved lenses. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment
suggests that curved lenses … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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386 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

1 Describe the difference between a convex lens and a concave lens. Quick check 9.10
2 Which type of lens is used to magnify images?
3 Which type of lens makes light rays diverge?

Total internal reflection Explore! 9.4

As you know, when light travels from one
medium to another, it is refracted either towards
or away from the normal. If the light is bending
away from the normal, the angle of refraction
could increase to 90°C. Here the angle of
incidence is called the 'critical angle'. If the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle, light cannot escape at the boundary. It
is instead reflected back into the first medium.
This is known as total internal reflection. Fibre
optic cables use total internal reflection to
confine light to the cable in order to transmit
information with minimal signal loss.
Do some research to find answers to the
following questions. Figure 9.48 Multi-coloured fibre optic cables
1 What does total internal reflection have to do
with diamonds?
2 What other examples of total internal reflection can you find?

Reflecting ants Science as a human endeavour 9.2

Researchers have found that the Saharan silver ant uses total
internal reflection to survive in extremely hot environments. Silver in colour, these ants have body hairs that
totally internally reflect light, allowing them to forage in deserts where the temperature is over 50 degrees
Celsius! Each hair has a triangular cross-section, like a long prism, and reflects most of the light (and heat) that
hits it. This reflection of light and heat helps keep the ant cool and gives it a silvery sheen.

Figure 9.49 These ants are silver due to total internal reflection of sunlight.

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 Section 9.2 Absorption, reflection and refraction 387

Section 9.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Complete the following sentences.
a White objects _____________ all light, while black objects _____________ all light.
b An object that blocks all light from passing through is described as _____________.
c A transparent object allows _____________ light to pass through, while a translucent
object allows _____________ light to pass through.
2 State the law of reflection of light.
3 Define the term ‘refraction’.
4 Describe what a concave lens and a convex lens do to an image.
5 Recall the shape of the lens in the human eye.
6 Recall which colour of visible light bends the least.
7 Copy and complete the table below.

Definition Example of material

Transparent Glass
Translucent
Opaque Does not let light pass through

Understanding
8 Explain why some objects are reflective and create an image, and others are not reflective.
9 Copy the diagram below into your book and label it with the following terms:
Incident ray
Reflected ray
Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection

Eye Object

Figure 9.50

10 Explain how the reflection of an object in a mirror differs from the actual object in real life.
11 Explain the difference in uses for concave and convex mirrors.
12 Describe what happens to light rays as they pass through a convex lens versus a concave
lens.
13 Describe what type of material (transparent, translucent or opaque) you would normally use
in the following situations.
a A car windscreen
b Curtain for a changing room in a clothes store
c Windows in a bathroom
continued…

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388 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

…continued
Applying
14 Explain the reason why the woman in the swimming pool in Figure 9.51 looks distorted.

Figure 9.51

15 For each of the following types of electromagnetic radiation, describe an example of how they are used.
a Radio waves e Ultraviolet
b Microwaves f X-rays
c Infrared radiation g Gamma rays
d Visible light
16 Identify whether a convex or concave mirror would be useful in
the following situations.
a A security mirror in a hospital
b A mirror at an intersection to allow greater visibility
c A mirror to help a person apply detailed eye makeup

Analysing
17 Suggest what sort of object might be used in a reflecting
telescope, as opposed to a refractive telescope. Justify your
response.
18 Light is shone through a red colour filter.
a State the colour of the light transmitted through the filter.
b Another filter is then applied in addition to the red filter,
this time a green filter. State the colour of light transmitted
through this filter.
19 Yellow paint absorbs blue and reflects red and green. Cyan
paint absorbs red and reflects blue and green. If these two
paints are mixed, state which colour the mixture will reflect.
Explain your response.

Evaluating
20 Suggest how the reflections of the people in Figure 9.52 are Figure 9.52
being distorted.

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 Section 9.3 Sound 389

9.3 Sound

Sound waves high pressure (called compressions) and

sections where they are far apart and have
You may recall from Section 9.1 that light
low pressure (called rarefactions). WORKSHEET
travels as a transverse electromagnetic wave.
Sound also travels in waves, but these are
Sound is a form of wave energy
longitudinal waves. This compression
longitudinal wave that needs a medium to travel the part of a sound wave
a wave with vibrations in the is because in air, sound where the air molecules are
direction of travel instead of through, but the medium does not squashed together
transversely. Sound waves consists of vibrations of
are examples. have to be air. It can be a solid or a rarefaction
air particles, which move the part of a sound wave
vibration liquid. In fact, because sound needs where the air molecules are
movement backwards and quite differently to light. spread apart
forwards or side to side in a particles to vibrate in order for it to
regular way Sound is a longitudinal wave, medium
travel, sound travels faster through substance that allows waves
because the air particles to travel in it
solids, where the particles are close
vibrate backwards and forwards in the same
together. It can’t travel at all through a
direction as the travelling sound. The best
vacuum (where there are no particles).
way to picture the motion of sound through
the air is to move the end of a slinky When a sound wave passes through air, the
forwards and backwards quickly to send movement of the molecules is in a pattern
a series of pulses through the spring. You that consists of regions of high pressure
will see that there are sections where the (compression) and regions of low pressure
vibrating parts are close together and have (rarefaction).

Direction
of travel
Compression Rarefaction

Direction
of travel

Figure 9.53 Longitudinal waves in a slinky are similar to longitudinal sound waves.

Visualising sound Try this 9.5

Grab a slinky and stretch it out along the floor until it is a couple of metres in
length. Create vibrations in the slinky by moving the coils back and forth. Observe the areas of
compression and rarefaction that move back and forth along the length of the slinky.

1 Define the term ‘sound’. Quick check 9.11

2 Define the terms ‘compression’ and ‘rarefaction’.
3 Explain why sound travels faster in solids.
4 Explain how sound is an example of a longitudinal wave.

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390 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Practical 9.6

Making sound
Aim
To hear and observe vibrations in the air Be careful
Avoid bringing the tuning
Materials
fork near your mouth, as it
• water • rubber stopper
can cause serious damage
• tuning forks • 100 mL beaker
to your teeth.
Method
1 Strike the tuning fork on a soft surface, such as the rubber stopper.
2 Bring the tuning fork to your ear and see if you can hear anything. You can use a sounding board to hear the
sound clearly.
3 Repeat step 1, and lightly touch the vibrating ends of the tuning fork to the surface of the water.
4 Observe what happens to the water.

Results
Record your observations in your book.

Evaluation
1 Explain what you heard when you held the tuning fork to your ear. How does this work?
2 What happened when you submerged the ends of the tuning fork in water? Explain why this happened.
3 Could you observe areas of compression and rarefaction in the water?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding sound and vibrations. Start your sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that
sound … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed when you struck the tuning fork and put it in the water. Start
your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the observation supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

Properties of sound waves from their undisturbed position. This

is the displacement amplitude. The
In the same way that we can describe the
pressure amplitude is the difference
properties of the transverse waves of light,
between the maximum pressure in a
we can also describe the properties of the
compression and atmospheric pressure.
longitudinal waves of sound. First, let’s
recap the terms ‘wavelength’, ‘frequency’
and ‘amplitude’.
• Wavelength (unit = metre) is the
distance between two compressions or
rarefactions of a wave. The greater the
distance between two crests, the longer
the wavelength.
• Frequency (unit = hertz) is the number
of complete waves or vibrations that
pass a point each second. The more Direction of travel
wavelengths that pass in a second, the Figure 9.54 The distribution of particles of air as a
higher the frequency. sound wave moves through, from left to right. The
graph at the bottom shows how the air pressure varies
• Amplitude (unit = metre) is the between compressions and rarefactions, and shows
maximum displacement of air particles that sound can be described using the wave model.
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 Section 9.3 Sound 391

One wavelength occurs in each second (frequency), and this

increases the pitch of the sound. Low-
pitched sounds have a long wavelength,
Amplitude
high-pitched sounds have a short
wavelength.

Short wavelength means lots of waves;

high frequency, high pitch

Figure 9.55 The length of a wave, called its wavelength, is the

distance between two crests. The amplitude is the distance
from the centre line to the top. Long wavelength means fewer waves;
low frequency, low pitch

Looking at waves Try this 9.6 Figure 9.56 Which of the two waves do you think would
We can use water waves be a whistle and which would be a bass guitar?

to model the longitudinal waves that

Loudness
sound exhibits.
Half fill a deep tub with water and The energy of a wave depends on its
place a cork in the water, allowing it to amplitude. If you look at water waves, you
float. Using an eye dropper, release drops might notice that not all waves look the
of water next to the cork. Observe what same: some waves are bigger than others.
happens to the cork as the drops make If you were able to see sound waves, you
waves in the water. Now stop releasing would notice that loud sounds have a higher
the drops of water. What happens to amplitude than soft sounds. When a drum
the cork? Has it moved from its original is hit harder, with more energy, it sounds
position? louder – the loudness of the sound is a
measure of the sound energy.

Amplitude
Pitch
pitch The pitch of a sound is how
how high or low a sound
seems to our ears high or low it sounds to our
ears. The pitch of a sound
wave is determined by its wavelength and Quieter Louder
therefore its frequency. Shortening the Figure 9.57 The amplitude of a sound wave is an
wavelength increases how often the wave indication of the loudness of the sound.

1 Explain the difference between the terms ‘frequency’, ‘wavelength’ and ‘amplitude’. Quick check 9.12
Include the units.
2 Look at the waves shown in Figure 9.58, shown as pressure A B
against time, and answer the questions below.
a Which wave has the highest frequency?
b Which wave has the longest wavelength?
c Which wave do you expect to have the highest pitch? C D

d Which wave is the loudest?

Figure 9.58

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392 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Practical 9.7

Investigating the properties of sound

Aim
To investigate ways of altering pitch and loudness

Materials
• ruler • 2 straws • small beaker
• scissors • spatula • large beaker

Method
1 Position the ruler so half of it is hanging off the table.
2 Hold your hand firmly over the ruler and use your other hand to flick the edge hanging off the table.
3 Reposition the ruler so more is hanging over the edge, and repeat step 2.
4 Record your observations in results Table 1.
5 With the scissors cut a straw into two pieces, so that one piece of straw is double the length of the other piece.
6 Blow gently across the opening of the short straw, and then the long straw. Record your observations in
results Table 2.
7 Using the spatula, gently tap the side of the small beaker, then the large one. Record your observations in
results Table 3.

Results

Half ruler overhanging table More than half ruler

overhanging table
Observations on sound produced
Table 1 The difference in sound produced by different lengths of ruler vibrating

Shorter straw Longer straw

Observations on sound produced
Table 2 The difference in sound produced by different lengths of straw

Smaller beaker Larger beaker

Observations on sound produced

Table 3 The difference in sound produced by different-sized beakers

Evaluation
1 Explain how the sound changes when the vibrating part of the ruler is longer.
2 Explain how the sound changes when the straw is longer.
3 Explain how the sound changes when the beaker is bigger.
4 For each of the three parts of the practical, provide an example of an instrument that works by the same principles.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding frequency, loudness and the length of materials used. Start your sentence with: ‘This
experiment suggests that … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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 Section 9.3 Sound 393

Speed of sound flash of lightning and the time delay before

hearing the sound.
Have you ever seen a flash of lightning and
sometime later heard thunder? It usually WIDGET
Do you see any pattern in the graph? Lightning
takes a few seconds for the sound to travel
Look carefully, and you will see that speeds
from the lightning flash to your ears. This is
the line of the graph runs close to the
because light travels about 1 000 000 times
points (3, 1000), (6, 2000) and (9, 3000).
faster than sound, which travels at around
This gives a simple rule for calculating
340 metres per second.
the distance to a lightning strike: every
three seconds is about 1000 metres or
The graph in Figure 9.59 shows the
1 kilometre.
relationship between the distance to the

Time delay between lightning flash and sound of thunder

Distance to the lightning (m)

4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 9.59 Graph of the time between seeing lightning and hearing thunder versus distance to
the lightning

How far away is the storm? Try this 9.7

One way to determine the distance to a lightning strike is to make a movie of the thunderstorm.
Using a mobile device, record a video (from somewhere indoors) during a thunderstorm.
Analyse the video of the storm to accurately determine the time between the flash of lightning and the
beginning of the sound of the thunder.
Use the graph in Figure 9.59 to estimate the distance to the lightning.
Stay safe: Record your movie from a place indoors, at a safe distance from a window. This will work well, you
will not get wet, and it is not safe to be outside during a thunderstorm in case the lightning hits you.

