Transitional

Design
Histories
Maria
Göransdotter
 Transitional
Design
Histories
Maria
Göransdotter

IV
 For Barbro & Göran, my parents.

Umeå Institute of Design Research Publications, No. 008

Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Industrial Design

Umeå Institute of Design

Umeå University, SE-901 87, Sweden.

This work is protected by the Swedish Copyright Legislation (Act 1960:729)

ISBN: 978-91-7855-326-6 (print)
ISBN: 978-91-7855-327-3 (pdf)

Design and layout by Marije de Haas.

All photos by author, unless otherwise stated.
Printed by Pantheon, www.pantheondrukkers.nl

Electronic version available at http://umu.diva-portal.org

Umeå, 2020.
 84 Transitional Design Histories
Contents
89 4. Participation
XI ABSTRACT
XIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 91 The concept of participation
92 DRS Design Participation conference 1971
1 1. Presenting the past 95 Union-driven design initiatives
97 Negotiation, collaboration and ‘the Saltsjöbaden spirit’
2 History matters 99 Collaboration in early Swedish participatory design
3 Industrial beginnings 101 Democracy and learning together
6 Activating history in design 104 Ellen Key: Designing a different everyday life
9 Historical outlooks 108 Power and political participation
11 Transitional design histories 110 ‘Bildning’ and democracy
13 History from where? 111 Folkbildning
15 Where we stand, what we see 113 Tolfterna: Bridging differences
19 Histories as prototypes 117 Learning together: Study circles
20 Overview 122 Beauty, bildning and everyday life
124 The good life
130 Participation, designing, history
23 2. Design/History

23 Disconnected outlooks 135 5. Use

24 Concepts and definitions
28 Histories, presents, and perspectives 136 Users in designing: A brief background
31 Design history: The formation of a field 137 Design for users
32 Establishing narratives 139 Design with users
35 Histories of what? 140 Design of users
38 Relating history to practice 141 Homes and housing in 20th century Sweden
40 Developing design methods 143 ‘The housing question’
43 The relevance of history 145 The People’s Home
46 Design pasts, presents, and futures 147 Functionalism and the home
152 Changing things
155 Building better homes
53 3. Methodologies and positioning 156 Understanding everyday life
159 The Family that Outgrew its Home
53 Methodologies combined 163 The SAR and SSF dwelling investigation
54 A programmatic design research approach 165 The Industries’ housing investigation
57 Methods and materials for making histories 166 Government dwelling loans
61 Positioning perspectives 167 Questions of use: Functions, rooms and furniture
63 Histories of user-centered design 169 Using dinettes and living rooms
69 Concepts in participatory design 175 Necessary and voluntary overcrowding
72 Projects 180 The influence of furniture on use
73 Participation 184 Bringing ‘use’ into design
76 People 186 What should change – use or design?
78 Politics and power 190 Educating users
80 Products and practices 191 Designing democracy
82 Origins and futures in design 196 A historical understanding of ‘use’
83 Moving on

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202 6. Methods 285 7. Pasts/Presents

204 Methods in design 285 Program

207 Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design 287 Seeing things differently
210 Historical methods and considerations 288 Position
213 Needs for new methods 291 Contexts and actors
216 Inventing design methods 293 Doing things differently
219 Investigating everyday life 294 Prototypes and practices
221 Methods for investigating use 296 Making methods
226 Sociology and research into everyday life 297 Historicity and possibility
227 New methods, new insights 298 Instabilities and possibilities
231 Domestic work and women’s expertise 300 Pasts, presents, futures
233 Hemmens forskningsinstitut
233 Planning for a research institute
238 Developing domestic research methods 308 ARCHIVES
240 The measurability of domestic work 310 REFERENCES
244 Collaboration with industry
246 Understanding users
254 Rational home management
258 Motion studies and ergonomics
263 Designing at the HFI
273 Whose design?
277 Making design methods

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 Abstract
Design practices are to a large degree conceptually and methodologically based
in ways of designing rooted in the 20th century. Some of the challenges that arise
in contemporary design stem from an unawareness of design’s historicity, and
the discrepancies between what design methods and concepts once were made
to handle, and what we presently try to apply them to. This historicity of design,
embedded in its methods, tools, and thinking, shape and limit what is possible to do
in design. Unless we actively deal with the historicity of design’s central concepts, we
risk inadvertently reproducing and reinforcing past norms and values in outcomes as
well as in practices of design. Bringing history more actively into design can reframe
the spaces in which to explore possibilities for how to go about designing differently.

