Human structure and functionality

The human body is a complex structure made up of many different systems. These systems are listed
below:

1, The Cardiovascular system

2, The Respiratory system

3, The Nervous system

4, The Musculo-skeletal system

5, The Digestive system

6, The Urinary system

7, The Lymphatic system

8, The Integumentary system

9, The Reproductive system

Not one of these systems work in isolation but work in conjunction with each other. Each one of the
systems rely on each other to work as it should work.

1.The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system, which is made up of your heart and blood vessels, is a crucial part of your
body responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to all cells of the body and delivering carbon
dioxide back to the lungs to be exhaled out of the body. Blood vessels also remove carbon dioxide
and other waste.

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, arteries, capillaries. veins.

The Heart

The heart is made up of four chambers, made up of two atria and two ventricles. The heart is a large
muscular pump and is divided into two halves - the right-hand side and the left-hand side.

The right-hand side of the heart is responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The left-hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the body.

Each side of the heart consists of an atrium and a ventricle which are two connected chambers.

The atria receive blood from the blood vessels whilst the ventricles are responsible for pumping the
blood around the body.
The left atrium receives oxygenated blood through the pulmonary vein. It is pumped out of the heart
by the left ventricle, leaving through the aorta. Deoxygenated blood arrives in the right atrium through
the superior vena cava. This blood is pumped back to the lungs by the right ventricle through the
pulmonary artery. Blood is received into the artia when the ventricles are relaxed (diastole), then
contract (systole) to move the blood

(The A Level
Biology Student, n.d.)

Valves within the heart prevent the back flow of blood within the heart. These are detailed below:

Valve between the right atrium and right ventricle = Tricuspid Valve

Valve between the left atrium and left ventricle = Mitral Valve

Valve between the left ventricle and the aorta = Aortic Valve

Valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery = Pulmonary valve

The Heart Beat

The heartbeat is a two-part pumping action that takes about a second. As the blood collects in the
upper chamber, the right and left atria our heart is a natural pacemaker which is the SA node, which
sends out an electrical signal that causes the atria to contract. This contraction pushes blood through
the tricuspid and mitral valves into the resting chambers left and right ventricles. This is called diastole
this a part of the two-part pumping phase.

The second of the pumping stage begins when the ventricles are full off blood so as above the
electrical signals from the SA node travels along a pathway of cells to the verticals making them
contract this is called systole. The mitral and the tricuspid valves will shut tight to stop a back flow of
blood. The aortic and pulmonary valves pushed open. When blood is pushed from the right ventricle
to the lung's oxygen blood flows from the left ventricle to the heart and other parts of the body.

The normal heart beats between 60 to 80 times a minute, when you are at rest this can Varey
depending on your age, as we get older our resting heart rate rises. Your heart does not work alone
our brain tracks the conditions around us I.e., stress physical activity and we adjust our cardiovascular
system.

The Blood

The fluid that circulates through the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins and is the chief means of
transport within the body. It transports oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues, and carbon dioxide from
the tissues to the lungs. It transports nutritive substances and metabolites to the tissues and removes
waste products to the kidneys and other organs of excretion. It has an essential role in the maintenance of
fluid balance.

In an emergency, blood cells and antibodies carried in the blood are brought to a point of infection, or
blood-clotting substances are carried to a break in a blood vessel. The blood distributes hormones from the
endocrine glands to the organs they influence. It also helps regulate body temperature by carrying excess
heat from the interior of the body to the surface layers of the skin, where the heat is dissipated to the
surrounding air.

Blood varies in colour from a bright red in the arteries to a duller red in the veins. The total quantity of blood
within an individual depends upon body weight; a person weighing 70 kg (154 lb) has about 4.5 litres of
blood in the body.

Blood is composed of two parts: the fluid portion is called plasma and the solid portion consists of the blood
cells (ERYTHROCYTES and LEUKOCYTES AND the PLATELETS Plasma accounts for about 55 per cent of the
volume and the formed elements account for about 45 per cent.
Blood Vessels.