Figure 9.60 Melbourne during a lightning storm

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394 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

through iron 16 times faster than through

When an object travelling Did you know? 9.9
through air breaks the sound
air. Animals such as whales and dolphins
barrier (travels faster than the speed of sound), it creates use sound to communicate over long
a shock wave, called a sonic boom. A sonic boom releases distances under water.
huge amounts of sound energy, similar to an explosion
or thunder. You hear the boom when the shockwave
reaches you.

Figure 9.61 Cloud forming behind an aircraft as it breaks the

sound barrier
Figure 9.62 Whales use sound to communicate over
long distances

The speed of a sound is not dependent on

Eavesdropping! Try this 9.8
how loud or quiet the sound is, or whether Gently place a wide glass
the pitch is high or low. We normally with its open end against a wall and put
hear sound travelling through the air, your ear next to the closed end. If there
but sound can also travel through other is a noise on the other side of the wall,
materials, such as liquids and solids, often you should be able to hear it through the
at much higher speeds (see Table 9.2). For glass. This shows that sound can travel
example, sound travels through water four through the wall as well as through air.
times faster than through air, and it travels

Substance Speed of sound

1 Estimate how Quick check 9.13
(m/s)
long after
Carbon dioxide* 260
seeing a flash of lightning it would take
Air* 330
to hear the thunder if the lightning
Hydrogen* 1300
strike was 1.5 km away.
Water 1400
2 Estimate how far away the lightning
Salt water 1500
is if you hear thunder 12 seconds after
Wood 4000–5000 the flash.
Glass 4500–5500 3 Explain what ‘the speed of sound’ is.
Steel 5000 4 State whether sound travels fastest
*Gases are at 0°C through solids, liquids or gases.
Table 9.2 Speed of sound in different substances

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 Section 9.3 Sound 395

Practical 9.8

Investigating the speed of sound

Aim
To investigate how sound travels more efficiently in solids than in air

Materials
• ticking watch
• wooden rule
• metal ruler
• spatula
• cotton thread

Method
1 Have your lab partner hold the ticking watch close to your ear and slowly move it away until
you cannot hear it anymore.
2 Measure the distance between your ear and where your partner is holding the watch.
Record this distance in the results table.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2, but this time hold the ruler carefully against your ear. Slide the watch
down the ruler until you cannot hear it anymore.
4 Cut a length of string approximately 80 cm and tie it to the spatula.
5 Swing the spatula so it hits the side of a lab bench. Listen to the sound it makes.
6 Repeat step 4, but hold the string against your ear. Listen to the sound it makes. Record
your observations in the results table.

Results

Distance/observations
Watch in air
Watch on ruler
Spatula in air
Spatula on string

Evaluation
1 Describe the difference in distance between when the watch was heard in air and when
it was heard on the ruler.
2 What effect did holding the string next to your ear have on the sound you heard?
3 Does sound travel more efficiently in air or through solids?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim regarding how well sound travels in different media. Start your sentence with:
‘This experiment suggests that sound travels more efficiently … ’.
2 Support your claim by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed
that … ’ and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how the data supports your claim. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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396 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Echo, echo, echo Explore! 9.5 Making waves Try this 9.9
An echo is a sound that is repeated due In pairs, grab a slinky
to sound waves being reflected back towards the listener. and have each person hold one end,
Sounds bounce off hard surfaces, so in small rooms with standing about five metres apart. While
hard walls, sounds are echoed more. one student holds their end as still
as possible, the other student moves
the other end up and down at just the
right frequency to make a standing
wave shaped like a skipping rope (see
Figure 9.64). Once the standing wave
is formed, it is easy to maintain but the
frequency has to stay the same. Try going
a little faster or slower – the standing
wave will disappear.

Figure 9.64 The shape of a standing wave

Figure 9.63 Bats use echolocation to navigate. Next, try making the slinky tighter
by holding it a little further in, removing
Find out about echolocation, sonar and ultrasound. Give some of the coils. Now that the slinky is
some examples of how they are used by humans and are tighter you should see that it has to be
found in nature. moved faster to get the same pattern as
before. The number of times the slinky
moves up and down in a second is called
its frequency.
Musical instruments Release the coils again and go back
to how you started. Now try moving the
Stringed instruments spring up and down at double the speed
Stringed instruments, such as the guitar and (frequency). A new standing wave will
the violin, consist of tight strings fitted over form (see Figure 9.65).
a hollow box that amplifies sound – this box
is called the body of the instrument.

standing wave When the string is plucked, it forms a

a wave that is trapped
between two fixed ends
standing wave and vibrates at a fixed
and moves backwards and
forwards, reflecting from
frequency. To see how a wave can
each end in turn form a standing wave, use a slinky.
Figure 9.65 A standing wave at a higher
frequency
Guitar strings form a wave pattern similar
to that of the slinky, as they are fixed at Experiment to see if more patterns can
each end and the string moves up and down be made if the slinky is moved even faster.
in the middle. The speed of vibration of

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 Section 9.3 Sound 397

affects the wavelength and frequency of

the note. As the string vibrates, it moves
backwards and forwards, making sound
waves. The sound waves are trapped in
the air in the body of the guitar, and are
amplified, creating the sound of the guitar.

Wind instruments
Figure 9.66 Guitar strings have different length,
Wind instruments rely on wind instrument
mass and tension, which all affect the sound the vibrations of air in a tube. arelies
musical instrument that
on air vibrating inside a
produced. To change the note produced, tube to make sound; includes
brass and woodwind

the wave in the guitar string can be altered only the length of the tube can instruments
by changing the tension in the string. You be altered, and different mechanisms have
might also notice that some strings have been invented to do this. Two categories of
more mass and vibrate more slowly than wind instruments are brass and woodwind.
other, lighter strings. The length of the
To make a sound with a brass instrument,
string is another factor that affects the note
the air vibrations are started by vibrating the
heard. Placing fingers on the frets alters
player’s lips inside the mouthpiece.
the effective length of the string, and this

Figure 9.67 A trumpet (shown at left) is a small brass instrument that makes notes with a high pitch. The
length of the tube is altered by opening valves with the three buttons, which allows air to vibrate in different
parts of the instrument. A trombone (shown at right) has a sliding tube. The tube is lengthened by moving the
end of the tube away from the player.

Bell

Mouthpiece Air molecules

Reed
moving in and out
Node
Air

Antinode

Figure 9.68 Sound is formed as the molecules of air move in and out of the open
end of the instrument.

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398 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

To make a sound with a woodwind allows the surface to be stretched or relaxed;

instrument, the air is made to vibrate at stretching the surface increases the pitch of
the mouthpiece end of the instrument. the note produced by the drum.
The is sometimes done with a single reed
(clarinets and saxophones), a double reed Direction of
sound wave
(oboes and bassoons) or an edge of the
mouthpiece (flutes).

Percussion instruments Compression

Drums, cymbals and tambourines are all Rarefaction

examples of percussion instruments. These

are instruments that make sound Air particles
percussion instrument
a musical instrument that when their surface vibrates. Because
is struck to make a sound;
often has a vibrating surface the player operates these instruments Vibrating drum

to make the sound (e.g. a

drum) with their muscles, a lot of energy
can be used to make the sound, and
this means percussion instruments can be
very loud. The bigger the instrument, the
lower the pitch of the sound it makes – big
bass drums make the lowest sound of all. Figure 9.69 A drum kit and a kettle drum after
Usually a drum has a fitting on the side that being struck.

Instrument or beatboxer? Science as a human endeavour 9.3

Beatboxing is a form of music in which
performers use their vocal tract to mimic
instrumental sounds. Researchers
have used real-time MRI to study how
beatboxers make percussive sounds.
This means the researchers are able to
observe the vocal tract of the beatboxer
as they make the sounds, to help them
differentiate between movements of the
vocal tract for speech and movements for
making beatboxing sounds. It turns out
that beatboxers can create sounds that are Figure 9.70 Beatboxers can figure out how to make
not found in any language in the world! sounds that mimic snare drums.

Make your own instrument Try this 9.10

It’s over to you! You must make your own instrument. It can be wind, stringed
or percussion. Musical instruments are easy to make out of scrap materials. Remember to
include a sound box like the one on a guitar, to increase the volume. Bottles can make a wind
instrument if you blow over the top – adding water to the bottle changes the note. Plastic pipe
makes a nice sound if you hit it with a soft shoe. What happens if you cover the end of the pipe
– does the note change? Your instrument must be able to play multiple notes, and you need to
be able to explain how it works, using scientific terminology.

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 Section 9.3 Sound 399

1 Provide an example of a stringed instrument. Quick check 9.14

2 Provide an example of a wind instrument.
3 Explain the difference between a brass instrument and a woodwind instrument.
4 Explain how percussion instruments create sound.

Acoustics Explore! 9.6

In places where good sound quality is important, such as concert halls, cinemas and
recording studios, the rooms are built in a certain way to facilitate this.
1 How does soundproofing work?
2 What types of surfaces absorb sound? What types reflect sound?
3 What kinds of features can be included in a room to improve the acoustics?

Figure 9.71 Soundproofing being used in a recording studio

Soundproofed into silence Science as a human endeavour 9.4

In order to develop new and improved hearing aids,
researchers have built a completely soundproof
room. Their goal is to create hearing aids that can
filter unwanted background noises. A regular lab
is too noisy to test such very sensitive equipment,
so they built a specialised one. This new chamber
will allow researchers to study where sounds come
from and how they travel.

Figure 9.72 Professor Ron Miles inside the completely

soundproof chamber

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400 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Section 9.3 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Recall the terms for the high-pressure and low-pressure areas of a sound wave.
2 Recall the speed of sound in air.
3 Copy and complete the table by providing definitions for the following terms.

Word Definition
Wavelength
Frequency
Amplitude
Pitch

4 Complete the following sentences.

Pitch is determined by the ____________________ of a wave.
Loudness is determined by the ____________________ of a wave.
5 Sound travels at different speeds in different substances. Arrange the following list of
substances in order from fastest to slowest.
Glass
Air
Hydrogen
Water
Steel

Understanding
6 Explain what is meant by the term ‘longitudinal wave’.
7 State whether sound would travel faster or slower on a hot day. Justify your response.
8 Explain why sound cannot travel through the vacuum of space.
9 Explain why you see the flash of lightning first before you hear the thunder.
10 Describe what happens to the frequency of a standing wave as the string gets shorter.

Applying
11 If you see a flash of lightning and 20 seconds later hear the thunder, calculate how far away
the storm is.
12 A sound wave has a frequency of 5 Hz and a wavelength of 3 m. Interpret what this means.
13 Use Figure 9.73 to explain why sound the loudness of a sound decreases as you move away
from the source of the sound.

Figure 9.73

14 Apply your knowledge of kinetic energy to sound. Explain how sound can be an example of
kinetic energy.
continued…

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 Section 9.4 Seeing and hearing 401

…continued
Analysing
15 Distinguish between how different notes are created in a stringed instrument and how they are created in a
wind instrument.
16 A cello is bigger than a viola, and a violin is smaller than a viola.
a Predict which of these three instruments is better for playing a high note.
b Predict which of the three instruments in part a would be better for a low note.
17 A piano is a stringed instrument with a different string for each note. If you were to look inside it, at the
strings, infer what you would expect to see for the low-pitched notes.

Evaluating
18 Predict the effect of altering the shape of the body of a guitar.
19 Propose a reason why cinemas have thick, heavy curtains all around the walls and everything is covered in
soft material.

