Human Development: Life Span Approach

2.1. SENSE ORGANS

We are continuously bombarded with sensory information
about the internal environment and the world outside. Any change
in environment whether internal or external is called a stimulus.
We can detect it through sensory receptors. These make up the
sense organs such as the eyes, ears, nose and taste buds. In the
present chapter we will study the eye and the ear as sense organs.

2.1.1. The eye

2.1.1.1. Structure of the eye

The eye is the organ of the sense of sight situated in the orbital
cavity. It is almost spherical in shape and is about 2.5 cm in diameter.
It is possible to see with only one eye but three – dimensional
vision is impaired when only one eye is used. There are 3 layers of
tissue in the wall of the eye.

They are:
1. The outer fibrous layer : sclera & cornea
2. The middle vascular layer : choroid, ciliary body and iris.
3. The inner nervous tissue layer : retina.
Structures inside the eye ball are the lens, aqueous fluid
(humour) and vitreous body.
Sclera and Cornea
The sclera is the white of the eye and forms the outermost
layer of the eyeball and anteriorly is continuous with the cornea.
The sclera maintains the shape of the eyeball.
 Blind Spot Iris
Ciliary Body
Suspensory
Optic Nerve The iris extends anteriorly from the ciliary body and lies behind
Ligament
the cornea and in front of the lens. It is a circular body composed
Iris
of pigment cells that gives the eye its black, brown, grey or green
Lens colour. In the centre there is an opening called the pupil.
Fovea
Centralis Cornea Pupil varies in size depending upon the intensity of light. In
Aqueous Humour bright light the pupil constricts. In dim light the pupil dilates.
Choroid

Sclera Retina Vitreous Body

Fig. 1 : Structure of the Eye Choroid

Pupil
The cornea is a clear transparent membrane. Light rays pass
Ciliary Body
through the cornea to reach the retina. The cornea is convex
anteriorly and refracts or bends light rays to focus them on to the
retina. Iris with Circular and radiating
muscle fibres
Choroid
Fig. 2 : The Eye view from front
The choroid is the middle layer and rich in blood vessels and Lens
is a deep chocolate brown in colour.
The lens is a highly elastic, circular, biconvex, transparent body,
Ciliary body lying immediately behind the pupil. The thickness of the lens is
controlled by the ciliary muscle through the suspensory ligament.
This consists of muscle fibres and epithelial cells. It is located
It is enclosed within a transparent capsule.
anterior to the choroid. It is attached to the suspensory ligament
which in turn is attached to the capsule enclosing the lens. The lens bends light rays reflected by objects.
Contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscle changes the Retina
thickness of the lens which refracts light rays entering the eye to The retina is the innermost layer of the wall of the eye. It is
focus them on the retina. The epithelial cells secrete aqueous fluid extremely delicate. It is composed of several layers of nerve cells
into the anterior segment of the eye. i.e. the space between the lens and nerve fibres. The retina has a layer highly sensitive to light,
and the cornea. containing cells called rods and cones.
 The rods and cones contain photosensitive pigments that 1. Refraction of the light rays
convert light rays into nerve impulses. The rods are for light vision.
2. Changing size of the pupils and
The cones are for colour vision.
3. Accommodation of the eyes.
The rods contain rhodopsin (visual purple) a pigment which
is bleached in dim light. Vitamin A is needed for its synthesis. A co-ordination of these three processes is necessary for
effective vision.
Near the centre of the posterior part there is an area which
1. Refraction of the light rays
appears yellow in colour called macula lutea. In the centre of this
area there is a little depression called fovea centralis which consists When light rays pass from a medium of one density to a medium
of only cone-shaped cells. of a different density they are refracted or bent. This principle is
used to focus light on the retina. Before reaching the retina light
About 0.5 cm away from the macula lutea, all the nerve fibres rays pass successively through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous
of the retina converge to form the optic nerve. The small area of fluid, lens and vitreous body.
the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye is the optic disc or
blind spot. The lens is the only structure in the eye that can change its
refractive power. Light rays entering the eye need to be bent to
Chambers of the eye focus them on the retina. To focus light rays coming from near
objects onto the retina the lens changes itself to a more convex
In the anterior segment of the eye, the space between the cornea
shape with the aid of suspensory ligament and ciliary muscle. The
and the lens is incompletely divided into anterior and posterior
relaxing of the ciliary muscle makes the lens thinner and thereby
chambers by the iris. Both chambers contain a clear aqueous fluid
focuses light rays from distant objects on the retina.
(humour) secreted into the chambers by the ciliary glands.
2. Size of the pupils
Behind the lens and filling the cavity of the eyeball is the
vitreous body (humour). This is a soft, colourless, transparent, The size of the pupil controls the amount of light entering the
jelly-like substance composed of 99% water and some salts. eye. In bright light pupils are constricted. In dim light they are
dilated.
The fluid in both the chambers help to maintain the shape of
the eyeball. The iris consists of one layer of circular and one layer of
radiating muscle fibres. Contraction of the circular fibre constricts
2.1.1.2. Physiology of Vision the pupil. Contraction of the radiating fibres dilates it.
In order to achieve clear vision, light reflected from objects is 3. Accommodation of the eyes to light
focused onto the retina of both eyes. The processes involved in
Accommodation is the process whereby light emerging from
producing a clear image are:
distant as well as near sources is brought to focus on the retina. In
order to focus on near objects within 6 metres, the eye should Hypermetropia (Farsightedness) : A near image is focused
make the following adjustments. behind the retina because the eyeball is too short. A biconvex lens
is used to correct this.
They are:
Myopia (nearsightedness) : The eyeball is too long and
1. Constriction of the pupils
distant objects are focused in front of the retina. A biconcave lens
2. Convergence of the eyeballs is used to correct this.
3. Changing the power of the lens Astigmatism : This results in blurred vision when there is
abnormal curvature of part of the cornea or lens that prevents
Objects more than 6 metres away from the eyes are focused
focusing on the retina. Cylindrical lenses are used to correct this.
on the retina without adjustment of the lens or convergence of the
eyes. 2.1.2. The Ear
Functions of the Retina The ear is the organ of hearing. It is supplied by the eighth
Light rays falling on the retina causes chemical changes in the cranial nerve, i.e., the cochlear part of the vestibulocochlear
photosensitive pigments in the rods and cones. This generates nerve nerve which is stimulated by vibrations caused by sound waves.
impulses which are conducted to the cerebrum via the optic nerves. With the exception of the auricle (pinna), the structures that
The rods are stimulated by dim light and are necessary for night form the ear are encased within the temporal bone.
vision.
temporal malleus incus stapes Semicircular
The cones are sensitive to bright light and colour. Visual purple bone canals
(rhodopsin) is a photosensitive pigment present only in the rods. It
is bleached (degraded) by bright light and is quickly regenerated Auditory
when an adequate supply of vitamin A is available. This is the visual nerve
cycle.
Cochlea
Dark adaptation : When an individual moves into a darkened
area where the light intensity is insufficient to stimulate the cones, eustachian tube
temporary visual impairment results while the rhodopsin is being (auditory tube)
regenerated within the rods. When regeneration of rhodopsin
occurs, normal sight returns.
Refractive errors of the eye Pinna external auditory tympanic membrane
meatus (acoustic)
In the normal eye (emetropic) light from near and distant
objects is focused on the retina. Fig. 3 : Structure of the Ear
2.1.2.1. Structure External acoustic meatus
The ear is divided into three distinct parts. This is a slightly ‘S’-shaped tube about 2.5 cm long extending
from the auricle to the tympanic membranes (ear drum). The
1. External ear
lateral third is cartilaginous and the remainder is a canal in the
2. Middle ear (tympanic cavity) temporal bone. The meatus is lined with a thin layer of skin,
continuous with that of the auricle. There are numerous ceruminous
3. Internal ear
glands in the skin of the lateral third. These are modified sweat
External Ear glands that secretes cerumin (wax), a sticky material. Foreign
materials, e.g., dust, insects and microbes, are prevented from
The external ear consists of the auricle (pinna) and the external
reaching the tympanic membrane by wax, hairs and the curvature
acoustic meatus.
of the meatus. Movements of the temporomandibular joint during
The auricle chewing and speaking ‘massage’ the cartilaginous meatus, moving
the wax towards the exterior.
The auricle is the expanded portion projecting from the side
of the head. It is composed of fibroelastic cartilage covered with The tympanic membrane completely separates the external
skin. It is deeply grooved and ridged and the most prominent outer acoustic meatus from the middle ear. It is oval-shaped with the
ridge is the helix. slightly broader edge upwards and is formed by three types of tissue:
The lobule is the soft pliable part at the lower extreme 1. The outer covering of hairless skin
composed of fibrous and adipose tissue richly supported with blood
capillaries. 2. The middle layer of fibrous tissue
3. The inner lining of mucous membrane which is continuous
with that of middle ear.
Tympanic Cavity or Middle Ear
Helix This is an irregular – shaped cavity within the temporal bone.
Opening of external The cavity, its contents and the air sacs which open out of it are
acoustic meatus lined with mucous membrane. Air fills the cavity, reaching it through
the eustachian (auditory) tube which extends from the
Lobule nasopharynx. It is about 4 cm long and is lined with ciliated
epithelium. The presence of air at atmospheric pressure on both
sides of the tympanic membrane enables it to vibrate when sound
Fig. 4 : The auricle of the ear waves strike it.
 The lateral wall of the middle ear is formed by the tympanic They are the malleus, incus and stapes.
membrane.
The malleus is the lateral hammer – shaped bone. The handle
The roof and floor are formed by the temporal bone. is in contact with the tympanic membrane and the head forms a
movable joint with the incus.
The medial wall is a thin layer of temporal bone in which there
are two openings: The incus is the middle anvil-shaped bone. Its body articulates
Oval window (fenestra vestibule) with the malleus, the long process with the stapes, and it is stabilized
by the short process, fixed by fibrous tissue to the posterior wall of
Round window (fenestra cochleae) the cavity.
The oval window is occluded by part of a small bone called The stapes is the medial stirrup-shaped bone. Its head
the stapes and the round window, by a fine sheet of fibrous tissue. articulates with the incus and its base fits into the oval window.
Auditory ossicles The three ossicles are held in position by fine ligaments.
These are three very small bones that extend across the cavity Internal Ear
from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. They form a
The internal ear contains the organs of hearing and balance
series of movable joints with each other and with the medial wall
and is generally described in two parts, the bony labyrinth and the
of the cavity at the oval window.
membranous labyrinth.
a. Bony labyrinth
Malleus
This is a cavity within the temporal bone lined with periosteum.
Incus It is larger than the membranous labyrinth of the same shape which
fits into it, like a tube within a tube. The space between the bony
walls and the membranous tube is occupied by perilymph. The
membranous labyrinth also contains fluid, the endolymph.
The bony labyrinth consists of:
Base
1 vestibule
1 cochlea
3 semicircular canals
Tympanic membrane Stapes
The vestibule is the expanded part nearest to the middle ear.
Fig. 5 : The auditory ossicles It contains the oval and round windows.
 The cochlea resembles a snail’s shell. It has a broad base where side. These cells are called hair cells and their nerve fibres from the
it is continuous with the vestibule and a narrow apex, and it spirals true organ of hearing, the organ of Corti. The hair cells are attached
round a central bony column. The cochlea is divided by a septum to a thin membrane called tectorial membrane. The nerve fibres
called basilar membrane. combine to form the auditory part of the vestibulocochlear nerve
The semicircular canals are three tubes arranged so that one (eighth cranial nerve), which passes through a foramen in the
is situated in each of the three planes of space. They are continuous temporal bone to reach the hearing area in the temporal lobe of the
with the vestibule. One end of each canal is dilated to form ampulla. cerebrum.
Perilymph endolymph
The semicircular canals are the organs of equilibrium.
Temporal bone