Blood is carried through the body via blood vessels. An artery is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the
heart, where it branches into ever-smaller vessels. Eventually, the smallest arteries, vessels called arterioles,
further branch into tiny capillaries, where nutrients and wastes are exchanged, and then combine with other
vessels that exit capillaries to form venules, small blood vessels that carry blood to a vein, a larger blood vessel
that returns blood to the heart.

Arteries and veins transport blood in two distinct circuits: the systemic circuit and the pulmonary circuit. Systemic
arteries provide blood rich in oxygen to the body’s tissues. The blood returned to the heart through systemic
veins has less oxygen, since much of the oxygen carried by the arteries has been delivered to the cells. In
contrast, in the pulmonary circuit, arteries carry blood low in oxygen exclusively to the lungs for gas exchange.
Pulmonary veins then return freshly oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart to be pumped back out into
systemic circulation. Although arteries and veins differ structurally and functionally, they share certain features.

Cardiovascular disease is the umbrella term that covers any disease that affects the cardiovascular
system.
7.6 million people in the UK are living with cardiovascular disease. Every day on average 450 people
die because of cardiovascular disease. Over 100,000 people every year are admitted to hospital in
the UK following a heart attack (British Heart Foundation, n.d.).

Examples of cardiovascular disease includes the following:

 Abnormal Heart Rhythm

 Atrial Fibrillation
 Cardiac arrest
 Heart attack
 Angina
 Stroke
 Deep vein Thrombosis

Lifestyle is a big risk factor when it comes to cardiovascular disease. Smoking, excess alcohol intake,
stress, having a sedentary lifestyle, poor diet and being overweight all increase the risk.

Having high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes also increase the risk of developing
cardiovascular disease.

People who suffer from heart failure often suffer from oedema, especially in their legs. This makes
their legs extremely heavy, which makes mobility hard. Reduced mobility can often lead to falls.

The cardiovascular observation ranges for children and adults differ greatly. Below details the different
ranges of heart rate and blood pressure for children and adults.

Heart Rate (BPM)

Awake Asleep
Neonate(<28days) 100-205 90-160
Infant (1-12 months) 100-190 90-160
Toddler (1-2years) 98-140 80-120
Pre School (2-5 years) 80-120 65-100
School age (6-11 years) 75-118 58-90
Adolescent (12-15) 60-100 50-90
Adults (>15) 60-100 50-90

Blood Pressure

Systolic diastolic Systolic

Hypotension
Neonate(<28days) 67-84 35-53 <60
Infant (1-12 months) 72-104 37-56 <70
Toddler (1-2years) 86-106 42-63 <70 + (age in years
x2
Pre School (2-5 years) 59-112 46-72 <70 + (age in years
x2
School age (6-10 years) 97-115 57-76 <70 + (age in years
x2
Pre-Adolescent (10-11 110-131 64-83 <90
years)
Adolescent (12-15) 102-120 61-80 <90
Adults (>15) 90-120 60-80 <90
 The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is the organs and systems used in breathing and the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the body.

The respiratory system contains the following structures:

Nose and nasal cavity

Sinuses

Mouth

Pharynx (Throat)

Larynx (Voice box)

Trachea (Wind Pipe)

Diaphragm

Lungs

Bronchial tubes/bronchi

Bronchioles

Air sacs (alveoli)

Capillaries

The structure of the Respiratory System

 (OER Services - Anatomy and Physiology II, n.d.)

Upper respiratory tract organs

Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter, and moisten the
incoming air

Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (windpipe) and oesophagus (food pipe). There is
also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which prevents food from entering the trachea

Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps protect the
trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis.

Lower respiratory tract organs

Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube that carries air from the throat into the lungs. It
ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner membrane of the trachea is
covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which catch particles of dust that we can then remove through
coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side which
help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are not complete circles due to the position of the
oesophagus immediately behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow
the expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.

Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the
right lung. The left bronchi are narrower, longer, and more horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of
cartilage surround the bronchi, whose walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung, the
bronchi split several ways, forming tertiary bronchi.

Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow tubes, less than
1 millimetres in diameter. There is no cartilage within the bronchioles, and they lead to alveolar sacs.

Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls
which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Di surrounded by a network of capillaries,
into which the inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an average adult
lung.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broadband of muscle that sits underneath the lungs, attaching to the
lower ribs, sternum, and lumbar spine and forming the base of the thoracic cavity.

The diaphragm is a doomed shaped muscle that sits under the lungs and is a vital part of the
breathing mechanism. When you breathe in, your diaphragm pulls downward, creating a vacuum,
causing air to flow into your lungs.

To exhale, your diaphragm relaxes upward, pushing on your lungs, allowing them to deflate, expelling
cardon dioxide from the body.
Air entering the body is cleaned to protect the body from infections and contaminants. This is done by
small hairs (Cilia) in the nasal cavity and mucus produced in the trachea and bronchial tubes.

The cilia move in a sweeping manner moving debris up and away from the airway. The mucus traps
debris and keeps it out of the lungs where it can cause damage and disease.

Respiratory disease id the umbrella term that covers all diseases that affects the respiratory system.

In the UK somebody dies of respiratory disease every five minutes. About 10,000 people are dia-
gnosed with new respiratory disease every week in the UK. Lung diseases are responsible for more
than 700,000 hospital admissions and over 6 million inpatient bed-days in the UK each year (British
Lung Foundation, n.d.).
Some common respiratory diseases are listed below:
Asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Pneumonia
Tuberculosis
Pulmonary Embolism
Cystic Fibrosis
Risk factors that increase the risk of developing respiratory disease are tobacco smoke (including
passive smoking), air pollution, allergens, and occupational hazards (Coal dust, wool particles, asbes-
tos etc.)
Having heart failure can also cause respiratory problems as excess fluid, caused by the heart’s re-
duced ability to pump the blood around the body, can accumulate in the lungs. Diuretics are often pre-
scribed to remove the excess fluid, which can put extra pressure on the kidneys.
Respiratory rate

Respiratory Rate
Infant <1 year 30-53
Toddler (1-2years) 20-37
Pre School (2-5 years) 20-28
School age (6-11 years) 18-25
Adolescent (12-15) 12-20
Adults (>15) 12-20
 Musculoskeletal System

Your musculoskeletal system includes your bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, and connective
tissues. Your skeleton provides a framework for your muscles and other soft tissues. Together, they
support your body's weight, maintain your posture, and help you to move.

BONES – The living tissue that makes up the body’s skeleton. Bones provide structure for the body
and protect some of the vital organs of the body. They also store some of the minerals needed to
keep the body healthy. Bones are made up of three bone tissue types:

COMPACT TISSUE – The hard outer tissue of the bone. This is covered by a tough thin membrane
called the periosteum. It is through the periosteum that blood and lymphatic vessels run to provide
nutrients to the bones.

CANCELLOUS TISSUE– spongy tissue inside the bones. This also holds the bone marrow which is
responsible for producing and storing blood cells.

SUBCHONDRAL TISSUE– the smooth tissue at the end of bones.

(Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.)

There are four different types of bone cells. These are:

OSTEOBLAST. Found within the bone, its function is to form new bone tissue.

OSTEOCLASS. An exceptionally large cell formed in bone marrow, its function is to absorb and
remove unwanted tissue.

OSTEOCYTE. Found within the bone, its function is to help maintain bone as living tissue.
HEMATOPIETIC. Found in bone marrow, its function is to produce red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets.

Bones are classified by their shape – long, short, flat, and irregular, however they are primarily
referred to as short and long bones.

There are 206 bones in the human body, 80 of which are axial bones (head, facial, hyoid, auditory,
trunk, ribs, and sternum. The remaining 126 bones are known as appendicular bones (arms,
shoulders, wrists, hands, legs, hips, ankles, and feet.)

CARTILAGE. A tough, flexible tissue that covers joints. It protects the ends of bones by acting as a
shock absorber. It allows two bones to slide smoothly over the top of each other.

LIGAMENTS. A fibrous connective tissue that attaches bones together. They provide stability to
joints.