Figure 9.74

9.4 Seeing and hearing

WORKSHEET

How the eye works As you can see in Figure 9.75 on the cornea
the transparent outer
next page, light enters the human eye covering of the eye
You already know that eyes are amazing,
through the cornea and then through pupil
and ever since you were little you have the circular black area
the small hole at the front, called in the centre of the eye,
probably been told to protect your eyes.
the pupil. The size of the pupil is through which light enters
This is because you only have one set of iris
controlled by the iris muscles, which the coloured circular part
eyes and they do not grow back if they get
form the coloured part of the eye. of the eye that surrounds
damaged. the black pupil

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402 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Cornea: clear protective covering in front of the iris

Vitreous Pupil: a gap in the front of the eye where light enters
humour Iris: muscles that change the size of the pupil to control the
Choroid amount of light entering the eye
Lens Lens: a convex shape that is flexible and helps to focus light
Retina on the back of the eye
Cornea Ciliary muscles: muscles that control the shape of the lens by
Fovea changing its shape
Pupil Vitreous humour: clear jelly-like substance in the eyeball
Optic through which light passes
Iris
nerve Choroid: contains the blood vessels that supply the retina
Retina: light-sensitive lining at the back of the eye that
Ciliary
converts light into electrical signals
muscle
Fovea: the point of best focus, and where the lens aims to
direct the light
Sclera Optic nerve: carries the information from the retina to the brain
Sclera: the white outer layer of the eyeball of the eye
Figure 9.75 The structure of the human eye, side-on view

If you are somewhere dark, the pupil’s on the retina. A tiny area of the eye where
size will increase to let in as much light the optic nerve connects to the retina
as possible. On a bright sunny day, the has no cells that detect light. This area
pupil’s size will reduce, to limit the is known as the blind spot.
amount of light that enters the
lens (eye)
a small disc of transparent eye. Just behind the iris is the lens When you change what you are looking at,
tissue behind the pupil that
allows near and far objects (just like the convex lenses you saw the lens automatically adjusts to become
to be focused
in Section 9.2), which produces a more curved for near objects and less
smaller upside down image on the retina curved for distant objects. The ciliary
of the image being looked at, and allows muscles controlling the lens are involuntary,
the eye to focus on distant and near which means you do not have to think
images. It focuses the light on the fovea, a about focusing when you lift your eyes
small area on the retina. The light from a book to look at a
retina
an area of tissue at the back passes through the pupil and the distant tree. This process accommodation
of the eye that contains cells automatic adjustments made by
that can detect light and lens, travels to the back of the eye, of adjustment is called the eye when looking at objects
colour
and forms an upside-down image accommodation. at different distances

Figure 9.76 The light reflected from the tree passes through the pupil and the lens to form an image on
the retina.

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 Section 9.4 Seeing and hearing 403

Practical 9.9

Eye dominance vs hand dominance

Most of us have a dominant hand, that is, the hand that we prefer to use for more precise performance. Just like a
dominant hand, most of us have a dominant eye. This is the eye that our brain has more of a preference for when
processing visual input. Visual information is still seen through both eyes, but more precise visual information
comes from the dominant eye. This is the eye that we should use in activities that involve aiming.

Aim
To determine if eye dominance is related to hand dominance.

Materials
An object on a wall or far away that can be the subject of focus.

Method
1 Will an individual’s eye dominance always be the same as their
hand dominance? Propose your hypothesis.
2 Use your dominant hand to create a ‘binocular’ with your fingers
as shown.
3 Find an object in the distance, such as a clock. With both eyes
open, try to view it through the hole.
4 Once you can clearly view the object through the hole, close your left eye so you are only looking at it with your
right eye. If you can see the object, then you are right eye dominant. If you cannot see it, then close your right eye
so you are only looking with your left eye. You should now be able to see it and it means you are left eye dominant.
5 Survey your entire class. Out of those who are right eye dominant, how many are right handed? How many are
left handed? Out of those who are left eye dominant, how many are left handed? How many are right handed?
Fill out the results table.

Results
Copy and complete this table using data from the entire class.

Right eye dominant Left eye dominant Total

Right hand dominant
Left hand dominant
Total

Evaluation
1 Out of the entire class, what percentage are right hand dominant? What percentage are left hand dominant?
Is there a preference? (Recall that to calculate the percentage of right hand dominant individuals, use
total number of right handdominant individuals
× 100)
ents in the class
total number of stude
2 Out of the entire class, what percentage are right eye dominant? What percentage are left eye dominant?
Is there a preference?
3 Are all right hand dominant individuals right eye dominant as well? What of left eye dominance?
4 Does your data support the hypothesis?

Conclusion
1 Give a statement regarding what claim could be made from this experiment on eye dominance. Start your
sentence with: ‘This experiment suggests that eye dominance … ’.
2 Support the statement by using what you observed. Start your sentence with: ‘It was observed that … ’ and
include potential measurement uncertainties and experimental faults.
3 Explain how the observation supports the statement. Start your sentence with: ‘This means that … ’.

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404 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

Different eyes Explore! 9.7 1 Draw a flow chart to Quick check 9.15
Not all eyes are the same. summarise the path of
Some organisms have very different eyes, light from outside the eye to the retina.
depending on how they live. In fact, most animals 2 Copy and complete the following table.
see very differently to one another. The world looks
Part of the eye Function
very different to a bee than the way we see it!
1 How does an earthworm see? Cornea
2 How are scallop’s eyes different to those of To focus light onto the retina
almost every other animal on the planet? Retina
3 How does the position of the eyes on the Optic nerve
face differ between animals? How does this
change their view of the world?

Different-shaped Science as a human endeavour 9.5

windows for seeing
Researchers have found that an animal’s ecological niche (the environment
in which it lives) determines the shape of its pupil. Remember, the pupil
is the hole through which light is let into the eye. In humans, the pupil is
round. Some animals, such as cats, have slits for pupils. This is typical
of animals that are active in both the daytime and the nighttime. Grazing
animals, such as sheep, have horizontally elongated pupils, in order to
Figure 9.77 Close-up view of a cat’s
eye. The pupil is a vertical slit. easily survey the landscape for predators.

Corrective technology the lens, helping by adding a little bit of extra

Sometimes the eye needs a bit of help. For curvature to the lens.
example, the lens in a person’s eye may be
unable to curve sufficiently to enable them to People who are short-sighted short-sighted
see nearby objects. If this is the case, they can can see near objects clearly but able to see close things
clearly, but not things that
see distant objects clearly but near objects are distant objects are fuzzy or are far away

fuzzy. We call this condition long- blurred. The lens in their eye is too curved,
long-sighted
able to see distant things clearly, sightedness and for many people or their eyeball is too long. Concave lenses
but not things that are close
it starts in middle age. Because the can be used to cancel some of the effect of
activity most associated with close-up vision the curved lens in the eye and can enable
is reading, the glasses used to treat long- the person to see distant objects clearly.
sightedness are often called reading glasses. Contact lenses act in a similar way and are an
Reading glasses are essentially a support for alternative to wearing glasses.

Condition Cause Solution

Long-sighted The lens in the eye is Convex lenses worn
not curved enough as glasses to provide
extra curvature
Short-sighted The lens in the eye is Concave lenses worn
too curved as glasses to cancel
some of the curvature

Table 9.3 Causes and solutions for long-sightedness and short- Figure 9.78 Reading glasses are designed to help
sightedness people who are long-sighted.

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 Section 9.4 Seeing and hearing 405

Correcting sight Explore! 9.8

There are a number of Inner ear
problems people can have with their sight.
Cochlea
Some of them can be corrected using
surgery. An ophthalmologist is a doctor
who treats people with eye disorders and
diseases. Auditory
1 List the different types of eye surgery Nerve
that are available.
2 Pick one type of surgery and explain
why someone would need it.
3 What is the process involved in your Eardrum Incus
chosen surgery? Stapes
Malleus
4 What is the outcome for the patient
undergoing your chosen surgery? Middle ear
Earlobe Ear canal

Outer ear

1 Explain Quick check 9.16 Ear canal: funnels sound waves into the middle ear
what the Eardrum: receives vibrations from the ear canal and passes them
terms ‘long-sightedness’ and on to the malleus, incus and stapes

‘short-sightedness’ mean. Cochlea: contains fluid that detects vibrations from the middle ear
and converts them to electrical signals
2 Explain how reading glasses help
Auditory nerve: collects electrical signals from the cochlea
long-sighted people.
and sends them to the brain for interpretation
Figure 9.79 The structure of the human ear

How the ear works

passed on to three tiny bones, called the
Like the eye, the ear is amazing! How does incus, the malleus and the stapes. These
it turn vibrating air particles into messages three bones together are part of the middle
our brain understands as sound? Let’s have ear. The eardrum causes these three bones
a look at the structure of the ear. to move, and in turn this causes the cochlea
a spiral tube inside the inner
vibration of fluids in the cochlea. ear that is the main organ of
In order for us to hear a sound, the energy This part of the ear is the inner ear. hearing
from the sound needs to be transmitted
from our outer ear to our inner ear. Finally, in the cochlea, the vibrations are
However, it must pass through a number converted into electrical impulses, which
of structures before it gets there. The travel along the auditory nerve to the brain,
part of the ear that you can see has the where they are interpreted as sound.
job of funnelling sound waves from the
environment into the ear. The sound waves You have already learned that the loudness
travel through the ear canal of a sound depends on the amplitude of
ear canal
a tube that connects the and arrive at the eardrum. the sound wave. The unit of measurement
outer ear and the middle ear
As you know, sound is the for loudness of sound is the decibel (dB).
eardrum
a thin piece of skin inside the vibration of particles – these Carrying on a normal conversation with
ear that moves backwards
and forwards very quickly vibrations cause the eardrum someone is usually around 60 dB. A rock
when sound waves reach it
to vibrate. The vibrations are concert is around 105 dB. Humans can

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406 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

hear sounds as low as 0 dB – this limit is any sounds at all. This kind of impairment
called the threshold of hearing. Meanwhile, can sometimes be solved with a cochlear
anything at about 90 dB can start to damage implant.
your hearing. Sounds louder than 120 dB
can quickly cause irreversible damage. Unlike a hearing aid, which is worn outside
the ear, a cochlear implant is surgically
Corrective technology placed inside the ear. It consists of a
Some people who experience mild hearing microphone worn outside the ear to detect
loss wear a hearing aid. Hearing aids make sounds, and a processor that can be worn
sounds louder, so people with hearing in a pocket that converts the sound into
loss can participate in everyday life more electrical signals. These signals are sent to
effectively. However, some people have the implant in the cochlea, which stimulates
severely impaired hearing and cannot hear the auditory nerve.

1 Copy and complete the Quick check 9.17

following table.

Part of the ear Function

Contains fluid that detects vibrations
from the middle ear and converts this
to electrical signals
Eardrum
Ear canal
Collects electrical signals from the
cochlea and sends them to the brain
for interpretation Figure 9.80 A cochlear implant. A microphone
outside the ear can be seen. The transmitter
2 Recall the threshold of human hearing. behind the ear sends electrical signals through to
the implant in the cochlea.

Figure 9.81 Left: A person wearing a hearing aid. Right: A person with a cochlear implant fitted

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 Section 9.4 Seeing and hearing 407

Protecting our hearing Did you know? 9.10

Excessive noise can damage the delicate
hearing cells in the inner ear. People who
work with noisy machinery can be exposed
to sounds above 90 dB, which can damage
their hearing over time. If the delicate hair
cells that detect sound in the inner ear are
damaged, they cannot be replaced. This
can cause hearing loss or a disorder called
tinnitus, where a person permanently
hears a ringing noise in their ears. To
prevent this from occurring, people who
are constantly exposed to loud sounds
wear ear muffs to protect their hearing.

Figure 9.82 People who work with aircraft can be exposed to sounds
above 140 dB, so they wear ear muffs.

1 Recall one reason why someone can lose their hearing. Quick check 9.18
2 Explain the difference between a hearing aid and a cochlear implant.

Music to my ears Science as a human endeavour 9.6

Although cochlear implants enable people to hear sounds when
they would not be able to otherwise, the sounds are not as clear as they would be for a person with normal
hearing. The implants are designed to process speech, so listening to music is nearly impossible. Researchers
are currently trying to develop music that listeners with cochlear implants can enjoy. The researchers are trying
to isolate the parts of music that are most enjoyable, such as the vocals, in order to simplify it.

Section 9.4 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 State which structures in the eye bends light.
2 Name the type of lens that is in the human eye.
3 Recall the parts of the ear that make up the middle ear.
4 Define the term ‘accommodation’.
5 Recall the purpose of the ear canal.