ampulla

utricle vestibule
membranous saccule
labyrinth
filled with
endolymph

Cochlea
vestibulocochlear nerve

perilymph
Fig. 6 : The Internal ear
Basilar membrane
b. Membranous labyrinth spiral organ
tectorial Hair cell
The membranous labyrinth is the same shape as its bony
membrane
counterpart and is separated from it by perilymph. It contains
endolymph. It is divided into the same parts: the vestibule which Fig. 7 : Section of Cochlea
contains the utricle and saccule, the cochlea and three semicircular
canals. The utricle and saccule are oval membranous sacs. 2.1.2.2. Physiology of Hearing
A cross-section (Fig. 7) shows the triangular shape of the Every sound produces sound waves or disturbances in the air,
membranous cochlea. Neuroepithelial cells and nerve fibres lie on which travel at about 332 metres (1088) feet per second. The auricle,
the basilar membrane or base of the triangle. Many of the because of its shape, concentrates the waves and directs them along
neuroepithelial cells are long and narrow and are arranged side by the auditory meatus causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
Tympanic membrane vibrations are transmitted through the middle the brain in the cochlear portion of the eighth cranial nerve (VIII).
ear by movement of the ossicles. At their medial end the footplate The fluid wave is finally expended into the middle ear by vibration
of the stapes rock to and fro in the oval window, setting up fluid of the membrane of the round window. This nerve, the
waves in the perilymph. These indent the membranous labyrinth vestibulocochlear nerve, transmits the impulse to various nuclei in
and the wave motion in the endolymph stimulates the neuroepithelial the pons varolii and midbrain. Some of the nerve fibres pass to the
cells of the organ of Corti. The nerve impulses produced pass to hearing area in the cerebral cortex where sound is perceived.
Oval Cochlear 2.1.2.3. Semicircular Canals
window duct
The semicircular canals have no auditory function although
they are closely associated with the cochlea. They provide
information about the position of the head in space, contributing
to maintenance of equilibrium and balance.

There are three semicircular canals, one lying in each of the

three planes of space. They are situated above and behind the
vestibule of the inner ear and open into it.

Structure of the semircular canals

Tympanic Auditory Round Basilar membrane
membrane tube window and spiral organ The semicircular canals, like the cochlea are composed of an
outer bony wall and inner membranous tubes or ducts. The
membranous ducts contain endolymph and are separated from the
bony wall by perilymph.

The utricle is a membranous sac which is part of the vestibule

and the three membranous ducts open into it at their dilated ends,
the ampullae. The saccule is a part of the vestibule and
communicates with the utricle and the cochlea.

In the walls of the utricle, saccule and ampullae there are fine
specialized epithelial cells with minute projections, called hair cells.
Amongst the hair cells there are the minute nerve endings of the
vestibular part of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
Fig. 8 : Passage of sound waves
Functions of the semicircular canal 1. The alimentary canal which is a continuous passage way
beginning at the mouth, where the food is taken in and
The semicircular canals, utricle and saccule are concerned with terminating at the anus, where the solid products of digestion
balance. Any change of position of the head causes movement in which are not absorbed are expelled from the body.
the perilymph and endolymph which stimulates the nerve endings
and the hair cells in the utricle, saccule and ampullae. The resultant 2. The accessory organs such as salivary glands, pancreas, liver
nerve impulses are transmitted by the vestibular nerve to the and biliary tract which are vitally necessary for the digestive
cerebellum. process, do not happen to be the part of the alimentary canal.
The Alimentary Canal
The cerebellum also receives nerve impulses from the eyes
and the muscles and joints. Impulses from these three sources are The alimentary canal is a long muscular digestive tube
coordinated and efferent nerve impulses pass to the cerebrum where extending through the body. It is about 750 cm in length. It consists
position in space is perceived, and to muscles to maintain posture of the following parts.
and balance. 1. The mouth
2.2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 2. Oesophagus

Digestion is the process by which the complex form of food 3. Stomach

materials are broken down into simpler form of food materials 4. Small intestine
suitable for absorption. Once the food is digested, it must be 5. Large intestine
transferred to the blood stream and the process by which this transfer
occurs is called absorption. Digestion and absorption are the two 6. Rectum
chief functions of the digestive system. 7. Anal Canal
Functions of Digestive System The gastrointestinal tract consists of a tube composed of
four principal layers. From outside onwards:
1. Break down the food substances into small particles.
1. Tunica Adventitia or serous coat – in the abdomen the organs
2. Digestion of food substances. are covered by a serous membrane called peritoneum.
3. Absorption of food substances. 2. The muscular coat.