TENDONS. A fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. A tendon aids movement.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE. – Such tissue provide support, protects, and gives structure to their tissues
and organs in the body. Connective tissues are also storage vessels for fats, helps move nutrients
around the body. They also help to repair damage tissues.

As with other systems, there are disease that can affect the musculoskeletal system. Risk factors that
increase the probability of developing musculoskeletal problems include, physical inactivity, being
overweight, smoking, being deficient in certain vitamins and minerals such as calcium and vitamin D.
As we age, the risk of developing musculoskeletal problems increase. This is due to wear and tear of
joints and tendons.

Examples of musculoskeletal diseases include:

Tendonitis

Osteoarthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis

Fibromyalgia

Bone fractures
 The Digestive System

The digestive system is the body’s way of turning food into nutrients that are needed by the body to
survive.

The digestive system is made up of the following:

The mouth - Digestion begins as soon as food enters the mouth. Food is chewed and mixed with
saliva (produced in the salivary glands). Enzymes in the saliva begin to break down the food into a
form that is easily absorbed.

The salivary glands -

The pharynx - When the food leaves the mouth by swallowing, it passes into the pharynx (throat). The
epiglottis prevents food passing into the larynx. From the pharynx, the food passes into the
oesophagus.

The Oesophagus - The oesophagus is a muscular tube joining the pharynx to the stomach. Muscular
contractions withing the wall of the oesophagus move food down the oesophagus into the stomach.
These contractions are called peristalsis. At the bottom of the oesophagus, where it joins the stomach
is a valve called the lower oesophageal sphincter, which stops food returning from the stomach into
the oesophagus.
The stomach - The stomach is a sack like structure. The walls of the stomach are made up of strong
muscles. Within the stomach, food is mixed with acids and enzymes that continue to breakdown the
food into easily absorbed nutrients. When food leaves the stomach, it is the consistency of a thin
paste. From here the food passes into the small intestine.

Liver - The two main functions of the liver are to make and secrete bile and to clean the blood as it
flows through the organ. Bile is needed to break down fat

Gallbladder - The Gallbladder sits underneath the liver and is responsible for storing the bile produced
by the liver. The bile travels from the liver to the gallbladder through the cystic duct. The gallbladder
then releases the bile into the small intestine.

Pancreas - The pancreas releases enzymes into the small intestine to aid the digestion of food. These
enzymes are responsible for the digestion of protein, fats and carbohydrates.

Small Intestine - The small intestine is made up of three sections, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The small intestine is coiled within the abdomen, (approximately 20 feet long). The small intestine
continues to breakdown the food using enzymes produced by the pancreas, and bile released from
the liver. Bile is required to digest fat. It also assists in removing waste from the blood. Food moves
through the small intestine via peristalsis.

Large intestine (Colon) - The large intestine is approximately 6 foot long and connects the small
intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is divided into five sections: cecum, ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, and the sigmoid colon. The sigmoid colon connects to the
rectum.

Waste left over from the digestive process is known as a stool. This passes through the colon via
peristalsis. Initially the stool is in liquid state. As it moves through the colon, water is extracted,
forming a solid stool. The formed stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until it is passed into the rectum
for elimination from the body.

It takes approximately thirty-six hours for a stool to pass through the large intestine. The stool is made
up of food waste and bacteria.

Duodenum - The duodenum continues to breakdown the of the food, whereas the jejunum and ileum
are responsible for transferring nutrients into the blood stream.

Rectum - The rectum is approximately eight inches long and its function is to store the stool ready for
elimination.

When a stool enters the rectum, a message is sent to the brain. The brain processes this message
and decides if the rectum needs to be emptied. If the rectum is to be emptied, a signal is sent to the
sphincters telling them to relax. The rectum then contracts, expelling the contents.
Anus - The anus is the last part of the digestive system. It is made up of two sphincters (internal and
external) and the pelvic floor muscles. The internal sphincter prevents bowels opening when asleep
and the external sphincter prevents faecal incontinence when trying to get to the bathroom.

(National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, n.d.)