Understanding
6 Explain how the iris and the pupil work together.
7 Explain which part of the eye deteriorates over time, causing long-sightedness.
8 Draw a diagram showing how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina.
9 Explain how the shape of the lens changes if an object is:
a up close
b far away.
10 Explain which part of the eye corresponds to our ‘blind spot’.
continued…

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408 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

…continued
Applying
11 Suggest which type of corrective lens a person with long-sightedness should be wearing.
12 State what will happen to your pupil in the following situations:
a standing outside on a sunny day
b walking into a dark room.
13 Describe the shape of the pupil of animals that need to watch the landscape for predators.
14 ‘Retinal detachment’ occurs when the retina becomes separated from the back of the eye. It is a medical
emergency. Apply your knowledge of the retina to explain why it is an emergency. Use Figure 9.75 to help you.

Analysing
15 Predict whether light speeds up or slows down as it enters the cornea. Justify your prediction.
16 Compare and contrast the kinds of corrective technology needed for long-sightedness versus short-
sightedness. Explain the reasons for the difference.
17 Suggest what may happen to a person’s hearing if they had to get their outer ear removed.

Evaluating
18 Suggest why people need to return to the optometrist every year to get their eyes checked.
19 State what may happen to a person’s ability to hear if their eardrum has burst. Explain your answer.

Review questions

Remembering
1 State the unit of frequency of waves, and describe what it measures.
SCORCHER
2 Define the threshold of hearing.
3 Complete the following sentence.
Sound waves are ______________ waves, whereas electromagnetic radiation is made up of
______________ waves.
4 State which types of electromagnetic radiation have a higher frequency than visible light.
5 State what occurs when light encounters:
a a transparent surface
b a translucent surface
c an opaque surface.

Understanding
6 Describe the difference between compression and rarefaction.
7 Explain what is necessary for a sound wave to travel from one place to another.
8 Explain why the image formed on our retina is upside down, and suggest why we do not see
the world upside down.
9 Explain how wearing glasses can help correct sight problems such as long- and short-
sightedness.
10 Explain why a concave lens creates a reduced image, and why this is called a ‘virtual’ image.

Applying
11 State whether altering the frequency or the amplitude would be required in the following
situations.
a singing a higher-pitched note
b going from a high note to a low note on the guitar
c changing from talking to whispering

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 Chapter 9 REVIEW QUESTIONS 409

12 Two astronauts are completing a space walk outside the International Space Station.
a Explain why radios are necessary for communication between the two astronauts.
b Imagine that the radios were broken. Suggest some other ways the astronauts could
communicate.
13 A person standing one kilometre away shoots a gun. You see the flash of light to indicate that
the gun has been fired but you do not hear anything immediately.
a Suggest why this is the case.
b If it takes three seconds after you see the gun fire to hear the gunshot, calculate the speed
of the sound.
c Discuss how close this value is to the actual speed of sound.
d Suggest some reasons why it may be different.
14 If you wrote the word SCIENCE on a piece of
paper and held it up to a plane mirror, draw
what the reflection in the mirror would look like.

Analysing
15 Figure 9.83 shows a crowd at a sporting event
participating in a Mexican wave. State whether
a Mexican wave is an example of a transverse
wave or a longitudinal wave. Justify your
response.
16 Use the data in the table to answer the
Figure 9.83
questions below.
a Suggest one reason why wood
Substance Speed of sound (m/s)
and glass are given ranges for
Carbon dioxide (0°C) 260
the speed of sound.
Air (0°C) 330
b Predict whether the speed of
sound would be faster or slower Hydrogen (0°C) 1300
through hydrogen at a higher Water 1400
temperature. Salt water 1500
c Justify your response to part b. Wood 4000–5000
17 Suggest some careers where Glass 4500–5500
excessive exposure to loud noises Steel 5000
occur. Propose some policies that
could be put in place to prevent permanent hearing loss.

Evaluating
18 The table shows the average smallest distance at which a person
Age Smallest
can see a clear image, at different ages. Use the table to answer the
distance
questions that follow.
(mm)
a Suggest why sight gets worse with age.
10 7.5
b Propose whether convex or concave lenses would be the best
20 9
corrective strategy for an older person. Justify your proposition.
30 12
c Find out the closest distance at which an image still appears
40 18
clear for you. Compare this to the information in the table,
stating whether it is accurate. 50 40
d If the information did not match up with someone’s own 60 90
experience, suggest why this may be the case.

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410 Chapter 9 LIGHT AND SOUND

STEM activity: Accessible musical instruments

Background information
VCSSU106 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
Music is part of most people’s lives. Whether you
listen to music, play an instrument or even create
your own music, it is something that most people (usually by opening and closing holes). In a stringed
encounter every day. Music can be defined as instrument, the pitch can be varied by changing the
sounds that are organised in time and can vary tension in the string, the length of the string or the
in pitch (the frequency of the sound), dynamics mass (thickness) of the string.
(loudness and softness) and timbre (the tone of Musical instruments have been developed by
the sound). every human culture in history, a uniquely human
All musical instruments have three main trait. Studies have shown that listening to music can
components: reduce anxiety, depression and even pain, and it can
• a primary vibrator that produces the sound improve memory, mood and even sleep. Learning to
(for example, a violin string when you draw a play an instrument has positive effects on the brain,
bow across it, or a flute mouthpiece when you which translate to other areas of learning. Because
blow across it) music strengthens neural pathways, it can also help
• a primary resonator that amplifies the sound to delay ageing of the brain.
(for example, the space inside a violin or a flute) Traditionally, people with a disability have been
• an opening for the sound to effuse (flow out) limited in the ways they can engage with music,
from (for example, the F-holes of a violin or the because of the fine motor skills usually associated
open end of a flute). with learning to play an instrument. Engineers
Pitch is varied in different ways, depending on have been able to modify existing instruments or
the type of instrument. In a wind instrument, the design new ones so that people with disabilities can
pitch is varied by changing the length of the tube engage with music.

Figure 9.84 In musical instruments, vibration produces sound, and this sound is amplified in the body of the instrument.

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 STEM activity ACCESSIBLE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 411

Design brief: Design and build an accessible

Suggested materials
musical instrument from recycled materials. • plastic containers
• elastic bands
• bottles
Activity instructions • icy pole sticks
In small groups, your task is to design and build • scissors
a musical instrument that is accessible to people • cardboard
with a disability, or the elderly. The first step will be
to decide what type of condition you would like to Evaluate and modify
cater for. You may need to do some research into the
1 Discuss the challenges you came across when
condition, to help you understand potential problems
designing and building your musical instrument,
that elderly people or people with a disability may
and list the methods you used to overcome these.
encounter in using traditional instruments.
2 Describe the method by which your instrument
You will then need to decide what type of
produces sound and changes pitch.
instrument to build (for example, stringed, wind,
3 Evaluate how easy or difficult your instrument is
percussion) and consider the three components
to use and/or to learn to use.
required to produce a musical sound. Your
4 Suggest some improvements to your instrument
instrument should be built out of everyday materials
that could make it easier to use.
and should be able to produce a variety of pitches.

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412

Glossary
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
bar graph a type of graph used to display the frequency antibiotic a medicine or chemical that can destroy
of a qualitative variable (category) harmful bacteria in the body or limit their growth
bias when a source of information is influenced by bacteria very small organisms with prokaryote cells
personal opinion or judgement that are found everywhere and are the cause of many
continuous data quantitative (numerical) data points diseases
that have a value within a range; this type of data is binary fission a mode of asexual reproduction by
usually measured bacteria, where genetic information is copied and the
controlled variable a variable in an experiment that cell splits in half
must be kept constant, so it does not affect the cell membrane the barrier that separates the inside of
dependent variable the cell from the external environment
dependent variable the variable in an experiment that cell wall a rigid structure that surrounds each plant
you measure cell, shaping and supporting the cell
discrete data quantitative (numerical) data points that chloroplast a structure in a plant cell that contains
have whole numbers; this type of data is usually counted chlorophyll
extrapolation using existing data (such as a line of best cytosol the water-based mixture that fills the cell,
fit) outside the original data set to make a prediction containing different molecules large and small; many
hypothesis a prediction, or educated guess, about the chemical processes that happen within a cell occur in
effect that the independent variable will have on the the cytosol
dependent variable; a prediction of the outcome of an endoplasmic reticulum a network of tubes within a cell
experiment that transports substances inside the cell
independent variable the variable in an experiment that genetic material the code that allows the cell to
you manipulate, change or test produce copies of itself and to regulate the functions
interpolation using existing data (such as a line of within the cell
best fit) within the original data set to make a reliable Golgi body a structure in a cell involved in transport
prediction between the inside and outside of the cell
line graph a type of graph used to display how a mitochondrion a structure in a cell that converts the
continuous quantitative variable changes over time or energy from food into the form needed by the cell
in reference to another variable mitosis the type of cell division in which one cell
nominal data qualitative (categorical) data where the divides into two cells that are exactly the same
categories have no order, e.g. male, female multicellular made of many cells
ordinal data qualitative (categorical) data where the nucleus part of a cell that contains the genetic material
categories have an order, e.g. small, medium, large
pluripotent stem cell a cell that is able to develop into
outlier an extreme data value that is very different many different types of cell
from the other data, and could be the result of faulty
protist a unicellular, eukaryotic organism that is part of
procedure
the kingdom Protista
primary source a source of information that comes
ribosome a structure in a cell that produces protein
from your own findings or experiments
from amino acids
qualitative data data values that are worded/
unicellular made of just one cell
descriptive/categorical in nature
vacuole a structure in a plant cell that stores water and
quantitative data data values that are numerical in
nutrients
nature
secondary source a source of information that comes Chapter 3
from someone else’s research or findings alveoli the tiny sacs at the end of bronchioles in the
trend a pattern in a graph that shows the general lungs; the site of gas exchange with capillaries
direction/shape of the relationship between the anus the opening at the end of the digestive tract,
dependent and independent variables through which solid waste leaves the body

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 Glossary 413

aorta the largest vessel leaving the heart, from the left mechanical digestion a series of mechanical processes
ventricle, carrying oxygenated blood to the body that breaks food down, such as chewing with teeth,
artery a thick, muscular elastic vessel that carries mixing in the stomach and emulsification with bile
blood away from the heart neuron a nerve cell
atrium one of the two upper chambers of the heart, the organ a group of tissues working together to perform
left atrium and right atrium a function
bile a substance produced in the liver and stored in organ rejection when an organ transplant recipient’s
the gall bladder that helps break down fats immune system recognises the organ as foreign and
bolus a lump of partially digested food attacks it
bronchi the two branches of the airways that split off organ transplantation the process of removing a donor
the trachea, one main left bronchus to the left lung organ and then surgically implanting it into a recipient,
and one main right bronchus to the right lung to improve their organ function or replace a diseased
organ
bronchioles smaller branching tubes that branch off
the two large bronchi and lead to the alveoli pancreas an organ that secretes pancreatic juices
containing enzymes into the duodenum to assist with
capillaries the smallest blood vessels, one cell thick,
the digestion of food
and the site of gas exchange with cells
pharynx the throat region where the nasal cavity and
carnivore a consumer (heterotroph) that feeds on
oral cavity meet, leading into the trachea
animal matter
plasma the yellow liquid component that makes up 55%
cellular respiration a process that occurs inside the
of blood; carries water, dissolved gases and hormones
mitochondria, where oxygen and glucose react to form
carbon dioxide and water, producing useable energy platelets tiny fragments of cells that assist with blood
clotting
chemical digestion a series of chemical reactions that
breaks food into simpler chemical substances that rectum the second-last section of the large intestine;
can be used by the body stores faeces
chyme a partially digested mass of food after it leaves saliva liquid secreted by the digestive system to
the stomach lubricate a bolus of food; also contains enzymes to
assist chemical digestion
diaphragm a dome-shaped muscle that separates the
chest and abdominal cavities; it contracts to cause us sinoatrial node a natural pacemaker that controls the
to inhale heartbeat and is located in the wall of the right atrium
duodenum the first section of the small intestine sphincter a muscle that surrounds an opening in the
body and can tighten to close it, e.g. at the bottom of
enzyme a protein that can help speed up chemical
the oesophagus, leading into the stomach
reactions
stomata tiny pores (holes) in leaves that allow entry/
ethical relating to ethics, the field of considering what
exit of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
is right and wrong
structure the shape of an object
function the job that an object does
tissue a group of cells performing the same function
gall bladder a small gland near the liver that stores bile,
and secretes it into the duodenum trachea the tube that carries air down to the lungs; also
known as the windpipe
guard cells the cells on either side of a plant stoma that
control gas exchange by opening and closing the stoma vein a thin-walled vessel with valves that carries blood
back to the heart
haemoglobin the red pigment in blood that binds to
oxygen, allowing red blood cells to carry oxygen vena cava the large vessel that returns deoxygenated
blood to the heart, emptying into the right atrium
herbivore a consumer (heterotroph) that feeds on plant
matter ventricle one of the lower two chambers of the heart,
the left and right ventricles
ileum the third section of the small intestine, where
further food breakdown and nutrient absorption occur villi finger-like structures in the digestive system that
have a high surface area and rich blood supply for
jejunum the second section of the small intestine,
absorption of nutrients
where food breakdown and nutrient absorption occur
xenotransplantation transplanting organs from one
lenticels small slits on trunks or branches of trees that
species into another
allow gas exchange