4. Excretion of undigested food and toxic substances. 3. The submucous coat.

4. The Mucous coat.
The digestive system may be divided into two groups of organs:
 Incisors
Canine

Hard palate Premolars

Soft palate
Tongue Pharynx
Larynx Molars

Oesophagus

gall bladder
Diaphragm Hard palate

liver
Stomach Fig. 10 : The roof of the mouth and permanent teeth
....... Pancreas Molars 12 Pre molars 8
................. ....
....
Transverse Canines 4 Incisors8
Duodenum
colon
Ascending Small intestine The teeth helps to break down the food substances into small
colon Descending colon particles. Into this space there projects a muscular organ called the
Caecum tongue. It helps in chewing and swallowing and is one of the
Vermiform Sigmoid colon
appendix principal organs of speech. The tongue has on its surface a number
rectum
of taste buds by means of which we can differentiate sensation of
taste (bitter, sweet, sour and salty).
In chewing, the teeth grind the food into pieces while the
secretion of saliva moistens and lubricates the food.
Saliva is a juice secreted by three pairs of salivary glands in
the mouth. They are (a) the parotid (b) the sub-mandibular and (c)
sub-lingual gland.
Fig. 9 : The organs of the digestive system
a. Parotid - located in front and below each external
ear.
Mouth
b. Sub-mandibular - located between the mandible and the
The mouth is also called the oral cavity. In the mouth there muscle of the floor of the mouth.
are about 32 teeth. They are:
c. Sublingual - located in the floor of the mouth.
 Salivary secretion is a reflex process, both conditioned and 4. Saliva contains two enzymes. Ptyalin and Maltase which converts
unconditioned reflexes are involved. A new born infant salivates starchy foods into sugars.
when food is placed in its mouth. But the sight and smell of food 5. Saliva helps in the sensation of taste.
does not produce any reaction. Later by associating the sight and
smell of food with its taste, the child learns that the food has certain 6. It helps heat loss. This is mainly found in animals. When they
qualities and these very qualities are afterward capable of eliciting become hot, more saliva is secreted causing greater heat loss.
salivary secretion. 7. It helps in the excretion of certain substances like drugs
parotid gland and duct
containing mercury, lead and iodine.
Oesophagus
The Oesophagus is a tube connecting the pharynx and the
stomach. It conveys the food from the mouth to the stomach.
Stomach
cheek
muscles The stomach is an enlarged section of the alimentary tube.
The stomach is divided into three regions: the fundus, the body
and the antrum. Both ends of the stomach are guarded by valves
sublingual gland which normally permit the passage of substances in only one
submandibular direction.
gland Fundus
sternocleidomastoid
muscle Oesophagus
Cardiac sphincter
Fig. 11 : The salivary glands Body
pyloric sphincter Rugae
Functions of Saliva
1. It keeps the mouth moist and helps in speech.
2. It helps in the process of mastication of the food stuff and in
preparing it into a bolus suitable for digestion. duodenum

3. It dilutes hot, irritant substances and thus prevents injury to Pyloric antrum
the mucous membrane.
Fig. 12 : Structure of Stomach
 The proximal end is guarded by cardiac sphincter and the 1. Mouth – with the help of saliva from three pairs of salivary glands.
distal end of the stomach is guarded by pyloric sphincter. Stomach 2. Stomach – with the help of gastric juice from the stomach wall
acts as a pouch for holding large quantities of food so that frequent and
feeding can be avoided. The stomach mixes up the food thoroughly
by its movements. It also destroys bacteria by high acidity. 3. Small intestine – with the help of pancreatic juice from the
pancreas, bile juice from the liver and the intestinal juice from
Small Intestine the small intestine.
The small intestine is about 600 cm long in the adult extending Most of the digestive juices contain chemicals known as
from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to large intestine. The enzymes which do the work of breaking down foods chemically.
first 25 cm or 30 cm of the small intestine is called the duodenum, Digestion in the Mouth
followed by the jejunum and the remainder is the ileum.
The food that is ingested is broken down mechanically by the
Large Intestine help of teeth present. This is known as mastication or chewing.
This chewing action is aided by saliva that moistens and lubricates
The large intestine is as the name implies has the larger diameter
the food, before it can be made into a bolus ready for swallowing.
than the small intestine. It is about 150 cm. in length. The small
The saliva helps in chemical digestion of the food. Saliva contains
intestine opens into the large intestine. There is a small pouch at
the enzyme amylase or ptyalin. Salivary amylase acts on starch
the beginning part of the large intestine. This pouch is called the
which is a complex polysaccharide, breaking it to maltose, a
caecum. To the caecum is attached a small tube called the
disaccharide.
vermiform appendix. Large intestine consists of ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon and the sigmoid colon. Salivary amylase
Starch Maltose
Rectum and Anal Canal
Digestion in the Stomach
The descending colon of large intestine opens into the last
part. The rectum and anal canal. It is about 15 cm to 20 cm long. The food material after being broken down by mechanical
The rectum serves as a temporary storage area for the undigestible grinding and having been converted into a bolus with the saliva
and nonabsorbable substances. The narrow portion of the distal reaches the stomach, which pours a large quantity of gastric juice
part of the large intestine is called the anal canal which leads to the everyday. The mechanism of production of gastric juice is chemical
outside through an opening called the anus. or hormonal in nature. When the digested food is in contact with
the gastric mucosa, the duodenum secretes gastrin a hormone that
2.2.1. Physiology of Digestion belongs to the group of gastrointestinal hormones. This causes
Digestion takes place in three parts of the alimentary canal. the discharge of gastric juice.
They are:
 The gastric juice contain mainly Hydrochloric acid secreted by
parietal cells in the gastric glands and enzymes – 1) Pepsin
2) Renin.
Functions of Hydrochloric acid
Right lobe Left lobe
1. Kills bacteria present in the food.
2. Acidifies the food and stops the action of salivary amylase.
3. Converts inactive form of pepsinogen into active form of pepsin.
Functions of Enzymes
1. Pepsin - Converts protein into peptones, proteases and Gall
polypeptides. bladder

2. Renin - Converts the undigestible protein of milk into

easily digestible one. Fig. 13 : Structure of the Liver

The smooth muscle layers of the stomach enable the gastric Functions of Liver
contents to be liquefied to chyme. When the chyme is sufficiently
1. The production of bile from the pigment of broken down red blood
acidified and liquefied, the pyloric antrum forces small jets of gastric
cells.
contents through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.
2. The removal of toxins that have been absorbed from the intestine.
Digestion in the Small Intestine
3. The storage of simple sugar in the form of glycogen, which is
The small intestine is the organ where completion of chemical released as needed in the form of glucose.
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occur. The small
4. The storage of certain Vitamins including A,D,E and K.
intestine secretes the intestinal juice called succus entericus. This
consists of water, mucus, and enzyme enterokinase. Digestion in 5. The manufacture of heparin, which prevents clotting of the
the small intestine is aided by secretions from the accessory glands blood in the blood vessels.
such as liver and pancreas. 6. The formation of antibodies which acts against disease
2.2.2. Liver producing organisms.
The liver is the largest gland in the body. The liver has four 7. The production of certain blood plasma proteins such as
lobes. They are the large right lobe, smaller left lobe and caudate fibrinogen and albumin.
and quadrate lobes. Bile juice is secreted by the liver. 8. The removal of a waste product called urea from amino acids.
Bile juice
In the absence of bile, fats are not digested properly which
results in fatty diarrhoea. Thus bile is essential for digestion though
it does not contain any digestive enzymes. The bile is taken by the
Bile duct
hepatic duct and is stored in the gall bladder which is situated on
the lower surface of the liver. The bile is concentrated and sent to
the duodenum through the cystic duct when chyme from the Gall Bladder
stomach enters the duodenum. Bile contains bile salt, bile pigment,
mucin and water. The two pigments present in the bile are called Pancreas
Bilirubin and Biliverdin. These pigments give colour to the faeces
and urine. Due to liver damage or obstruction of the bile duct,
bilirubin collects in excess quantities in blood and change the colour Duodenum Pancreatic duct
of the skin and the eyes. There may be changes in the colour of the
urine also. This is called Jaundice.
Fig. 14 : Pancreas and associated structures
Functions of Bile Juice
Amylase and (3) Lipase. Besides these enzymes pancreatic juice
1. It stimulates the functions of the proteolytic enzymes and
contains large quantities of sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes
Amylase.
the hydrochloric acid present in the gastric juice secreted by the
2. It dissolves fatty acid, and glycerol. stomach.
3. It coordinates with lipase to convert the fat into fatty acids. Chemical digestion in the small Intestine
4. It helps in the absorption of the fatty acids and glycerol. When acid chyme passes into the small intestine, it is mixed
with pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice.
5. With the help of other digestive juices it neutralises the acidic
nature of food. Bile is not primarily a digestive juice because it contains no
enzyme but it helps in the digestion of fats. The bile salts emulsifies
Pancreas
fats and helps the pancreatic lipase to act and digest it easily. The
Pancreas is an elongated structure lying across the posterior pancreatic juice contains 3 powerful enzymes. They are:
wall of the abdomen. It is an exocrine as well as an endocrine
1. Pancreatic amylase - Converts carbohydrates -
gland. The pancreas not only produces the pancreatic juice but
amylase into simple sugars like
also secretes hormones e.g. insulin and glucagon. It is released
glucose, fructose and
directly in the blood which regulates the blood glucose level. The
galactose.
pancreatic juice contains three enzymes. They are (1) Trypsin (2)
2. Trypsin & Chymotrypsin - Converts peptones into In the stomach there is little absorption. Water, alcohol, glucose,
Polypeptides. In the beginning and simple salts are absorbed to a certain degree. The main absorption
trypsin is present in the form occurs in small intestine especially in the lower (ileum) part, the upper
of inactive trypsinogen and part of the small intestine is mainly associated with the process of
Chymotrypsinogen. This digestion.
trypsinogen is converted into
The mucous membrane of small intestine is covered with minute
active trypsin by the action of
fingerlike projections known as villi. About 50 lakhs of villi are found
enterokinase which is secreted
in small intestine. Each villus contains an arteriole, a venule, a capillary
in the small intestine.
network and a lacteal (lymphatic vessel). Nutrients that diffuse through
3. Pancreatic lipase - Converts fats into fattyacids the epithelial cells which cover the villus are able to pass through the
and glycerol. capillary walls and the lacteal and enters the blood.
After pancreatic digestion, the food which is now called chyme
proceeds further in the intestine. Here it comes in contact with
Succus entericus which is a juice produced by the small intestine.
Succus entericus contains three enzymes. They are:
1. Erepsin - It converts polypeptides into amino acids. Central lacteal