Common problems affecting the digestive system include, Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD),
constipation, diarrhoea, colorectal cancer, irritable bowl syndrome (IBS), coeliac disease, Crohn’s
disease.

Risk factors include poor diet, stress, obesity. Some types of medication can also cause
gastrointestinal problems.

(Wikipedia, n.d.)

(Medical News Today, n.d.)

 The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce, store and release hormones. These
hormones help cells within the body communicate with each other, and are involved with every cell,
organ, and process in the body. Without a healthy endocrine system, key functions within the body will
begin to fail.

The main glands of the endocrine system are listed below:

Hypothalamus – The hypothalamus is located in the brain and links the endocrine system to the
nervous system. Its main role is to tell the pituitary gland when to start and to stop producing
hormones.

Pituitary This gland is the most important gland of the endocrine system as it tells all the other glands
what to do. It is located in the brain.

It produces many hormones, including growth hormone, prolactin (needed in milk production),
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (controls water balance within the body), adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH) (stimulates the adrenal gland), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) (stimulates the thyroid
gland), oxytocin (milk lactation) and luteinising hormone, (manages oestrogen in woman and
testosterone in men).

Pineal Gland - This gland produces and secretes melatonin, which aids sleep. It is located in the
brain.

Thyroid. - The thyroid gland is responsible for producing and secreting thyroxine. This hormone is
responsible for growth and metabolism. It is found in the neck

Parathyroids (Gland). - This is a group of four smaller glands that sit behind the thyroid. These glands
contribute to bone health by regulating calcium levels within the body.
Thymus. - This gland is located in the chest between the lungs. This gland is responsible for
producing white blood cells, which are a vital part of the immune system as the help to fight infection.
This gland is essential for childhood immunity and begins to reduce in size soon after puberty.

Adrenals (Gland) - There are two adrenal glands, located on the top of the kidneys. These glands are
responsible for producing adrenaline, the ‘fight or flight’ hormone. These glands also produce and
secrete corticosteroids. These affect heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow and sexual function.

Pancreas. - There are two main functions of the pancreas. The first is to produce digestive enzymes,
which are formed in the exocrine pancreas. It also produces and excretes insulin and glucagon.
Insulin regulates the body’s sugar levels in the blood.

The Ovaries. - These glands are only found in females. They produce oestrogen and progesterone.
These hormones are responsible for changes to the female form during puberty, control the menstrual
cycle and support pregnancy. As these hormones reduce as females age, the menopause begins.

The testes. - These glands are only found in males and are responsible for producing testosterone.
This hormone affects the male form during puberty and assists in the production of sperm.

When any of these glands fail or malfunction, endocrine disorders can occur. Some examples are
listed below:

Infertility (problems with the ovaries or testes)

Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism (problem with the thyroid)

Graves’ Disease (autoimmune disease, causing problems with the thyroid)

H Addison’s Disease (problem with the adrenal gland)

Diabetes Mellites type 1 and 2 (Problem with the pancreas)

Hashimoto’s Disease (autoimmune disease, causing problems with the thyroid)

Risk factors that can increase the incidents of endocrine problems are, high cholesterol, genetics
(family history), inactivity, poor diet, surgery, trauma, and infection.

Cancer can also affect most of the glands of the glands of endocrine system.

THE URINARY SYSTEM.

The function of the urinary system is to filter the blood to extract waste products that have been
produced during digestion and from the other systems within the body. The waste products of
digestion are left in the bowel and the blood.

The urinary system is made up of the following organs:

The Kidneys. - The kidneys are located under the ribs towards the middle of the back. The kidneys
are responsible for removing liquid waste (urea) from the blood. Urea is the waste product of digesting
protein. The kidneys turn urea into urine. The kidneys are also responsible for regulating fluid balance
and maintaining health levels of chemicals such as potassium and sodium within the body. They are
also responsible for regulating blood pressure.

The renal artery carries oxygenated blood, containing urea into the kidneys where it is filtered, and
excess water removed. The cleaned blood then returns to the circulatory system via the renal vein.

The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filters called nephrons. Each nephron has a
glomerulus (ball of blood capillaries), and a small tube called a renal tubule. From here urine is
produced.