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414 Glossary

Chapter 4 puberty the time of transition from juvenile form to

asexual reproduction a method of reproduction in which adult form
there is one parent organism and all offspring are scrotum a sac that encloses the testes
genetically identical sexual reproduction a method of reproduction in which
binary fission a mode of asexual reproduction by there are two parent organisms and genetic variation
bacteria, where genetic information is copied and the in the offspring
cell splits in half spore an asexual reproductive cell produced by
budding a mode of asexual reproduction by organisms organisms such as fungi and ferns
such as yeast and hydra, where the daughter organism vegetative propagation a form of asexual reproduction
grows off the side of the parent and drops off where only one plant is involved
cloaca a hole used for defecating, urinating and giving zygote a fertilised egg cell
birth that is present in some amphibians, reptiles,
birds, fish and monotremes Chapter 5
embryo a fertilised egg cell that has begun dividing atom the smallest possible piece of any substance; it
makes up all matter
external fertilisation a mode of fertilisation in which
gametes are released into the environment and bonds forces of attraction that hold atoms together
fertilisation occurs outside the body chemical formula a symbol for a compound that
fragmentation a mode of asexual reproduction by shows which elements, and how many atoms of
flatworms, where they can be cut and regrow into two each element, are present in one molecule of that
genetically identical organisms compound
gametes the sex cells (eggs and sperm), each of which chemical properties the behaviour of a substance when
contains half the genetic material required to make an it reacts with another substance
organism compound substance made up of two or more different
gestation the pregnancy period, when the offspring are types of atoms
developing inside the mother conductivity the ability of a substance to conduct or
gonads the reproductive organs, where gametes are carry electricity and heat
produced; testes for males and ovaries for females crystal lattice a three-dimensional shape that allows
internal fertilisation a mode of fertilisation in metal atoms to pack together very tightly and form
which male gametes are delivered into the female bonds that are extremely strong because the atoms
reproductive system and fertilisation takes place bond to each other in all directions
inside the female diatomic a molecule consisting of two atoms of the
menstrual cycle a cycle controlled by hormones same type
to prepare the body for fertilisation of an egg; if ductility the ability of a substance to be drawn into a
fertilisation does not occur, menstruation will follow wire
menstruation the cyclical shedding of the unfertilised element substance made up of only one type of atom
egg and the uterine lining; also known as menstrual or molecule
period flammability the ability of a substance to ignite
nectar a sweet liquid produced by flowers to attract heterogeneous describes a mixture that can be
pollinators separated into its parts, and the parts retain their
ovulation the release of an ovum (egg) into the original properties; the mixture is not blended evenly
Fallopian tube homogeneous describes a mixture of two or more
ovule a structure in a flowering plant where the female substances that are evenly distributed and do not
gamete is produced and where seeds develop separate out
ovum egg lustre the ability of a substance to become shiny when
parthenogenesis a mode of asexual reproduction by polished
some insects and reptiles, where females give birth to malleability the ability of a substance to be bent or
unfertilised eggs that hatch to produce offspring that flattened into a range of shapes
are genetically identical to the mother metalloid a substance that has some of the properties
pollen the male gamete in flowering plants of both metals and non-metals
pollination the process by which pollen sticks to the metal a substance that is shiny, can conduct electricity,
female structures of a plant and fertilises the ovule can be bent, is usually silver/grey and is ductile

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 Glossary 415

mixture a substance made up of two or more different freezing the process in which heat is lost, causing a
pure substances (compounds or elements) that are not liquid to become a solid
bonded together galvanisation the process of coating iron or steel in
molecule two or more atoms joined together by bonds zinc to prevent corrosion
monatomic made up of single atoms, all of one type irreversible incapable of going in the opposite direction
non-metal a substance that is dull, cannot conduct melting the process in which heat causes a solid to
electricity, is brittle and is not ductile become a liquid
periodic table a list of all the known elements and their physical change when the physical properties of a
symbols substance change in some way, but no new substance
physical properties the way substances look and act, is formed; it is reversible; examples are a change in
e.g. colour, melting point, hardness, boiling point and shape, expansion and contraction, change in state,
density mixing and dissolving
polymer a compound made of molecules that are long precipitate the solid that forms when two clear
chains of atoms in a pattern that repeats solutions are mixed together and undergo a chemical
change
pure substance a substance made up of only one type of
atom or one type of molecule. precipitation a reaction that involves the mixing of two
clear solutions to produce a solid called a precipitate
Chapter 6 products the substances that are present at the end of
bioluminescence a chemical reaction that produces a chemical reaction
light in living things reactants the substances that are present at the
chemical change when the chemical properties of a beginning of a chemical reaction
substance change and a new substance is formed; reversible capable of going in the opposite direction
irreversible; indicators of chemical change include
synthesis a reaction in which two (or more) elements
colour change, change in temperature, gas or
or reactants combine to form one new substance or
precipitate being produced
product
chemiluminescence a chemical reaction that produces
thermal decomposition decomposition that occurs
light
when a substance is heated
combustion a reaction that involves the burning or
exploding of a substance, usually in the presence of Chapter 7
oxygen biological weathering the disintegration of rocks by
condensation the process in which heat is lost, causing living things
a gas to become a liquid breccia sedimentary rock composed of angular broken
contraction the process of getting smaller, the atoms pieces of rock larger than 2 millimetres
in a substance move closer together as they cool cementation the sticking together of sediment
corrosion the gradual and natural process of metals central core the solid centre of the Earth, probably
breaking down; an example is rusting made of iron
decomposition a reaction in which one substance chemical weathering the disintegration of rocks caused
(reactant) breaks up into smaller ones (products) by substances dissolving in water
diffusion the movement of atoms/molecules until they cleavage the tendency of a mineral or rock to break in a
are evenly spread out; occurs in a liquid or a gas particular way because of its structure
dissolving the process in which a substance (solute) compaction the process of parts becoming closely
breaks up into small particles that can no longer be positioned together using very little space
seen in a solution
conglomerate sedimentary rock composed of rounded
endothermic describes a chemical reaction in which rock fragments larger than 2 millimetres
energy is absorbed from the surroundings
crust the solid outer layer of the Earth; continental
evaporation the process in which heat causes a liquid crust is on average 50 km thick and the average
to become a gas thickness of the oceanic crust is 20 km
exothermic describes a chemical reaction in which crystal a mineral in which the atoms are arranged in an
heat or another form of energy is released ordered way to form a geometric shape
expansion the process of getting larger, the atoms in a deep time the idea first suggested by James Hutton
substance move further apart as they heat up that the Earth is very old

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416 Glossary

deposition process that occurs when eroded particles rock cycle the constant process of change that rocks
stop moving and build up to form sedimentary rocks go through, between igneous, metamorphic and
electrolysis a method of extracting a metal from its ore sedimentary forms
or purifying it using electricity sedimentary describes rocks made from deposited
erosion the transport of rocks from one place to materials that are the products of weathering and
another as a result of weathering erosion
extrusive describes rocks formed on the Earth’s sediments sand, stones, etc. that slowly form a layer
surface, also called volcanic rocks of rock
fossil the shape of a bone, shell, plant or animal that seismology the use of shockwaves to investigate the
has been preserved in rock for a very long time structure of rocks underground
geology the study of the rocks that make up the smelting the process of getting a metal from rock by
surface of the Earth heating it to a very high temperature
igneous describes rocks made from lava on the streak test a test used to help identify a mineral by
surface or magma below the surface scratching a rock on a hard ceramic tile
intrusive describes igneous rocks formed underground; surface mining method of mining that extracts a
also called plutonic rocks mineral by digging an open pit
karst an area of land formed of rock such as limestone translucent allowing some light through, but no clear
that is worn away by water to make caves and other image can be seen through the substance
formations transparent allowing light to pass through, and a clear
lava molten rock from inside the Earth (called magma) image can be seen through the substance
that has reached the surface underground mining traditional method of mining by
lithospere the solid outer layer of the Earth; includes digging tunnels underground to extract ore
the crust and uppermost mantle
Chapter 8
magma molten rock under the Earth’s surface
chemical potential energy the energy stored in the
mantle the layer of solid and semi-molten rock that molecules of a chemical
surrounds the outer core and extends up to the Earth’s
conduction the process by which thermal energy
crust
travels through a material or between materials
metamorphic describes rocks that are changed by from hot regions to cooler regions by the collisions of
being exposed to high temperature, pressure or both molecules
meteorite a rock from space (meteor) that has entered conductor a substance or material that allows heat to
the atmosphere as a ‘shooting star’ and reached the pass through it easily
ground
convection the flow of thermal energy though a fluid
mineral a valuable or useful chemical substance that is material by the movement of the material itself, often
formed naturally in the ground caused by temperature differences.
Mohs scale a scale from 1 to 10 that indicates the efficiency the percentage of input energy that is
hardness of a rock converted to useful energy by a machine
opaque blocking light completely elastic potential energy the energy stored when an
ore a rock that can be mined and smelted to produce elastic material is compressed or stretched
a metal electrical energy energy carried by electricity moving in
outer core the liquid layer surrounding the central core, a wire; voltage is used to measure how much energy is
also probably made of iron carried by each unit of electricity
physical weathering the breaking down of rocks into electromagnetic spectrum a way of organising
smaller particles by contract with other rocks, wind, electromagnetic waves according to their frequency
water or ice energy the capacity to do work; the total amount of
radioactivity energy released from the nucleus of an energy is conserved in any process
atom when the atom decays; the age of rocks can be energy transfer the movement of energy from one place
determined by measuring their radioactivity or object to another
rock solid material forming the Earth’s crust; rocks are fossil fuel a non-renewable source of energy obtained
formed as part of the rock cycle from oil, coal or gas