2. Nucleotidases - Converts nucleotide, into nucleosides.

Network of blood
3. Nucleosidases - Converts nucleosides into pentose, purine capillaries
and pyrimidine. Intestinal
gland
It also contains three sugar splitting enzymes called lactase,
maltase and sucrase converting the respective sugars into simple
sugars, mostly glucose. It also has lipase which acts on fats and
converts them into fatty acids and glycerol.
The final products of digestion of the carbohydrates is glucose, Arteriole
Venule
for the proteins are amino acids and fats are fatty acids, and glycerol.
Absorption of Food Plexus of
Absorption is the process by which water, minerals, vitamins Lymph vessels
and end products of digestion are absorbed through the mucosa of
alimentary canal (especially the small intestines) into blood stream Fig. 15 : Structure of Villus
either directly or via lymphatic vessels.
 About 90% of all absorption takes place throughout the length of contractile movements of the stomach, the food is well mixed up with
the small intestine. The other 10% occurs in the stomach and large gastric juice. After being in the stomach for 3 or 4 hours the pyloric
intestine. Both monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by a sphincter opens pushing the food into the duodenum.
positive pressure gradient between the intestinal content and the blood The small intestine shows three important types of movements,
as well as by an active process involving enzymatic reactions and they are -
transported in the blood stream to the liver via the hepatic portal system.
The excess amount of glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in 1. Pendular Movement
the liver, when need arises glycogen is converted into glucose and is These movements are induced by contraction of the circular
utilized by the body. and longitudinal muscles of the intestine. This movement contributes
Fatty acids and glycerol do not enter the blood stream immediately. to the thorough mixing of chyme with the digestive juice.
They are absorbed by the lacteals. So these lymph ducts are seen as 2. Segmenting Movement
white and milky in appearance after a meal of fat. The mineral salts and
water soluble vitamin B Complex and C are absorbed via portal blood. This movement occurs by the contraction of the circular
muscles which produces transverse folds, dividing the intestine into
Functions of the Large Intestine short segments.
In the large intestine the absorption of water continues until
3. Peristaltic Movement
semisolid consistency of faeces is achieved. Mineral salts, vitamins and
some drugs are also absorbed into the blood capillaries from the large It is the wavelike contraction of the alimentary canal which
intestine. The large intestine is heavily colonized by certain types of propels the food through the gastro intestinal tract.
bacteria which synthesize vitamin K and Folic acid. Unabsorbed 2.2.4. Diseases of the Stomach
carbohydrate undergoes bacterial fermentation and produces gas. These
gases pass out of the bowel as flatus. The large intestine exhibits mass Peptic Ulcer
movements. When there is disruption of the normal balance of the corrosive
Defaecation effect of gastric juice and the protective mucus on the stomach
lining it results in ulcer formation. This can be caused by stress,
This is the process of emptying the bowels or the passage of
excessive cigarette smoking and ingestion of some drugs.
faeces. When a mass movement forces the contents of the sigmoid
colon into the rectum the nerve endings in the anal walls are stimulated Diseases of the liver
resulting in defaecation. Viral Hepatitis
2.2.3 Movements of the Gastro Intestinal Tract
Virus infections are the commonest causes of acute liver injury.
Deglutition is the process by which the masticated food is It includes Type A, Type B and Type C. Type A virus spread through
transported across the pharynx and reaches the stomach. Due to food, water and contaminated faeces. Type B & C viruses spread
by blood and blood products, body fluids such as saliva, semen, vaginal The main excretory organs are the kidneys, which eliminate in the
secretions and from mother to fetus. Type B virus causes massive liver urine most of the metabolites, primarily those containing nitrogen (Urea,
necrosis and death. Intravenous drug addicts and male homosexuals Ammonia, Creatinine).
are at a greater risk.
2.3.1. Structure of the Kidney
Cirrhosis
The kidney is a bean-shaped organ about 5 cms long, 3 cms wide
This is inflammation of liver due to alcohol abuse, hepatitis and 2 cms thick. There are two kidneys which are situated at both
B & C virus infections etc. The liver tissue that is destroyed is sides of the lumbar area. The weight of a kidney is about 200-250
replaced by fibrous tissue, leading to liver failure. gms. On the inner or medial border there is a notch called the hilum at
Jaundice which region the artery, the vein and the ureter connect with the kidney.
This is not a disease but a symptom of liver disorder. It is due Each kidney has a pelvis, where the urine collects. The urine is
to abnormal bilirubin metabolism and excretion. There is an drained off from the pelvis by the ureters. The ureters end in the urinary
obstruction in the flow of bile from the liver to the duodenum, bladder which can hold about 800 ml of urine. The urethra carries the
resulting in bilirubin accumulation giving rise to the yellow urine from the bladder and voids it at convenient intervals.
colouration of skin and conjunctiva.
2.3. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Medulla
During the vital activity of the human and animal body, (pyramids) Cortex
significant amounts of organic degradation products are produced,
a proportion of which is not being utilized by cells. These
degradation products must be eliminated from the body. The end Minor calyces
products of metabolism which have to be removed from the body
are called excreta, and the organs that remove them are called Renalartery
Papilla of
excretory organs. medulla
Renalvein
The lungs eliminate carbon-di-oxide and water vapour into Major
the environment. The gastro-intestinal tract excretes a small amount calyx
of water, bile acids, pigments, cholesterol, certain drugs (when Pelvis
administered into the body) salts of heavy metals (Cadmium, iron,
manganese) and indigestible food residues (faeces). Capsule
Ureter
The skin performs its excretory function by sweat and
sebaceous glands. Sweat glands excrete sweat which contains water,
salts, urea, uric acid, creatinine and other compounds. Fig. 16 : Structure of Kidney
 In a longitudinal section, the kidney is seen to consist of outer
cortex and inner medulla. The medulla consists of 10-18 conical or Afferent Proximal Distal
Efferent arteriole arteriole convoluted convoluted
pyramidal shaped structures, known as the renal pyramids. The base tubule tubule
Branch of renal artery
of a renal pyramid faces towards, the cortex. The pelvis is the funnel-
shaped upper end of the ureter. Branch of renal vein

Structure of the Nephron Glomerulus

The kidney substance is composed of about 1 million functional

Glomerular
units, the nephrons, and a smaller number of collecting tubules. capsule
The uriniferous tubules are supported by a small amount of
connective tissue, containing blood vessels, nerves and lymph
vessels.
The nephron
The nephron consists of a tubule closed at one end, the other
end opening into a collecting tubule. The closed or blind end is
indented to form the cup-shaped glomerular capsule (Bowman’s
capsule) which almost completely encloses a network of arterial
capillaries, the glomerulus. Continuing from the glomerular capsule
the remainder of the nephron is described in three parts: the
Collecting duct
proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle and the distal Medullary loop
convoluted tubule, leading into a collecting tubule. (loop of Henle)

After entering the kidney at the hilus the renal artery divides Fig. 17 : Structure of nephron
into smaller arteries and arterioles. In the cortex an arteriole, the
afferent arteriole, enters each glomerular capsule then subdivides Functions of the Kidney
into a cluster of capillaries, forming the glomerulus. The blood - Urine formation
vessel leading away from the glomerulus is the efferent arteriole;
it breaks up into a second capillary network to supply oxygen and - Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance
nutritional materials to the remainder of the nephron. The blood - Disposal of waste material from the body
pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in other capillaries because
the calibre of the afferent arteriole is greater than that of the efferent 2.3.2. Formation of Urine
arteriole. There are 3 phases to urine formation:
 1. Simple filtration Selective reabsorption
2. Selective reabsorption The glomerular filtrate passes further to the proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting
3. Secretion
tubules. Selective reabsorption is the process by which substances such
Simple Filtration as glucose, amino acids, sodium, calcium, potassium, phosphate and
Filtration takes place through the semipermeable walls of the chloride are reabsorbed. This is mainly done to maintain the fluid and
glomerulus and glomerular capsule. Water and a large number of electrolyte balance of the blood. About 80% of reabsorption takes
small molecules pass through. Blood cells, and plasma proteins are place in the proximal tubules and the rest is absorbed in the distal tubules,
unable to filter through and remain in the capillaries. Difference and sent back to the blood stream. Reabsorption of water is done with
between the blood pressure in the glomerulus and the pressure of the help of anti diuretic hormone (ADH) which is secreted by the
the filtrate in the glomerular capsule helps in filtration. The volume posterior pituitary gland. It acts by increasing the permeability of the
of filtrate formed by both the kidneys each minute is called distal convoluted tubules and collecting tubules. Substances that are
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In a healthy adult the GFR is not normal blood constituents are not reabsorbed. The final urine is
about 125 ml / min. Each day 180 litres of dilute filtrate is formed devoid of glucose, amino acids, certain salts (phosphates and sodium)
by the two kidneys. Most of this is reabsorbed and only 1 to 1.5 and has a very high urea concentration.
litres is excreted as urine.
Secretion