The Ureter - One of the two tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Each ureter arises
from a kidney, descends, and ends in the bladder

The Bladder. - The Bladder. The bladder is a muscular sac located in the pelvis. When empty, the
bladder is the is the size and shape of a pear. The bladder is lined with muscles that stretch as urine
fills the bladder. The normal capacity of the bladder is 400 – 600ml. When the bladder is full, the
sensor in the bladder stimulates the bladder to contract, expelling the urine out of the body via the
urethra. In woman the urethra is approximately 1.5 inches long. In men the urethra is approximately 8
inches long.

The urethra. - The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the
removal of urine from the body of both females and males. In human females and other primates, the
urethra connects to the urinary meatus above the vagina, whereas in marsupials, the female's urethra
empties into the urogenital sinus

Females use their urethra only for urinating, but males use their urethra for both urination and
ejaculation. The external urethral sphincter is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over
urination. The internal sphincter, formed by the involuntary smooth muscles lining the bladder neck
and urethra, receives its nerve supply by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
The internal sphincter is present both in males and females.
There are many problems that can occur with the urinary system. Some are listed below:

Kidney stones. - Kidney stones, or renal calculi, are solid masses made of crystals. They can develop
anywhere along your urinary tract, which consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Kidney
stones can be a painful medical issue.

Urinary retention. Urinary retention is a condition in which you are unable to empty all the urine from
your bladder. Urinary retention is not a disease, but a condition that may be related to other health
problems, such as prostate problems in men or a cystocele in women. Urinary retention can be acute
a sudden inability to urinate at all, or chronic a gradual inability to empty the bladder. -

Urinary tract infection. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect your urinary tract, including your bladder
(cystitis), urethra (urethritis) or kidneys (kidney infection). UTIs may be treated with antibiotics, but
they're not always needed.

Incontinence. Urinary incontinence is the unintentional passing of urine. It's a common problem
thought to affect millions of people.

There are several types of urinary incontinence, including:

stress incontinence – when urine leaks out at times when your bladder is under pressure; for
example, when you cough or laugh

urge incontinence – when urine leaks as you feel a sudden, intense urge to pee, or soon afterwards

overflow incontinence (chronic urinary retention) – when you're unable to fully empty your bladder,
which causes frequent leaking

total incontinence – when your bladder cannot store any urine at all, which causes you to pass urine
constantly or have frequent leaking
(Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.)

(News Medical Life Sciences, n.d.)

(Lumen Learning, n.d.)

(Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.)

T
 The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system forms part of the body’s immune system. It is also responsible for maintaining
fluid levels within the body. The following structures make up the lymphatic system:

 Bone marrow.
 Thymus.
 Lymph nodes.
 Spleen.
 Tonsils.
 Mucous membranes.

Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is a spongy substance within the bones that produces stem cells. These stem cells are
turned into blood cells.

Thymus

The thymus is a gland located in the chest and is responsible for producing white blood cells

Lymph Nodes

Lymph nodes are small bean like structures located throughout the body. They filter the lymphatic
fluid to remove unwanted substances. They contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help to fight
infection. Swollen lymph nodes are a sign that the body is fighting an infection.

The Spleen

The spleen sits within the upper left of the abdomen, just behind the stomach. Its main function is to
recycle old blood cells. The body can survive without the spleen, as the liver can take over this
function if needed.

The Tonsils

Tonsils sit on the sides of the throat, at the base of the tongue and trap germs as they enter the body
through the mouth. The adenoids do a similar function in the nose.

The Mucous Membranes

The mucous membranes line the body’s cavities and canals (respiratory tract, digestive tract etc).
These membranes trap germs and impurities and prevents them from entering the body.

Three common diseases of the immune system are:

Type 1 Diabetes – caused when the immune system attacks cells within the pancreas preventing it
from producing insulin.

Rheumatoid Arthritis – An autoimmune disease that attacks joints causing swelling and deformities.

Lupus – The immune system attacks the body’s tissue. This could occur in the lungs, kidneys, and
skin.