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 Glossary 417

generator a device that converts rotational kinetic temperature a measure of the average kinetic energy of
energy into electrical energy, the opposite of a motor the particles making up the material
geothermal energy thermal energy that originates from thermal energy the kinetic energy of particles of matter
inside the Earth travelling wave a wave that can carry energy from one
gravitational potential energy a type of mechanical place to another
energy; the energy an object has because of its height; turbine a device that converts the kinetic energy of a
GPE = mgh fluid into rotational motion, for example a windmill
heat thermal energy that is in transit due to useful energy the output energy that a machine is
differences in temperature designed to produce; an efficient machine will
hydroelectric power a renewable source of energy maximise the useful energy it creates
harnessing the gravitational potential energy of water waste energy the output energy that a machine creates
to generate electrical energy that is not useful; waste energy is often in the form of
input energy the energy that a machine or device uses thermal energy and sound
as its source of energy wave energy the energy carried by a travelling wave
insulator a substance or material that does not allow (e.g. an ocean swell) or trapped in a standing wave
heat to pass through it easily (e.g. a guitar string)
joule the unit of energy or work done
Chapter 9
kinetic energy the energy an object has because it is
absorb to take up the energy of a wave, e.g. absorb light
moving
accommodation automatic adjustments made by the
law of conservation of energy the law that states that
eye when looking at objects at different distances
energy cannot be created or destroyed
amplitude the distance of a wave crest from the
light energy a form of energy that we can see with our
middle position
eyes; part of the electromagnetic spectrum
angle of incidence the angle between an incident light
magma molten rock under the Earth's surface
ray and the normal when the ray arrives at a surface
non-renewable existing in limited quantities that
angle of reflection the angle between a reflected light
cannot be replaced after they have all been used
ray and the normal, when the ray leaves a surface
nuclear energy a non-renewable source of energy that
cochlea a spiral tube inside the inner ear that is the
uses the energy released by the nucleus of radioactive
main organ of hearing
atoms
compression the part of a sound wave where the air
output energy the energy that a machine or device
molecules are squashed together
provides or wastes
concave having an outline that is thinner in the middle,
potential energy the energy stored in something
or a mirror that is curved inwards, like a cave
because of its height above the ground, or because it
is stretched or compressed, or in chemical form convex having an outline that is thicker in the middle,
or a mirror that bulges outwards
radiation one of the three ways that thermal energy can
travel, and the only way that heat can travel through a cornea the transparent outer covering of the eye
vacuum diffraction the bending of waves with long wavelengths
radioactive having or producing the energy that comes around a barrier
from the breaking up of atoms ear canal a tube that connects the outer ear and the
renewable can be produced as quickly as it is used middle ear

rotational kinetic energy the energy an object has eardrum a thin piece of skin inside the ear that moves
backwards and forwards very quickly when sound
because it is rotating
waves reach it
solar energy a renewable source of energy that
electromagnetic spectrum a way of organising
converts sunlight directly into electrical energy or
electromagnetic waves according to their frequency
thermal energy
electromagnetic wave a wave that has both electrical and
sound energy a form of travelling wave; sound consists
magnetic components; one of the ways energy travels
of vibrations in air
frequency the number of vibrations of a wave per second
sustainable causing little or no damage to the
environment and therefore able to continue for a fluorescent describes a substance that emits light
long time under an ultraviolet light source

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418 Glossary

gamma rays high-energy rays produced when rarefaction the part of a sound wave where the air
radioactive atoms decay; they have a very short molecules are spread apart
wavelength and can cause cancer reflect to throw back the energy of a wave (e.g. heat,
Global Positioning System (GPS) a system of satellites light, sound) without absorbing it
that transmit microwaves and are used to find the reflected ray a ray of light that is reflected off a surface
precise location of objects on the Earth
refraction the bending of light as it passes from one
hertz a unit for measuring the number of cycles that medium to another
happen every second (frequency); abbreviation is Hz
refractive index a measure of how much the speed
incident ray a ray of light arriving at a surface of light changes as it passes from a vacuum into a
infrared a form of electromagnetic radiation that lies particular substance
between microwaves and visible light; also known as retina an area of tissue at the back of the eye that
heat radiation contains cells that can detect light and colour
iris the coloured circular part of the eye that surrounds short-sighted able to see close things clearly, but not
the black pupil things that are far away
lens a glass disc used to make images with light; a standing wave a wave that is trapped between two
convex lens makes both enlarged and smaller images fixed ends and moves backwards and forwards,
image and a concave lens makes a smaller image reflecting from each end in turn
lens (eye) a small disc of transparent tissue behind the subtractive colour mixing a way of forming new colours
pupil that allows near and far objects to be focused by combining different coloured paints or pigments,
longitudinal wave a wave with vibrations in the e.g. mixing red and yellow paint to make orange
direction of travel instead of transversely. Sound translucent allowing some light through, but no clear
waves are examples. image can be seen through the substance
long-sighted able to see distant things clearly, but not transparent allowing light to pass through, and a clear
things that are close image can be seen through the substance
medium substance that allows waves to travel in it transverse wave a wave moving through a substance in
microwaves electromagnetic radiation used for which the particles are vibrating at right angles to the
cooking, communications and Wi-Fi; lies between direction of motion of the wave
radio waves and infrared radiation ultraviolet radiation that lies between visible light and
normal an imaginary line that is at right angles to a X-ray; is needed by our bodies to make vitamin D;
surface short wavelength UV can cause sunburn and cancer
opaque blocking light completely vibration movement backwards and forwards or side to
percussion instrument a musical instrument that is side in a regular way
struck to make a sound; often has a vibrating surface visible light the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
to make the sound (e.g. a drum) that we can see
pitch how high or low a sound seems to our ears visible spectrum the part of the electromagnetic
plane mirror a flat reflective surface spectrum that we can see; includes all the colours of
visible light
prism a piece of glass with a triangular cross-section
that can be used to separate white light into its colours wavelength the distance from one wave crest to the
next
pupil the circular black area in the centre of the eye,
through which light enters wind instrument a musical instrument that relies on air
vibrating inside a tube to make sound; includes brass
radar a system that uses radio waves to show the
and woodwind instruments
position of objects that cannot be seen
X-rays short wavelength electromagnetic radiation
radio waves electromagnetic radiation that has the
that can pass through flesh to give images of bones;
longest wavelength
hazardous and can cause cancer

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 Index 419

Index
absorption 90, 92, 128–9, 370–5 averages 16, 26 bunkers 314–15
acceleration 336–7 axes 20 buoyancy 337
accommodation (eyes) 402 axolotis 108 burrs 186
accuracy 8, 29–30 axons 87
acid 137–8, 298 cancer 72, 368
acoustics 399 background information 82 capillaries 97, 107, 117
adjustment 15–29 background research 4, 6–9 carbohydrates 121, 124
see also modification bacteria 43, 72–6, 129, 134, 137–8 carbon 210
adults 162 antibiotic treatment of 76–7 carbon dioxide 94–5, 97, 107, 114,
age 151 breakdown of 289 214, 244, 258
agriculture 106 ‘good’ 77 carbonates 298
aim 4, 9 balloon angioplasty 156 Carboniferous Period 347
air 55, 96, 100, 380, 394–5 balloons 106, 156, 232, 337 carbyne 210
hot air rises 332 bar graphs 22–4 carnivores 135–9
airbags 255 basalt 286 cars 255, 336
aircraft taking off 337–8 batteries 350 cast 290
alcohol 127, 144, 148, 164 beatboxing 398 catalysis 127
altitude 337–8 beats (heart) 113 categorical data 4
alveoli 97 bees 180, 184–5 categories 19, 22–3
amplitude 361, 390, 405 beliefs 151 of cells see eukaryotes; prokaryotes
amylase 124 best practice 16 of disease 76
analogy 82–3 bias 7 cell cities 52, 314–15
analysis bi-concave discs 118 cell division 71–2, 82, 88, 164
of data see data analysis bile 128 reasons for 71–2
of results 15–28 binary fission 71–2, 168 cell membranes 51, 53
angioplasty 156 binocular light microscopes 43 cell theory 45–6
angle of incidence 376, 383 biodiversity 309 cellophane 371
angle of reflection 376, 383 biological weathering 279 cells 41–61, 82–3, 88, 90, 129, 161
animal cells 59–61 bioluminescence 246 categories see eukaryotes;
plant cells, distinction 63 birds 135 prokaryotes
Animalia 59 birth 166 components/structures 51, 58, 87
animals 333, 394 birth defects 165 function 63, 71–9, 87
asexual/sexual reproduction in bladder 172 malfunction 71–9
161–70 blind spots 402 markers on 145
gas exchange in 99 blood 91, 112, 114, 118–19, 144 modern cell theory 46
antacids 126 clotting 119 organisation levels 90–3
anthers 181 composition changes 119 simple and complex see eukaryotes;
antibiotic resistance 77–8 blood flow 114 prokaryotes
antibiotics 76–7 blood vessels 87, 113, 116–18 size 46–7
apparatus 4 blue-banded bee 185 specialised 59, 87–8
aquatic animals 163 body heat 333 to systems 87–93
arteries 116, 156–7 body systems see organ systems cellular respiration 56, 91, 94, 103
asbestos 296 bolus 123 cellulose 62
asexual reproduction 161–70, 176–80 bonds 195, 209 cement 310
natural and human-induced bone cells 71 cementation 281, 287
methods 177–8 bounce height 11–12 central core (Earth) 272
asteroids 314–15 bow and arrow 336 cervical cancer 72
asthma 98 brain 87, 91, 113, 405–6 cervix 171
astronomy 364 brainstorming 5, 83 chalk 288, 292, 298
atmosphere 367 branched uterus 171 change, evidence of 231–8, 240–50
atoms 195–202, 213–14, 232, 234, bread 244, 261 change(s) 16
271, 324, 327 breathing 96 in response to variables 22
atomic structure 214 versus respiration 94 also under specific change
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 56, 246 breccia 289 chemical change 231–48
atrium 113 bronchi/bronchioles 96–7 evidence of 240–50
audience 32 Bronze Age 307 irreversible 240
authority 8 budding 169 chemical digestion 122

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420 Index

chemical formulae 214, 221 contraceptives 175 design 314–15

chemical potential energy 319, 325 contraction 91, 113, 232–3 of a cellular city 82–3
chemical properties 198–9, 297 control, cellular control 53 planning for and designing mining
chemical reactions 56, 241, 252–3, controlled variables 9–14, 24 305
256–7, 262, 325 convection 331–3 self design 11–12, 187–8, 215–16,
in molecules 55 conversion 47 243, 287, 334, 342
types of 253–9 Coober Pedy 310–11 diagrams 4, 83, 335–6, 351
chemical weathering 276–9 cooling 261 diamond 271, 310
chemiluminescence 246 copper 198, 296, 308 diaphragm 95
chert 288 electrolysis of 308–9 diaphragmatic breathing 96
chitin 67 coral 289 diatomic 208
chlorophyll 61 cornea 401–2 dichotomous key 299, 301
chloroplasts 61 coronary artery disease (CAD) 156 differences 16
chyme 127 corrosion 242 between continuous and discrete
circulatory system 90, 112–20 cosmic rays 368 data 19
technologies 117 counter-current flow 108 in spectrum parts 361
vessels of 116–18 counting 19 differentiation (cells) 59–60, 87
classification, of rocks 296–302 see also measurement diffraction 363
cleanliness/cleaning 75 courtship 162 diffusion 99, 236
cleavage 298 covalent bonds 195–6 digestion 131–3, 142, 148, 249
cloaca 174 covalent compounds 212 indigestible seed coating 186
coal 289, 306, 347–8 cows 141–2 digestive disorders 131–3
cochlea 405 CRAAP test 8 digestive system 90, 92, 121–33, 249
cochlear implants 406–7 crabs 111 length 135
codes, of cellular information 53, 55 CRISPR 146 other 134–42
coeliac disease 132 crust (Earth) 272–3, 287, 292, 300–2 parts 122–9
cold-blooded animals 333 crystal lattices 208–9 digital data 30
collaboration 305 crystalline rocks 297 dinosaurs 347
colour filter 371 crystallisation 273 disability 151, 410–11
colours 183, 231, 371–3, 382 crystals 271, 273–4, 286, 292, 296 discrete data 19
change in 241–2 size and shape 297 discussion 29–30
column graphs see bar graphs CT scans 368 disease 61, 76–7, 132, 164
combustion 258–9 culture 151 spread of 73, 75
communication 4, 29–34 currency 8 transmission prevention methods 75
community, scientific 4 curves 26–7 dissection 108–10, 183–4
compaction 281, 287 cytoskeleton 58 dissolving and mixing 107, 236, 245
comparison 82 cytosol 51, 55 documentation 8
of ancient–modern rocks 302 see also reports/reporting
compounds 212–18, 220 data 30 dominance 403
breaking down 218–19 display 4, 15–16 dots versus X 23
molecules in 215–16 file types 7–8 double helix 53
naming 216 interpretation 29 drugs 164
organisation 213–14 data analysis 4, 25–7 duodenum 128
symbols for 214–15 data collection 15, 23–4, 27–8 dynamics 410
compression 389 data points 23, 26–7
concave/convex lenses 384 data processing 15 ear canal 405
concave/convex mirrors 378 daughter cells 71 eardrum 405
conclusion 4, 30 death 145 ears 390
false 10 decibel 405–6 structure 405
condensation 235 decimal places 16 workings 405–6
conduction 331–2 decomposition 244, 254–5, 261–2 Earth 51, 198, 287, 292, 300–2,
conductors 332 deep time 273 314–15, 351
confidence 29–30 demonstration 100, 200–2, 217–18, atmosphere 367
conglomerate 289 233, 256–61, 308–9, 339 formation 348
connective tissues 91 density 231 layers 272
conservation, of energy 330–42 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 53 earthquake 322, 356–7
construction (mining) 306 dependent variables 9–14, 16, 20, 24 echo 396
contact lenses 404 on y-axis 23 ecosystems 290
contamination 73, 77 deposition 281, 287, 290, 304 educated guess 4
avoiding contact with 75 description 25–6, 29–30, 297 efficiency 340–2
continuous data 19–20 see also qualitative data calculation examples 340