Afferent Efferent arteriole Substances not required and foreign materials, for example drugs
arteriole such as pencillin and aspirin are not cleared by filtration due to the
short time it remains in the glomerulus. Such substances are cleared by
secretion into the convoluted tubules and excreted from the body in
the urine. Tubular secretion of H+ ions is important in maintaining
Glomerulus homeostasis of blood pH.
Glomerular
capsule The urine thus formed collects into the bladder through the ureters
which are long, slender, muscular tubes that extend from the kidney to
the lower part of the urinary bladder.
Micturition
Proximal convoluted
tubule The bladder is a muscular bag which collects the urine and
voids it at intervals through the urethra. When the bladder is empty,
the muscular wall becomes thick and the entire organ feels firm.
Fig. 18 : Glomerulus and Glomerular capsule
As the organ fills, the muscular wall becomes thinner and the organ The body fluid is distributed in two principal compartments. The
may increase from a length of 2 or 3 inches to 5 inches or more inches. intracellular compartment and the extracellular compartments. Two-
A moderately full bladder holds about 800 ml of urine. When 400 ml thirds of the body fluid is found within cells called intracellular fluid.
of urine is collected in the bladder, the normal desire for micturition is The remaining is outside the cells in the extracullar compartment called
felt. The process of expelling urine through the urethra is called urination the extracellular fluid (ECF).
or micturition. The act of micturition is a reflex action. It is controlled The movement of fluid from one compartment to another depends
by the action of circular muscles, continuous with those in the walls of on blood pressure and osmotic concentration, decided by plasma
the bladder and in the urethra. proteins.
Adrenal
glands
Water Balance
Fluid intake must equal fluid output, so that the total amount of
kidney fluid in the body remains constant. Water is taken in through the
alimentary tract and a small amount is formed by the metabolic
processes. Water is excreted in expired air and in faeces, through
the skin as sweat and mainly as urine.
Ureter
The balance between fluid intake and output is controlled by
the kidneys. Dehydration occurs when fluid output is greater than
the intake. e.g. through vomiting, sweating, diarrhea. The Anti-
diuretic Hormone released into the blood by the posterior pituitary
Urinary gland regulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water.
bladder
Electrolyte balance and fluid balance are interdependent.
Electrolytes are compounds such as inorganic salts, acids and bases
Fig. 19 : Urinary system
that form ions in solution. The electrolyte composition varies among
body fluids in different compartments. The ECF contains high levels
2.3.3. Body Fluids of sodium ion. Potassium ion concentration is higher in the ECF.
Sodium ion concentration is adjusted mainly by regulating the
The human body is about 60% water by weight. Body fluids are amount of water in the body, as well as, by the hormone aldosterone
blood plasma, lymph, interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) which consist mainly secreted by adrenal cortex. Potassium ions are also important in
water. They contain many different substances including nutrients, gases, maintaining fluid volume and helps to regulate acid-base levels.
water, hormones, and inorganic salts, acids and bases. All the chemical
reactions in the body take place in a watery medium. 2.3.4. Acid-Base balance
Acid-base balance depends on the concentration of hydrogen
ions and its regulations is critical to health. pH is a measurement of
the H+ ion concentration of a solution. A neutral pH is 7. Lower pH - Chronic renal failure : This occurs when the nephrons are
indicates acidity. Higher pH indicates alkalinity. progressively and irreversibly damaged and can be the end
result of kidney stones or high BP or Diabetes mellitus.
Blood is slightly alkaline at pH 7.4. Change in pH can affect rate
of chemical reactions and structure and function of proteins. Kidney ( Renal Calculi) : Calculi form in the kidneys and bladder
when urinary constituents normally in solution are precipitated.
The term acidosis refers to any condition in which the hydrogen
The solutes involved are oxalates, phosphates, urates and uric acid.
ion concentration of plasma is elevated above normal. There are 2
They are more common in males and after 30 years of age.
types of acidosis:
Dehydration, Infection, hyperparathyroidism etc can lead to stone
1. Metabolic acidosis : This can be due to excessive loss of formation.
bicarbonate ion as in diarrhea or large accumulation of lactic
2.3.5. Structure and Functions of the Skin
acid as in exercise.
The skin forms a protective outer covering around the entire
2. Respiratory acidosis : This develops when CO2 is produced
body. It consists of an outer thin layer called the epidermis and an
more rapidly than it is excreted by the lungs. This occurs during
inner thick layer called the dermis. Numerous structures such as
respiratory diseases.
glands, sense organs and appendages such as hair nails are embedded
The term alkalosis is any condition where the hydrogen ion in the skin.
concentration is below the normal range. There are 2 types of
alkalosis.
Hair
1. Metabolic alkalosis : When there is loss of hydrochloric acid
Epidermis
from stomach as in excessive vomiting it can result in muscle
twitches and convulsions.
Dermis
2. Respiratory alkalosis : This occurs when the respiratory
system excretes CO2 more quickly than it is produced.
Hyperventilation of lungs due to high altitude or stress can Subcutaneous
cause this. The kidneys help regulate the pH by excreting or tissue
Sebaceous
conserving certain ions. gland
Renal failure : This can be acute renal failure / chronic renal failure.
Hair bulb
- Acute Renal failure : There is a sudden and severe reduction
in the glomerular filtration rate and function of the kidney due
to traumatic injury to normal kidneys, such as loss of blood,
loss of fluid as in burns, diarrhoea etc. Fig. 20 : Diagrammatic Section of the skin
Epidermis Dermis
This is the outermost thin portion of the skin. No blood vessels Situated below the epidermis is the most thicker dermis formed
are found in this layer. It derives its nutrition from lymph. Nerves are mostly of connective tissue which is richly supplied with blood vessels
found in this layer. and nerves. The boundary line between the dermis and epidermis is
neither smooth nor straight; it is rather zigzag because of the conical
The Epidermis consists of four layers of cells. They are:
projection of the dermis into the epidermis. These projections are called
1. The stratum corneum dermal papillae. This layer is tough, flexible and highly elastic. It
contains the following structures:
2. The stratum lucidum
1. Fine elastic fibres.
3. Stratum granulosum and
2. Capillary blood vessels and lymphatics.
4. The stratum malpighi
3. Sensory nerve endings of various types.
i) The Stratum Corneum
4. Hair roots or hair follicles.
The cells in this layer are thin, scale-like, dead, and cornified. The
corneous layer is thickened in those parts of the body such as the palm 5. Sweat glands.
and sole of the foot. 6. Sebaceous glands and
ii) The Stratum Lucidum 7. Involuntary muscle fibres. These muscle fibres, called arrectores
pilorum are attached to the hair follicle and when these muscles
This is a thin more or less transparent layer, in which the cells are
contract, the hairs become vertical and ‘goose - skin’ is brought
indistinct.
about.
iii) The Stratum Granulosum There are two sets of glands in the skin. They are (1) the sweat
It consists of three to five layers of flattened cells containing dark glands and (2) the sebaceous glands. Each sweat gland consists of a
granules of irregular shape. long tube which at one end opens on to the surface through the sweat
pore. At the other end, in the deeper part of the dermis, the tube forms
(iv) The Stratum Malpighi a coiled mass with a blind end. In the coiled portion of the sweat gland,
This layer is the lowermost and broadest layer of the epidermis. It there are glandular cells, which separate water and small quantities of
is capable of active multiplication. This layer is made up of polyhedral metabolic waste products from the blood that circulates through the
cells. These cells are called prickle cells. The innermost cells of this capillary network associated with the gland. The sweat passes through
layer contains pigment granules called melanin which give the skin its the sweat pore and evaporates from the surface by taking heat from
colour. the skin. The sweat glands are present in large amounts on the palms,
soles, forehead and in the armpits.
 The sebaceous glands are irregularly shaped sac - like glands that 4. Production of Vitamin D : The skin contains a substance called
open into the hair follicles. The oily secretions (Sebum) of these glands 7-de-hydro cholesterol which is converted into vitamin D by ultra
make the hair waterproof and protect the skin from drying effects of – violet rays of the sun.
the atmosphere due to high temperatures and low humidity. 5. Regulation of Body Temperature : By conduction, convection
Sensory Nerve Endings and radiation – a large amount of heat is lost from the body. The
subcutaneous fat and hairs act as non-conductors of heat.
Numerous sensory nerves specialized to pick up stimuli that cause Evaporation of sweat takes away a large amount of heat from the
sensations of touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold that are scattered in body.
the skin. They are connected to the brain by nerve fibres. Stimuli picked
6. Water Balance : Formation and evaporation of sweat is an
up by the sense organs are transmitted to the brain where they are
important factor in the regulation of water balance of the body.
interpreted to give the correct information.
7. Acid Base Equilibrium : Sweat being acid in reaction, a good
Appendages amount of acid is excreted through it. In acidosis, it becomes
Hair and nails are appendages of the skin formed as a result of the more acid and in this way helps to maintain a constant reaction
outgrowth or thickening of the epidermis. in the body.