The cause of autoimmune disease is often unknown.

 The Integumentary system
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands. The skin is the largest
organ of the body and projects the body from the external environment.

The functions of the integumentary system are as follows:

 Protection for external influences and environments

 Regulates body temperature
 Manufactures vitamin D
 Touch
 Temporary storage of fat, water, glucose, and salts
 Screen out ultraviolet radiation
 Absorption of helpful chemical substances.

The Skin

Diagram of the Skin

(A Gunther, n.d.)

The skin is made from layers. The epidermis is the outer most layer and forms a barrier to the outside
world. The epidermis is waterproof and creates the skin tone.

The dermis is the second layer and contains the hair follicles and sweat glands.

The third layer is the hypodermis. This layer is made up from fat and connective tissues.

The integumentary system helps to keep us cool or warm. This is done through sweating when too
hot or making hairs stand on end creating insulation to increase warmth.

Some examples of diseases of the integumentary system are acne, psoriasis, dermatitis, skin cancer,
and burns.
 The Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of two systems. The brain and spinal cord make up the central
nervous system (CNS) and the nerves make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The nervous system regulates the function of all the other systems within the body and helps us make
sense of and respond to external factors within the environment.

The Brain

The brain is made up of billions on connected neurons that control the body’s functions. The brain is
divided into five different regions that control different behaviours. These different regions are
discussed below:

The Cerebrum

This is the largest part of the brain, making up approximately 80% of the brains volume. It has four
lobes (the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe) and controls such
things as memory, speech, hearing, sight, and thinking.

(BrainFrame Psychology for Kids: Education, n.d.)

(The University Of Queensland Australia, n.d.)

The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body
and visa versa. The two hemispheres are connected by densely packed nerves known as the corpus
callosum. The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is made
up of thousands of neurones. Below the cerebral cortex is the white matter that consists of
myelinated axons of neurones.

The Hypothalamus

This sits in the lower area of the brain and controls numerous body functions.

It regulates body temperature by initiating a homeostatic response if this temperature gets too high or
too low. The hypothalamus also monitors the blood concentration to ensure it is the correct
consistency. It controls diuretic hormones, therefore telling the kidneys to retain / remove fluid as it
filters the blood. The hypothalamus can also control thirst. This process is known as osmoregulation.

The hypothalamus regulates the digestive system by controlling the secretion of enzymes and
peristalsis. It monitors blood nutrients and can generate the feeling of hunger if nutrients fall too low.

The hypothalamus also controls the endocrine system.

The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is divided into two sections, The anterior and posterior pituitary gland. The anterior
pituitary gland releases various hormones produced by the gland, whereas the posterior pituitary
gland stores and secretes hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum lies bellow the cerebrum. It controls movement, co-ordination, and balance.

The Medulla

This part of the brain is located at the base of the brain where it joins the spinal cord.

The medulla is made up of three parts that controls different functions within the body.

The cardiac centre – controls heart rate

The vasomotor centre – controls blood pressure by controlling the hearts contractions

The respiratory centre – controls the respiratory rate.

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body. It is a thick bundle of nerve tissue that runs
down through the spinal column. This nerve tissue carries messages from the body to the brain and
back from the brain to the body. The spinal cord is protected by the bones within the spine.

The Nerves

Nerves are made up of bundles of neurones that carry electrical impulses. Neurones control activities
within the body.
Structure of a Neurone

(Save My Exams, n.d.)

Neurones have a long fibre running through its centre called an axon. The axon is insulated by
sections of fatty tissue known the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is made from specialised cells
Schwann cells. The uninsulated sections between the sheaths are known as the nodes of Ranvier.

The electrical impulses jump from one node to the next, reducing transmission time.

Neurones communicate to each other through dendrites found on the ends of the axon.

There are three main types of neurones: sensory, relay and motor

Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the brain or spinal cord

Relay neurones are found entirely within the central nervous system
and connect sensory and motor neurones

Motor neurones carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Each type of neurone has a slightly different structure because they have different functions.