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 Index 421

egg to zygote 164 evidence food 92, 122, 142

eggs 46, 163, 167, 244–5, 261 of change 231–8, 240–50 shelf life of 73
see also cells; ovum of chemical change 240–50 sugar to energy conversion from 56
elastic forces 336 data as 4 transit times 140
elastic potential energy 319, 326–7 of physical change 231–8 food poisoning 131, 134
electric fields 323 supportive 4, 30–1 forensics 250
electric kettle 335–6 examination 4 forests 347–8
electric shock 200, 379, 382, 385 excretion 90, 92 fossil fuels 347–9
electrical energy 319, 324 exhalation 95, 100 fossilisation 290
electricity 226, 308 exothermic reactions 259–62 fossils 281, 288, 290–2, 297
electrolysis 308 expansion 232–3 types of 290–1
electromagnetic spectrum 323, 361–8 experimental conditions 13 fragmentation 168
electromagnetic waves 361 experiments 73, 287 freeze–thaw action 275
electron microscopes 43 conducting 4–16 see also rocks
electrons 324 experimental error 16 freezing 234
elements 195–9, 227, 327 focus 9 frequency 361–2, 390, 410
fabulous four 205 recording, processing and adjusting frogs 101
formulations of 212 15–28 frost 287
grouping 199–200 repeatability of 12–13 fruiting body 67
organisation 199–200, 204–9 also under Practicals Fungi 59
symbols for 204–5 explanation 30 fungi 67–8, 73, 76
embryo 161, 163 exploration 266, 304–5 fungi-fighting bacteria 78–9
human development stages 164–6 extinction events 290
zygote to 164 extraction 306–7 gall bladder 128
embryonic stage 164–5 extrusive igneous rocks 286, 297 galvanisation 242
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 56 eyes 75, 401–5 gametes 161
endothermic reactions 262 dominance 403 gamma rays 361–2, 368
energy 56, 88, 319–51, 356–7 workings 401–5 gas exchange 97, 99, 101, 103, 106
applications 344–51 gases 107, 195, 234, 240, 244–5,
defined 319–27 faeces 141 296, 347
flows 335, 348, 351 fairness 4, 10 gastric juices 126
forms 320–7 Fallopian tubes 171, 174 gemstones 271, 310
generation 347 fats 128 gender 151
in housing 344–6 female reproductive system 171 generators 335
mass–energy equivalence 330 fertilisation 88 genetic material 51–3
sources 283, 337, 347–51 methods 163–4 geology 272–3, 297, 304
storage of 336 fertilised egg 46, 71 geothermal energy 351
sugars transformation to see cellular field of view 104–5 germination 187–8
respiration filament 181 germs 73
see also heat findings gestation 164–5
energy conservation 330–42 communicating 4, 32 gills 107–10
energy efficiency 340–2 see also results glaciers 280
energy problems 347 fingerprints 250 glands 91–2
energy ratings 344 fireworks 240, 325 glass 310, 374, 380, 394
energy transfer 330–3 fish 107–10 Global Positioning System (GPS)
energy transformations 335–9 fit, line of best 26–7 364–5
environment 76, 121, 168 flagellum 88 glow sticks 246, 259
effects of energy on 347 flame tests 207–8 glucose 91, 94
moist 69 flat mirror 376 gold 198, 308, 310
enzymes 124–5, 131, 146, 148 Fleming, Alexander 77 Golgi body 57
equipment 29–30, 308, 321 floating 187 gonads 161
erosion 279–80, 287 floods 275 granite 286
error 16 Florey, Howard 77 graphite 271
minimising 12 flow charts 142 graphs 4
estimation 48–9, 88–9 flow diagrams 335–6, 348, 351 displaying data in 19–24
ethical dilemma 151 flowers 180, 183 drawing guidelines 23
ethics 151 dissection 183–4 patterns in see trends
eukaryotes 51–2, 58, 63 fluorescent chemicals 367 gravitational potential energy (GPE)
eukaryotic cells 59–69 focal points 378 319, 323, 325, 337–8
evaluation 4, 16, 29–34, 83 foetal stage 165 gravity 279, 323
evaporation 235–6 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 174 grids 23

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422 Index

grinding 307 igneous rocks 271, 273–4, 283, 285–6, kinetic energy 319, 325, 331, 336, 338
gross domestic product (GDP) 226 292, 296 from potential 336
growth 56, 71, 78–9 ignition 337 kinetic transfer 331
guard cells 103 ileum 128 kingdoms 59
images 8 also under specific kingdom
haemoglobin 46, 118 immune system 77 koalas 140
hail 275 imprint fossils 291
hand washing 73, 75, 137 incident ray 376 labelling 23
hands, dominance 403 independent variables 9–14, 16, 18, lactose intolerance 131–2
hardness (of rock) 298 20, 24 land 287, 309
hazards 327 levels/situations of 13 landscapes 280
hearing, protection 407 on x-axis 23 large intestine 129
hearing aids 406 indigestion 126 lattices 208–9, 213
heart 112–14, 116 indirect fossils 291 lava 273, 285
heart attack 119, 157 Industrial Revolution 347 law of conservation of energy 330
heart conditions 156 infection 77 law of reflection of light 376
heart rate 112 viral, bacterial or fungal 76 lead 296
heartburn 126 see also disease left ventricle 113–14
heat 73, 245, 258–59, 282, 293, 320, infectious disease 76 lens (eyes) 402
325, 334 inference 16 lenses 384
height 11–12, 323 inflammation 98 lenticels 106
herbicides 190 information life 51, 290
herbivores 136, 140–2 biased see bias basic unit see cells
hertz 361 coded in cells see deoxyribonucleic shelf life 73
heterogeneous mixtures 221 acid light 61, 245, 258, 319, 361–8
heterotrophs 67 quality and reliability of 4 behaviour of rocks in 298
homogeneous mixtures 221 sources 6–7 bending of see refraction
Hooke, Robert 41, 45 see also data globes 341
hot air balloon 232, 337 infrared light see heat speed of 363, 393
housing 344–6 infrared radiation 362, 366 see also sound
Hulk’s hand 254 inhalation 95 light energy 320, 323
human beings see people input energy 338 light rays 375
human body, the 87–8, 91, 129 in-situ leach mining 307 light waves 323
cells in 46–7, 59 instructions 12–14, 83 lightning 324, 393
fundamental and functional systems insulation 346 limestone 276, 278, 292–3, 298, 310
for under specific system insulators 332 line graphs 20, 30
nutrients needed 121 internal fertilisation 163 line of best fit 26–7
human circulatory system 112–19 internet 7 lipids 121, 128
human development stages 164–6 interpretation 29 liquids 234, 240, 389, 394
human digestive system 121–31 see also analysis lithosphere 272
human papillomavirus (HPV) intrusive igneous rocks 286, 297 liver 92, 128, 148–50
vaccination program 72 investigation 29–30, 149–50, 218–19, liver tissue 91
human reproductive cycle 162 278–9, 321, 372–3, 377, 379, longitudinal waves 389
human reproductive system 171–5 382–3, 385, 392, 395, 403 long-sightedness 404
human respiratory systems 94–101 of energy/transformations 335–8 loudness 391
hunger 130 of reactions 252–62 lung tissue 91
hydrochloric acid 298 ionic bonds 195 lungs 99
hydroelectric power 350 ionic compounds 212 luteinising hormone (LH) 173–4
hydrogen 195 irises 401–2
properties 212 iron 198, 242, 272, 310 magma 273–4, 296–7
hydrogen peroxide 148–9 Iron Age 307 molten 285–6
hygiene practices 75 iron ore 306 magnesium 272
see also hand washing iron oxide 242 magnetic fields 323
hyphae 67 magnetite 299
hypotheses 4, 30–1 jejunum 128 magnets 299
writing 10 joules 319 magnification 41, 104–5
judgement 7 see also scale
ice 261, 275, 374 magnifying glasses 299, 384, 404
ice age 280 key words 6 male reproductive system 172
ideas, key 30 kidneys, transplants 145 mammals 132

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 Index 423

mantle (Earth) 272 molecules 53, 55, 127, 195, 208, 213, oesophagus 125–6, 249
mapping 116 236, 364 oestrogen 173–4
marble 293, 298 in compounds 215–16 oil 289, 347
markers 145 molten magma 285–6 opacity 298, 374
Mars 235 monatomic elements 208 opal 310
mass 231, 319–20, 323 monocular microscopes 42 opinion 7
of Earth 272 Moon 273 ordinal data 22
mass–energy equivalence 330 mould 38, 290 ores 296, 306–7
materials 4, 320, 348–9, 374 mouth 75, 92, 96, 123, 249 organ donors 152
effect of heat on 293 movement 88, 319, 365 organ regeneration 148–9
matter 196, 320 of chest 95 organ rejection 145
measurement 11–12, 19, 23, 365 generating 91 organ replacement 146–7
also under Practicals mudstone 282, 288–89 organ systems 87–152
mechanical digestion 122 multicellular organisms 51, 63, 82, 90, organ repair/replacement 144–52
medical emergency 166 162 organ transplantation 144–5
medications 144 muscle cells 71 organ transplants 144–50
medicines 127 muscle tissue 91 ethics of 151
medium 389 muscles, contraction and relaxation 91 organelles 51–9, 82
melting 234 muscular system 90 organisms 51, 82, 92
menstrual cycle 173–4 mushroom 67 organoids 148
menstruation 171 music 407 organs 82, 90, 147
mercury 296 musical instruments 396–8, 410–11 ‘mini’ 51
metalloids 199 mycelium 67 repair and replacement 144–51
metals 198–200, 242, 307, 310 skin as largest 91
general properties 200 natural disaster 356–7 see also cells
versus non-metals 200–2 natural resources 226 outcomes 4
metamorphic rocks 271, 282–3, 292–3, nerve cells 87 see also results
297 nervous system 87, 90 outer core (Earth) 272
meteorites 274, 292 net zero home 345 output energy 338
methane 141, 258 neurons 87, 164 ovaries 171, 181
method 4, 13–14, 29–30 Newton, Isaac 382 ovulation 171, 174
writing 12–13 Nobel Prize 77 ovule 180
micrometre 47 nominal data 22 ovum 171
micro-organisms 73, 244 non-government agencies (NGOs) oxidation 278–9
microscopes 41–9, 63–5, 73, 82, 198 356–7 oxygen 46, 87–8, 91, 94, 107, 156,
parts 42 non-infectious disease 76 242, 258, 271–2
terms 42 non-metals 199–200 ozone layer 367
transporting 104 general properties 200
see also bacteria; cells versus metals 200–2 palynology 182
microwaves 362, 364 non-renewable energy 347–9 pancreas 92, 128
minerals 121, 271–3, 297–8 non-renewable resources 226–7 parent animals 163
mining industry normal 376, 380 parenting 167
Australian 310–11 nose 75, 96 parthenogenesis 169
debate 226–7 notes (musical) 397–8 particles 195–222, 275, 279–81, 288,
mining process 304–11 nuclear energy 319, 327, 348–9 320, 389, 405
mirror 376, 378 nucleus 46, 52 charged 324
mission statements 9 Nullarbor Plain 276 sizes 280
see also aim numbers 19 Pasteur, Louis 73
mitochondria 56, 83, 88, 91 see also quantitative data pasteurisation 73–5
mitosis 71, 82 numerical data 4 pathogens 73
mixing and dissolving 107, 236, 245 nutrients 121, 156 patterns 4, 183
mixtures 195–7, 212–21 absorption 90, 92, 128–9 describing 25–6
symbols for 221–2 storage of 55, 62 of weather 333
models/modelling 54–5, 97–8, 106, nutrition 140, 142, 166 pendulum 20–2
125, 130–1, 215–16, 281–2, penicillin 77
315, 334 observation 4, 25, 38, 64–5, 104–5, penis 172
cells in 3D 66 108–10, 275–6, 281–2, 364, 390 people 151
pasteurisation 74–5 ocean currents 279–80 as animals 87
modification 83 oceans 280 as organisms 90
Mohs scale 298 odour 231 people with a disability 410–11