Functions of the skin 8. Secretion : Sebum which is secreted by the Sebaceous glands
helps to keep the skin greasy and prevents drying. Sweat is
The skin is not merely an outer covering for the body but it serves secreted by sweat gland. Milk is secreted by mammary gland.
a variety of functions. The mammary glands are the skin structures. They are the
modified sebaceous glands.
1. Protection: The skin protects the inner parts of the body from
mechanical injuries. A healthy skin also protects the body from 9. Storage Function : The subcutaneous tissue can store – (a)
the invasion of disease-causing germs. The nails, hoofs, and horns fat (b) water (c) salts (d) glucose and such other substances.
are also defensive appendages of the skin. 2.4. ENDOCRINES
2. Excretion: Like kidneys, the skin through its sweat glands, The glands of the body may be divided into those with an
eliminates salts, and metabolic waste products in the form of sweat. external secretion (exocrine glands) and those with an internal
3. Sensory Function : The numerous sense organs and nerve endings secretion (endocrine glands). Example of exocrine glands are the
sweat, Lachrymal and mammary glands which pass their secretion
hidden in the skin make it an important sensory structure that picks
along the ducts to the external surface of the body and the glands
up different stimuli and inform the brain of such changes in
of the mouth, stomach, and intestine which pass their secretions
environment. along ducts into the alimentary tract. The endocrine or ductless
gland on the other hand have no ducts or openings to the exterior.
The secretions are passed directly into the blood stream and transmitted The main endocrine glands in the body are :
to the tissues.
1. Thyroid
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by the endocrine
2. Parathyroid
glands and their overall function is to regulate the activities of various
body organs and their functions. The first hormone was discovered by 3. Islets of Langerhans
Bayliss in 1903.
4. Adrenal gland
5. Pituitary and
6. Sex glands
Pituitary gland 2.4.1. Thyroid Gland
The largest of the endocrine glands is the thyroid, which is located
Thyroid gland in the neck region. The thyroid gland weighs 25 gms in a healthy adult.
Parathyroid gland It has two oval parts called the lateral lobes on either side of the trachea.
These two lobes are connected by a narrow band called isthumus.
The entire gland is enclosed by a connective tissue capsule. This gland
produces hormone, thyroxine rich in iodine.
Thyroid gets iodine from the blood stream. Iodine is formed by
the reduction of iodide. It is then fixed with the amino acid tyrosine to
Adrenal glands form mono and di-iodo-tyrosine compounds. Two molecules of di-
Islets of langerhans iodo-tyrosine combine to form thyroxine. By eating vegetables grown
in the pancreas in iodine-containing soils or by eating sea-foods and iodised salt our
diet will have enough iodine necessary for the production of thyroxine.
Ovaries in female Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by the anterior
pituitary lobe increases the activity of thyroid gland. Whenever the
thyroxine level falls below a particular level TSH is stimulated,
Testes in male
Functions of Thyroxine
1. Helps to regulate tissue growth and development.
2. Increases the B M R and thus raises the body temperature.
Fig. 21 : Location of various endocrine glands in the body
 Thyroid Disorders
It is of 3 types. They are:
Thyroid cartilage
1. Hypothyroidism
2. Hyperthyroidism
3. Simple goitre.
Thyroid gland
Hypothyroidism
Isthmus of thyroid
gland It results due to lack of thyroid hormone secretion. It results in
cretinism in children and myxoedema in adults.
Trachea
Cause of Hypothyroidism
1. Failure or arrest of normal development of thyroid gland.
2. Failure to form genetic enzymes normally.
3. Deficiency of iodine in the body.
Fig. 22 : The thyroid gland 4. Administration of antithyroid drugs in excess.

3. It controls the metabolism by regulating the anabolic and catabolic 5. After surgical removal of thyroid gland.
process. The Chief Features of Cretinism are as follows
4. Stimulates the cells to break down proteins for energy. 1. Stunted growth
5. Decreases the breakdown of fats. 2. Broad nose
6. Increases the breakdown of body glucose and enhances the 3. Thick lips
glucose absorption.
4. Lobling tongue
7. Calcium and phosphorus are removed from the bones and
excreted in increased amounts. 5. Muddy dry skin

8. Helps in the conversion of Beta-carotene into vitamin A.

Fig. 23 : Cretinism
6. Milestones of development in children get delayed e.g., Holding 2. Flushed skin and high temperature
up the head, sitting, standing, walking gets delayed.
3. Increased O2 consumption and CO2 output
7. BMR is depressed.
4. Tendency to lose weight
This disease can be cured if thyroxine or iodine is administered
5. The pulse and heart rate are high
sufficiently.
6. Nervousness and irritability
In adults hypothyrodism causes myxodema which is more common
among females than in males. 7. Low resistance to withstand stress and strain

The Chief features of hypothyrodism in adults (Myxoedema) 8. High blood pressure

1. Decreased BMR 9. Mild diabetes

2. Sexual dysfunction 10. Emotional restlessness

3. Lack of energy The clinical condition of hyperthyroidism is exophthalmic goitre

in which the thyroid gland is usually enlarged and there is characteristic
4. Lack of memory protrusion of eye balls from the orbit.
5. Loss of hair
6. Dullness
7. Loss of appetite
8. Slow heart rate Fig. 24 : Features of Myxoedema
puffy face
9. Gain in weight
10. Puffy face due to tissue fluid retention.
Hyperthyroidism
Occurs due to the excessive secretion or over action of thyroxine.
Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism
1. Enlargement of thyroid gland results in the protrusion of eye ball
from the orbit. Fig. 25 : Exophthalmic goitre
Simple Goiter 6. Promotes the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the
intestine.
A lack of dietary iodine may cause endemic goiter. Thyroid gland
is enlarged and has increased number of follicles. This leads to low 7. Stimulates the process of lactation in mammary gland.
level of thyroid hormone in the blood, and derangement of body
functions. Pharynx

Right lobe of thyroid glands

Parathyroid glands

Oesophagus

Fig. 27 : Location of parathyroid glands

Deficiency of Parathyroxine

Fig. 26 : Simple goitre 1. Serum calcium level falls.

2.4.2. Parathyroid Gland 2. Blood reaction is more alkaline owing to excessive loss of CO
2.

These are two tiny oval pairs (6mm x 2m) of glands situated at 3. Decalcification of bones.
upper and lower poles of lateral lobes of thyroid gland. It secretes the 4. Increase in the heart and respiration rate.
hormone, parathyroxine.
5. Rise in body temperature.
Functions of Parathyroxine
1. Increases the concentration of organic acid in the bone. 6. General mental depression.