Motor neurones have a large cell body at one end of the axon, that lies within the brain or spinal cord.
The nucleus is always within the cell body. The cell body is extended by dendrites, creating a larger
surface area. This allows each motor neurone to connect to numerous other neurones.

Sensory neurones have the same basic structure as motor neurones but have one long axon with the
cell body branching out from the middle of the neurone. The cell body will be found near a stimuli in a
ganglion (swelling in the spinal nerve).
(Save My Exams, n.d.)

Motor, relay and sensory neurones work in conjunction with one another to respond to a stimuli. This
is known as a reflex arc.

A reflex arc does not involve a conscious response from the brain. Impulses are transmitted from a
receptor to an effector which then causes a response to the stimuli. This could be pulling your hand
away from a hot surface.

A reflex arc response is much quicker than any other nerve response.

An example of a reflex arc is as follows:

A hot surface (the stimulus) is detected by a pain receptor in the skin

The sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)

Electrical impulses are passed on to relay neurone in the spinal cord

The relay neurone connects to the motor neurone and passes the impulses on

The motor neurone carries the impulses to the muscle in the arm (the effector)

The impulses cause the muscle to contract and pull the hand away from the heat source object
(the response).

Example of a Reflex Arc

(Save My Exams, n.d.)

There are many diseases of the nervous system, many have no cure. It is also not fully understood
why some of these diseases occur. Some of these diseases are listed below:

 Alzheimer’s Disease
 Motor Neurone disease (MND)
 Bell’s Palsy
 Cerebral Palsy
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
 Parkinson’s Disease
 Epilepsy


 The Reproductive system
The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the following:

 The prostate gland

 Sperm Duct
 Urethra
 Testicles
 Scrotum
 Penis

The Prostate Gland

This gland produces a fluid called semen. This fluid provides sperm with nutrients and a means of
transportation.

The Sperm Duct

Sperm passes from the testis into the sperm duct to be mixed with semen in preparation for
ejaculation.

The Urethra

The urethra is a tube passing through the centre of the penis that allows for urine and sperm to pass
out of the body. Sperm and urine are prevented from mixing by a ring of muscles within the urethra.

The Testicles

These structures are found in the scrotum and are responsible for producing sperm and the hormone
testosterone.

The Scrotum

The sac supporting the testis. The testes are supported outside the body as sperm requires a lower
temperature than the rest of the body to survive

The Penis.

The male organ that allows urine and sperm / semen to leave the body. The penis transports sperm
into the female vagina during sexual intercourse.

Disorders of the male reproduction system include the following:

 Erectile dysfunction
 Testicular cancer
 Infertility
  Testicular torsion
 HIV / AIDS

The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system consists of the following:

 Oviduct
 Ovary
 Uterus
 Cervix
 Vagina

The Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes)

The fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus. They are lined with ciliated cells that sweep the
ovum (eggs) down into the uterus where fertilisation occurs when the ovum are penetrated by a
sperm.

The Ovaries

Females have two ovaries that contain ova. Every month from puberty, an ovum develops within the
ovary before being released into the fallopian tubes. Oestrogen and progesterone are also released
by the ovary.

The Uterus

The uterus is a muscular structure where fertilised ovum is implanted. It is here that a foetus develops
during pregnancy.

The Cervix

The cervix is a tight ring of muscle at the bottom of the uterus. This prevents a developing foetus
exiting the body during pregnancy.

The Vagina

The vagina is a muscular tube that leads from the outside of the female body to the cervix. The penis
enters the vagina during sexual intercourse. It is here that sperm is deposited following ejaculation.

Problems that affect the female reproductive system include:

 Early onset menopause

 Cancer of the cervix / uterus / ovaries
 Endometriosis
 Infertility
 Polycystic ovaries
 HIV / AIDS

Summary

As has been discussed throughout this piece of work, all the body’s individual systems work closely
together in harmony. If one system goes wrong, it will affect many, if not all the other systems within
the body.

The way people live can have a detrimental affect on the heath of the body’s systems. As discussed
earlier, being overweight, not being active, smoking, and excessive alcohol are big risk factors when it
comes to numerous systems disorders.
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