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424 Index

Pepper’s Ghost 375 power 334 purifying (mining) 308

pepsin 127 see also wind power purpose 8
percussion instruments 398 power stations 348
periodic table 198, 206 cells’ power stations see qualitative data 19
see also elements mitochondria ordinal versus nominal 22
peristalsis 125 Practicals quality 4
personal protective equipment (PPE) data collection 23–4, 27–8 quantitative data 19
247, 308 data conversion 20–2 quarantine 75
petals 181 demonstration 100, 200–2, 217–18, quartz 271, 288
pH 136, 231 233, 256–61, 308–9, 339 quartzite 293
pharynx 96 experimentation 11–12, 74–5, 78–9, questions/questioning 4–16
photography 371 237–8, 247–8, 287, 334, 385
photosynthesis 61, 103, 262 identification 115, 183–4, 300–2 race 151
physical change 237–8 investigation 149–50, 218–19, radar 363
evidence of 231–8 278–9, 321, 372–3, 377, 379, radiation 327, 331, 333, 362
reversible 231 382–3, 385, 392, 395, 403 radio astronomy 364
physical properties 198–9, 231, 297 measurement 11–12, 23–4 radio waves 361–4
physical weathering 275 microscope use 44–5, 64–5, 68, radioactive materials 348–9
pigments 371 88–9, 104–5, 108–10 radioactivity 283
pigs 146–7 modelling 54–5, 74–5, 97–8, rain 275, 287
pistil 181 130–1, 179–80, 215–16, rainbows 363, 382
pitch 391, 394, 410 281–2, 334 rainwater 276–7
placer mining 307 observation 38, 64–5, 88–9, 104–5, rare earth elements (REE) 227
plane mirror 376 108–10, 275–6, 281–2, 390 rarefaction 389–90
plans/planning 305–6, 309 patterns 183–4, 300–2 ratings 344
plant cells 61–2 self design 11–12, 187–8, 215–16, raw data 19
animal cells, distinction 63 243, 287, 334, 342 reactants 103, 252–4
cell walls see cellulose size estimates 48–9 reactions 217
plant reproduction 176–88 testing 13, 17–19, 23–4, 27–8, investigating 252–62
Plantae 59 78–9, 124–5, 137, 207–8, 346 also under specific reactions
plants 106, 190 precipitates 240, 245, 256–7 reading, with a pen 6
asexual/sexual reproduction in precipitation/reactions 256–7 reading glasses 404
176–87 predators 164, 167, 404 real images 379
carnivorous 139 prediction 4–16 records/recording 15–28
respiratory systems in 103–6 testable see hypotheses of data 4
sessile quality 92 pregnancy 164 of fossils 291–2
plaque 156–7 presentations 8, 83 red blood cells 46, 71, 87–8, 118
plasma 118 format 83 reflected ray 376
plastics 175, 213 pressure 97–8, 275, 282, 289, 292–3, reflection 370, 375–9, 402
platelets 119 348 law of reflection of light 376
plots/plotting 20 primary colours 372–3 reflective ants 386
see also graphs primary information sources 6 total internal 386
pluripotent stem cells 59 prisms 381 refraction 380–3
plutonic igneous rocks 286 probiotics 74–5 refractive index 380–1
pods 186 problems 30, 83 regenerative medicine see stem cell
see also seeds energy problems 347 therapy
points see data points see also solutions rehabilitation 309
polarising filters 375 procedure 4 relationships 4, 25
pollen 180, 182 processing (mining) 307–9 between variables 25–6
pollination 180–2 products 252–4 relevance 8
pollution 347 prokaryotes 51–2 reliability 4, 29, 30
polymers 213–14 prostate 172 religion 151
pores 103 proteins 56–7, 121, 135 renewable energy 347, 349–51, 356–7
positive material identification (PMI) Protista 59 repair 56, 71, 144–51
guns 305 protists 69 replication (cells) 60
posters see scientific posters puberty 172–3 reports/reporting 4
rock cycle 284 pumice 286 scientifically see scientific reports
potential energy 319, 327 pupils 401–2 reproducibility 4
to kinetic 336 pure substances 195–7, 212 reproduction 56, 72, 161–88

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 Index 425

in animals 161–75 sandstone 288, 293 social status 151

asexual/sexual 161–70 satellites 365 society 151, 305
of cells 82 scabs 119 sodium 255
slowing/preventing bacterial 77 scale 23, 298, 315 sodium sulfate 214
types of 161–7 scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) soil 78–9
also under specific fields 43 solar energy 350
reproductive technologies 165 scanning tunnelling microscopes 198 solar power 334
research 4–6, 83 scars 59 solids 234, 240, 256, 389, 394–5
frameworks for see scientific method scatter plots 20 solubility 276
stem cell use 61 schist 282 solutions 83
tasks for see tasks scientific method 4–34 see also problems
resources 309–10 scientific posters 4, 32, 34 solutions (liquids) 256
accessibility of 226 scientific reports 33–4 sound 245, 305, 325, 338, 389–99,
respiration 262 sections 29–30 410–11
versus breathing 94 screening 368 printing using 323
respiratory systems 90, 95–9 scrotum 172 speed of 393–5
human 94–101 sea creatures 288 see also light
in fish 107 search techniques 7 sound barrier 394
in plants 103–6 secondary information sources 6–7 sound energy 320, 322–3
other 103–11 sediment 275, 281–2 sound waves 389–90, 405
see also cellular respiration sedimentary rocks 271, 281–3, 287–92, soundproofing 399
results 4 297 sparklers 259–60
confidence in 29–30 seed dispersal 185–7, 190–1 specialised cells 59, 87–9, 92
recording, processing and analysing seeds 180, 187–8 specialised membrane-bound
15–28 explosion of 186 organelles 52
retina 402 seeing 401–7 specimens 43
review 4 see also vision spectrum 382
revision 32 seismology 305 speed 20, 255, 319, 361, 380
flip books for 222 self design 11–12, 187–8, 215–16, 243, speed of light 363, 393
ribosomes 55 287, 334, 342 speed of sound 393–5
right ventricle 113–14 self-pollination 181–2 sperm 172
robotics 148 semi-aquatic animals 163 sperm cells 88
rock cycle, energy sources 283 seminal vesicle 172 spontaneous generation theory 73
rockets 266–7 senses 87, 319 spores 67
rocks 198, 271–80, 348 energy forms detected by 320–7 formation 168
ancient–modern comparison 302 sexual reproduction 161–7, 180–7 spring energy see elastic potential
characteristics 296–7, 299 shale 288, 293 energy
classifying 296–302 shape 13–14, 118, 231–2 stamen 181
formation 271–84 short-sightedness 404 standing wave 396
harmless quality 296 siblings 161 state, changing 234–5
identifying 299–302 sight, correction of 405 statements
melting and cooling 273 see also seeing of mission see mission statements
mining of see mining industry signals 87 testable 10
molten see magma silence 399 steel 242
radiometric dating of 283 silica 288 steganography 243
rock cycle 273–84 silicon 271–2 STEM
types of 285–94 sinoatrial nodes 113 accessible musical instruments
uses 294 size 231 410–11
rotational kinetic energy 319, 341 skeletal system 90 building a rocket 266–7
ruminants 142 sketches 83 clearing a blocked artery 156–7
rust 242–3 skin 91 design a city 82–3
skin cells 71 help/hinder seed dispersal 190–1
safety 104, 200, 217, 237, 247, 379, slate 282, 288, 293, 304 mining – to mine or not to 226–7
393 small intestine 128, 249 underground bunkers and asteroids
see also hazards smartphones 44 314–15
safety equipment 308, 321 smelting 307 wind power 356–7
saliva 123–24, 249 sneezing 75 stem cell therapy 60
salt 149–50, 278–9, 297, 304 snoring 96 stem cells 87
sand 280, 288, 310 snow 275, 374 trigger activation 59
flows 348 social responsibility 305 stents 156

ISBN 978-1-108-61069-8 © Cambridge University Press 2022

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
426 Index

stereoscopic (‘stereo’) microscopes 43 tin 198 vesicles 57

stigma 180–1 tinnitus 407 vibration 332, 389–90, 396–8, 405
stomach 92, 126–7, 130, 249 tissue 90–1, 147 villi 128
stomach acid 135 tissue engineering 149 virtual image 376–8
stomata 103–6 toadstool 67 viruses 72, 76, 146
stones 310 tones 410 visible light 361–2
stored energy 319 tongue 123 visible spectrum 363, 370
streak test 299 tornados 314 vitamin C 121
strength 13–14 total heat energy 320 vitamins 121, 148
stringed instruments 396–7 touching 75–6 volcanic eruption 285
stroke 119 toxins 148 voltage 324
style 181 trace fossils 291 volume 231
subtractive colour mixing 373 trachea 96–7 vomit 135
sugar 56, 236 translucence 298, 374
summarising 16 transmission electron microscope warm-blooded animals 333
Sun 61–2, 262, 327, 330, 333–4, 348 (TEM) 43 warmth 262
superior vena cava 114 transparency 298, 374 waste 90, 92, 94–5, 114, 141, 144
support transplantation 145 into energy 351
evidentiary support 4, 30–1 transverse wave 361 waste energy 335, 338, 341
of plants’ weight by vacuoles 62 travelling waves 322 water 55, 62, 94, 103, 107, 127, 163,
surface mining 306 trends 4, 25–6 242, 258, 280, 287, 374, 380,
sustainable energy 347 made obvious by line of best fit 394
symbols 204–5, 214–15, 221–2 26–7 freezing water see ice
synthesis 253 trials 12, 29 waves 322
turbines 335, 349, 356–7 wave energy 320, 322
tables 4 Twelve Apostles 279 Wave Rock 280
displaying data in 15–16 2D/3D 43, 66 wavelength 361, 363, 390–1
titles, headings, and ruled lines waves 279–80, 287, 322, 396
in 16 ultraviolet (UV) light 183, 250, properties 361
tasks 6, 83 361–62, 367 weather 333
taste buds 123 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 367 weathering 275–9
see also senses ultraviolet light (UVB) 367 weeds 190
technological advances 43, 148 Uluru 287 weight 231
technology 41, 83, 117, 133, 146, 165 underground mining 306 of plants 61
corrective 406 unicellular organisms 51 wet mounts 64–5
teeth 123 units 23, 390 white blood cells 118
temperature 73, 240, 261, 273, 275, basic unit of life 90 white light 363, 371, 373, 382
289, 292–3, 302, 320, 348, 364 for cell sizes 47 see also spectrum
changes in 245 for wavelengths 365 whole-body fossils 291
terminology 42, 56 universe 364 Wi-Fi 365
for elements 204–5 unspecialised stem cells 87 wind 186, 279–80, 287
Latin/Greek names 205 uranium 310, 348–49 erosion by 280
naming compounds 216 urine 144 wind energy 349
testes 172 useful energy 338, 340 wind instruments 397–8
tests/testing 124–5, 137, 207–8, 346 uterus 171 wind power 275, 356–7
hypotheses testing see experiments windpipe 96
of information see CRAAP test vacuoles 62 words, key 6
for rock classification 297–9 vacuum 323, 361, 363, 380, 389 work 319
also under Practicals vagina 171–2, 174
see also experiments validity 29–30 x-axis (horizontal axis) 20, 22–3
texture 231 valid conclusions 4 xenotransplantation 146
theories 45–6, 73 values 16, 23 X-rays 362, 367–8
thermal decomposition 254–5 valves (heart) 113
thermal energy 320, 331 vapour 103 y-axis (vertical axis) 20, 22–3
thermal energy transfer 331–3 variables 9–14, 16, 18 yeast 73, 244
thermal images 366 effects of 10
thermal power 334 also under specific variable zero 23
threshold of hearing 406 vegetative propagation 176–80 zygotes 161
thunder 393 veins 117 egg to zygote 164
timbre 410 vena cava 114 to embryo 164
time 20 ventricles 113

ISBN 978-1-108-61069-8 © Cambridge University Press 2022

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.