2. Increases the calcium and phosphorus solubility 7. Tendency to cataract formation.

3. Increases the reabsorption of calcium from the bones resulting in 8. Under development of teeth.
increased serum calcium level.
9. Brittleness of nails.
4. Increases phosphate excretion in the urine.
10. Dryness of skin.
5. Increases the reabsorption of calcium from the renal tubules.
11. Lowered general resistance. Functions of Glucagon
12. Nervous irritability. 1. Increases the blood glucose level
13. Twitching of muscles causing Tetany. 2. Breaks down the liver glycogen into glucose.
Tetany is a condition, in which 3. Stimulates the break down of lipid in adipose tissue.
there is hyperexcitability of
nervous system with intermittent Functions of Insulin
tonic spasms of muscles chiefly of 1. Converts glucose into glycogen and accelerates the transport of
the limbs, face, and back of the glucose from the blood into the cells.
neck. When the small muscles of
hands are affected, the hand is held 2. Decreases the blood sugar level.
in the same position. It is known as 3. Builds up the glycogen store in the liver.
Carpo - Pedal spasms. When the
laryngeal muscle are affected Deficiency of Insulin
laryngeal spasm is seen. If tetany is
Hyposecretion of insulin results in Diabetes mellitus. It is caused
not treated it may lead to paralysis
due to elevated blood sugar level. This condition is known as
of respiratory muscle and cardiac
arrest. Finally death may occur. hyperglycemia. This condition leads to the condition ‘glycosuria’ in
Fig. 28 : Tetany which sugar is excreted in the urine. Carbohydrates as well as protein
2.4.3. Islets of Langerhans in the and fat metabolism are affected in the diabetics.
Pancreas
Symptoms of diabetes are:
The Pancreas is both an exocrine gland secreting digestive juice
through a duct into the duodenum and an endocrine gland secreting 1. Excessive thirst, hunger and urination
hormone into the blood stream. It consists of head, body and tail. The 2. Loss of weight.
head fits into the curve of duodenum The body and tail are directed
towards the left. The pancreatic islets represents the endocrine part of 3. Weakness, restlessness and fatigue.
the pancreas. Most of the islets are located in the tail and only a small 4. Decreased resistance to infection.
number in the head of the pancreas. There are two different types of
cells in the islets of langerhans. The alpha cells and beta cells are very 5. Itching of the genitals.
important. The alpha cells secrete a hormone Glucagon whereas the Diabetes can be kept under check by taking a high protein and
beta cells secrete insulin. low carbohydrate diet. If Diabetes cannot be controlled by diet
alone, insulin must be administered by injection.
2.4.4. Adrenal Gland 3. Sexsteroids : Stimulates the development of the reproductive
organs in childhood. It is responsible for development of secondary
The adrenal or supra renals are two small glands each one situated
sex characteristics and reproductive function.
above a kidney. Adrenal gland consists of two different parts each of
which acts as a separate gland. The inner area is called the medulla Functional insufficiency of the adrenal cortex and tuberculosis of
which is brown in colour while the outer area is called the cortex which the adrenal gland gives rise to Addison’s disease. Its early signs are
is lighter in colour. dark pigmentation of the skin, especially of the hands, neck and face,
anemia, loss of energy, weakness, decreased appetite, nausea, and
Adrenal gland
vomiting. Patients are very sensitive to cold and pain and susceptible
to infections. This can be treated by administering the hormone in
Kidney combination with a diet high in sodium and low in potassium.
Over activity of adrenal cortex increases the secretion of this
hormone, and sexsteroids, this results in an acute change of
Cortex secondary sex characteristics. For example, female may develop
male secondary characteristics like growth of beard, low pitch of
Medulla the voice, lack of menstruation and male may develop female
secondary sex characteristics.
Adrenal Medulla
Fig. 29 : Adrenal Gland Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones. They are Adrenalin
and Nor-adrenaline.
Adrenal Cortex Functions of Medullary Hormones
It is composed of three layers. They are (a) Zona glomerulosa 1. Dilation of the pupils and improves visual acuity.
(outer layer) (b) Zona fasciculata (middle layer) and (c) Zona 2. Increases both rate and amplitude of contraction of heart and
reticularis (inner layer). raises the cardiac output.
The adrenal cortex secretes three hormones. They are: 3. Increases both rate and amplitude of respiratory movements
1. Glucocorticoids : Acts as antagonists to insulin and cause increase and causes dilation of the bronchioles.
in blood sugar. 4. Raises the blood sugar level by means of glycogenolysis.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Acts on sodium and potassium and help in 5. Increases the Basal Metabolic Rate and thus raises the body
the conservation of sodium in the body. temperature.
6. Dilation of the walls of intestine and the urinary bladder. The Anterior Pituitary
The functions of adrenalin are similar to that of Nor-adrenalin This part secretes a large number of hormones. Many of them
except in a few instances. For example, adrenalin increases the heart stimulate other glands. Its main hormones are:
rate whereas Nor-adrenalin decreases heart rate.
1. Growth Hormone: It facilitates the growth of the bone and
2.4.5. Pituitary Gland cartilage tissue. Over activity of the anterior pituitary lobe in
The pituitary is a small gland about the size of a cherry. It is situated childhood results in excessive growth and height. This condition is
at the base of the brain. It plays a peculiar role in the system of endocrine known an gigantism. A decreased activity of the anterior pituitary
glands. It is referred to as the ‘master’ gland of internal secretion causes a severe growth retardation leading to dwarfism.
because it controls the activities of other endocrine glands.

Hypothalamus
Anterior
pituitary 2.5 m
Growth hormone
Hypersecretion
2m
Normal
Pituitary stalk secretion

Hyposecretion 1.5 m

Posterior lobe
Anterior lobe
1m

0.5 m

Fig. 30 : Structure of pituitary gland

0
Lorain - Levi Frolich’s Normal
The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts (1) Anterior Giant
pituitary and (2) Posterior pituitary. Dwarfs
Fig. 31 : Effects of abnormal growth hormone secretion
 Excessive production of growth hormone in an adult leads to no ovulation and production of the corpus luteum can occur. In
excessive development of certain regions such as fingers and toes, feet, males it stimulates the interstitial cells of testes to secrete
hands, nose, lower jaw, tongue, thoracic and abdominal organs. This testosterone.
condition is known as acromegaly.
Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary

This lobe is just behind the anterior lobe, it produces two

hormones-Oxytocin and Vasopressin.

Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles especially that of the uterus

and produces powerful contractions of the uterus and helps in parturition.

Vasopressin acts on the smooth muscle of the arterial system

and increases the blood pressure. This hormone helps in the reabsorption
of water from the distal convoluted tubule. Vasopressin deficiency is
the cause of diabetes insipidus in which water is not reabsorbed. So
Fig. 32 : Facial features in acromegaly great amounts of urine are excreted with no sugar in it. Such patients
feel constantly thirsty.
2. Thyrotropic Hormone (TSH): This hormone stimulates the
activity of the thyroid gland. Administration of this hormone The Sex Glands
causes overgrowth of thyroid tissue.
The sex glands including the ovaries of the female and the testis of
3. Adreno Cortico Tropic Hormone: (ACTH): This hormone
the male are important endocrine structures. The secretion of these
stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland and increases the
glands play an important part in the development of the sexual
production of the hormones of adrenal cortex.
characteristics. The male sex gland secretes hormone called
4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This hormone testosterone and is responsible for secondary sex characteristics. The
influences the growth, development and maturation of the vesicular female sex gland secretes a hormone called estrogen and it stimulates
follicles in the ovary. In males, the hormone stimulates the formation the development and functioning of the female reproductive organs.
of sperm in the testes.
There is one other hormone produced by the female sex glands
5. Lactogenic Hormone: It acts on the mammary gland and helps
and it is called progesterone. This hormone assists in normal
in the formation and flow of milk during lactation.
development of pregnancy.
6. Luteinising Hormone: It is required for the growth of follicle in
the ovary and stimulates ovulation. In the absence of the hormone,
2.5. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The Reproductive System consists of those organs whose function
is to produce a new individual. Urinary
bladder Seminal vesicle
Male And Female Sexual Reproductive Organs
Ejaculatory Duct
The sex organs in the male and female can be divided as: Prostate gland
1. Primary sex organs, i.e. those producing male and female gametes.
Urethra
2. Secondary (or accessory) sex organs, i.e. those concerned with
carriage of gamete and other functions.

Primary Sex Organs in Male and Female Epididymis

Penis Vas deferens
They are a pair of testes producing spermatozoa (male gametes) Testis
while in females are a pair of ovaries producing ovum (female gamete). Fig. 33 : Male reproductive organs
These primary sex organs in addition to producing male and female
gametes secrete male and female sex hormones as well. Accessory Sex Organs in the Female
1. Fallopian tubes
Accessory Sex Organs in the Male
2. Uterus
1. Epididymis
3. Vagina
2. Vas deferens
4. Clitoris
3. Seminal vesicles 2.5.1. Male Reproductive System
4. Prostate gland There is one pair of testes lying one in each scrotal sac. The scrotum
is a bag of skin having two separate compartments, one for each testis
5. Ejaculatory ducts lying at the root of the penis. Each testis is oval shaped, measures 5 x
3 x 2 cm and weighs about 15 gm.
6. Urethra
Each testis is covered with a layer of fibrous tissue called tunica
7. Penis albuginea. Many septa from this layer divide the testes into pyramidal
lobules in which lie seminiferous tubules and the interstitial cells. The
seminiferous tubules are concerned with process of spermatogenesis. The prostate gland lies at the base of the urinary bladder and is
The interstitial cells called leydig cells lie between the tubules and covered with fibrous capsule which by a number of septa divides into
secrete the testosterone (male sex hormone). From the lining of these many follicles. The ejaculatory ducts lead from the seminal vesicle
tubules spermatozoa are produced by the process of cell division. through the prostate gland to the urethra.
The epididymis is a very fine convoluted tube, being 4-6 meters In males the urethra is about 20-22 cm in length and serves the
long and joins the posterior part of the testes and vas deferens. It stores purpose of urination as well as ejaculation of semen.
the spermatozoa. The spermatozoa remain inactive in epididymis and
Functions of the Testes
are capable of surviving for months.
1. They produce and mature the male reproductive cells called
Vas deferens is a fibro-elastic duct 30-40 cm in length and extends
spermatozoa.
Tunica 2. Secrete seminal fluid.
albuginea
3. Secrete hormone testosterone directly into the blood.
The testes normally do not begin to function till the onset of puberty,
which is usually at about 14 to 15 years. At this age they begin to
secrete hormones and produce the sperms. Before puberty, mature
sperms are not formed. It ceases in old age.
Epididymis Each sperm is about 1 mm long consists of a head piece, middle
piece and a tail piece. The head is the nucleus. The nucleus is covered

Seminiferous
Vas deferens
tubules

Fig. 34 : Section of the testis

from epididymis to end in ejaculatory duct which is joined by seminal

duct and opens in prostatic urethra.
The seminal vesicles are two small pouches lying at the back of
the urinary bladder. They secrete a fluid called semen. Fig. 35 : Spermatozoan
by a cap the ‘acrosome’. The neck piece contains ‘centrioles’. The 4. Graafian Follicles : These, are small islands of cells found at the
tail piece consists of a spiral mitochondrial sheath surrounding a group peripheral part of the ovary. The female gametes called ova are
of fibres. The FSH secreted from the anterior pituitary gland controls produced in the graafian follicles. When an ovum matures, the
spermatogenesis. follicle in which it develops bursts. The follicle usually takes 10-
14 days. This process of rupture of graafian follicle is called the
Functions of Hormone
‘ovulation’. Female gamete (ovum) produced, during ovulation is
Testosterone secreted.
1. Stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics 5. Corpus luteum: When the follicle ruptures Corpus luteum
of the male such as the growth of beard, the deepening of the develops. In the absence of pregnancy, it persists upto 27th
voice, the growth and the distribution of hair on the body, the day and degenerates on the 28th day. If pregnancy occurs it persists
growth and development of the accessory sex organs. to about 4 to 5 months. It secretes progesterone which is essential
for the maintenance of pregnancy.
2. Stimulates the production of sperms at puberty.
6. Interstitial Cells: These are polyhedral cells found in between
2.5.2. Female Reproductive system follicles. These cells secrete oestrogen.
Ovary
The gonads of the female are called ovaries and the cells that they Germinal
produce are known as ova or egg-cells. Each female has a pair of epithelium
oval-shaped structure, about the size of an almond. Each ovary
measures 3.5 x 2.5 x 11.5 cms and weighs about 8-10 gms. They are
Mature
situated at the back of the abdominal cavity at the hip level. An ovary ovarian
consists of the following: follicle

1. The Germinal Epithelium: It is the outer part of the ovaries

from which the primitive graafian follicles develop. : ruptured
follicle
2. Tunica Albugina: This is made up of connective tissues found Ovum
under the germinal epithelium.
Corpus
3. Stroma: It is a connective tissue network continuous with albicans
Tunica albugina and containing involuntary muscle fibres. It Corpus luteum
supports the ovarian tissues and carries blood vessels, lymphatics
and nerves. Fig. 36 : Section of ovary
Functions fertilized ovum is embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. Placenta
is then formed from the embryonic and endometrium tissues. This
1. Produce ova and expel one at approximately 28 days interval
maintains the nutrition, respiration and excretion of embryo until
during the reproductive life.
parturition.
2. Secretes hormones (Oestrogen and progesterone). Oestrogen
Vagina
influences secondary sex characteristics and is responsible for
the changes in the accessory organs of reproduction. It is a muscular membranous tube situated between the rectum
Progesterone prepares the uterus for the reception of the fertilized and the urethra.
ovum - implantation, the development of the placenta, development
Uterus Fallopian tube
of the mammary glands, and inducing multiplication of the uterine
muscle fibres.
Fallopian Tubes
Close to each ovary there is a narrow tube about 10 cm long with
an open end which looks like a fringe of petals. These tubes are called
the fallopian tubes. These are attached to the uterus at its upper outer Ovary Round ligament
angles. External os of Body of uterus
cervlx Cervix
Functions
These tubes act as ducts for the female gametes although they are
not connected to the ovaries. Fertilization of the male and female gametes
normally occurs in the tubes. Vagina showing
rugae
Uterus
Uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ the inside of which is Fig. 37 : Organs of the female reproductive system
hollow. It measures about 7.5 x 5 x 2.5 cms. consists of an upper
portion called the body and a lower portion called the cervix. The It is estimated that, at birth, there are about 30000 ova or
uterus is lined by a mucous membrane, known as endometrium. eggs in a female child. No fresh ova are formed after birth but during
the reproductive female life that is commencing between 10
Functions
and 16 years of age and concluding between 45 and 55 years of age,
The uterus plays an important role in maintaining growth and these Ova develop within the follicles or sacs in which they are
development of the embryo. The ovum is discharged from the ovary. embedded. They come progressively nearer to the surface of
It is then transported to the uterus through the fallopian tubes. The the ovary where they mature and increase in size. About every
28 days one of these follicles burst open from the ovum together with usually fertilised. There is a similar increase in the secretion of watery
the fluid surrounding it, and is expelled into the fallopian tubes; into mucous by the glands of the tubes and into the vagina by cervical glands.
uterus where it may or may not be fertilized. If the ovum is fertilised by
If the ovum is not fertilized menstruation occurs.
a male reproductive cell or spermatozoa it then attaches itself to the
uterine wall and develops there. If the ovum does not become fertilised Menstrual Phase
within a few days, it is cast off and the process termed menstruation is When the ovum is not fertilized the corpus luteum begins to
initiated. degenerate. Progesterone and oestrogen levels fall. The menstrual
2.5.3. Menstrual cycle flow consists of secretions from the endometrial glands, endometrial
cells, blood and the unfertilized ovum.
The phases of the menstrual cycle that denote changes in the uterine
wall are:
Proliferative phase 10 days
Secretory phase 14 days Ovarian follicle
Ovulation Corpus luteum secreting
mainly progesterone
secreting oestrogen
Menstrual phase 4 days
Proliferative phase FSH LH
At this stage an ovarian follicle, stimulated by FSH, grows towards
maturity and produces oestrogen. Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation Basal Functional
of the endometrium in preparation for the reception of a fertilised ovum. layer of layer of Thickening of functional
The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication endo - endo- layer of endometrium
accompanied by an increase in the numbers of mucous secreting glands metrium metrium
and blood capillaries. This phase ends when ovulation occurs and
oestrogen production stops.
Secretory phase
Immediately after ovulation, the lining cells of the ovarian follicle
are stimulated by LH to develop the corpus luteum which produces
progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone the endometrium
becomes oedematous and the secretory glands produce increased
amounts of watery mucous. This is believed to assist the passage of the Menstrual Proliferative phase Secretory phase
flow 4 days 10 days 14 days
spermatozoa through the uterus to the uterine tubes where the ovum is
Fig. 38 : Menstrual Cycle
Menopause
Chorion Amniotic
At about the age of 50 years a woman enters menopause – the Chorionic cavity
time when ova are no longer produced and the woman is longer fertile. cavity Amnion

The amount of estrogen and progesterone decreases.

Fertilisation
Umbilical
This is the fusion of the sperm and the egg. Fertilisation and the arteries
establishment of pregnancy together are referred to as conception.
The fusion of sperm and ovum nuclei together form a Zygote. This Umbilical cord
zygote gives rise to a new individual.
Pregnancy
Placenta
The embryo after two months of fertilization comes to resemble
the human being and from then to birth is referred to as the foetus. Fig. 39 : Developing embryo
The development of the foetus continues until it is ready to be born
after 280 days or 9 months. The period of intra-uterine development
of the foetus is known as the gestation period. This is followed by
birth or parturition. During the seventh week of gestation, the
embryo has both male and female primordial genital ducts. The
gonad develops a cortex and a medulla. Until the sixth week of
development, the structures are identical in both sexes. In genetic
male, the medulla develops during the seventh, eighth weeks into a
testes, and the cortex regresses. Leydig cells appear and androgen
is secreted. In genetic females, the cortex develops into an ovary
and the medulla regresses.
During the foetal growth fetal membranes such as the amnion
and chorion help protect, nourish and support the foetus. The
amnion forms a sac around the foetus that is filled with amniotic
fluid. The placenta is the organ of exchange of nutrients between
the mother and the embryo. During pregnancy the corpus luteum
and placenta secrete progesterone.
Lactation
118
High levels of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy cause
an increase in the size of the breasts. The hormone prolactin secreted