The program of transitional design histories presented in this thesis is formulated on

the proposal that the historicity of designing should be made more present in design
to support developing approaches and methods for responding to contemporary
issues of complexity and sustainment. Design histories therefore need to work
differently, taking an outlook in design practices rather than in design outcomes.
I propose a methodology for making design histories as prototypes, combining
a programmatic approach from practice-based design research with research
methods in history that focus on analysing concepts and ideas. These transitional
design histories do not provide solid foundations for, or explanations of, what design
is or has been. Instead, they aim to make conceptual moves that support developing
design practices capable of engaging with a complex ‘now’ and with uncertain
futures. The aim is to support making conceptual moves through using historical
perspectives in exploring if it would be possible to see, think, and do design in other
ways. By shifting the outlook of design history from product to process – from things
to thinking – an ambition is to sketch the contexts in which foundational concepts
and central methods in design once came about. This shift of position can provide a
provisional and propositional scaffolding that activates an awareness of how – and
why – the ways we design have been formed over time.

How transitional design histories could be made is here prototyped in three examples
that take a starting point in concepts and themes central to Scandinavian user-
centred and participatory design. As prototypes, these histories are constructed in
slightly different ways, and aim to explore partially different aspects of mechanisms
of design history and designing in relation to each other. The first prototype focuses
on the concept of ‘participation’ related to turn-of-the century 1900 ideas, in the
writings of Ellen Key. The second revolves around the concepts of use and users,
more specifically the relationship between designed ideal or intended uses, in
investigations of ‘dwelling habits’ in 1940s Sweden. The third prototype works with
methods development in user-centered and participatory design, through examples
of research into everyday domestic work at the Hemmens forskningsinstitut (Home
Research Institute) in the 1940s.

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 Acknowledgements
As a PhD student, it can be challenging to keep in mind that PhD education is
not primarily about carrying out a project and writing a book. The production of
a thesis is such a substantial part of PhD studies that it is often easy to forget that
the primary outcome of third-cycle education is not the thesis, but one’s own
becoming a researcher. And learning to be a researcher takes time. I have had the
privilege not only of having plenty of time to learn, but also of approaching PhD
studies as an iterative process. The first time I enrolled in research education, in
the history of science and ideas in the mid-1990s, I only had very vague ideas about
what PhD studies entailed. The academic trajectory I followed thereafter, led me to
the Umeå Institute of Design and quite far away from finishing those once initiated
PhD studies. However, with the opportunity to return to research education, this
time in industrial design, the past couple years of being a PhD student have been
more enjoyable and much more understandable than was the case the first time.
Now, being more knowledgeable about the workings of both academia and PhD
education, I could approach this second iteration differently than the first time
around and actually also present a thesis to round it off.
Bringing it all together as a coherent whole would probably still be a long way
off without the support from Johan Redström: colleague, friend and main supervisor.
For everything I have learned from and together with Johan during the years we
have worked together, I am deeply grateful. His knowledge, generosity and curiosity
in combination with a perfect pitch in pedagogics, as main supervisor, have been
invaluable for guiding, encouraging, and challenging me to find the ways of taking
this thesis from potentiality to actuality. And that is only part of it all: I am so happy
that the learning – about design, about what really matters, and about doing things
differently – that began during the years of our leading a design school together, is
still ongoing. Thank you for always being there!
I am very grateful that Kjetil Fallan came onboard as my secondary supervisor.
The depth and width of his knowledge in the field of design history, in combination
with his attention to detail in the feed-back on the text drafts I have sent in sporadic
intervals, have been immensely valuable in these final two years of thesis work. It has
been a pleasure to discuss the making – and writing – of design history with you. Takk!
Throughout my academic ventures, I have had the opportunity to present and
discuss my work in many different settings. My sincere thanks to seminar participants,
conference discussants, paper and article reviewers and editors who have shared
comments on texts and thoughts I have presented along the way. A very special
thank you to Thomas Binder, external discussant at my 90% seminar, who provided
thoughtful and constructive insights that were very helpful for finalising the thesis.
The UID Research Studio – as a physical space, and during this spring in its
digital format – is one of those places where all the best sides of academia seem to
converge: there is critical reflection, collegial empathy, and collective concern for
developing ideas together. Thank you all Research Studio colleagues for contributing
to creating a vibrant design research atmosphere during these past two years:
Aditya Pawar, Aina Nilsson Ström, Ambra Trotto, Anja Neidhardt, Anuradha Reddy,
Brendon Clark, Catharina Henje, Elisa Giaccardi, Heather Wiltse, Johan Redström,
Maja Frögård, Marije de Haas, Monica Lindh Karlsson, Morteza Abdipour, Nicholas
Baroncelli Torretta, Sabrina Hauser, Stoffel Kuenen, Suzanne Brink, Søren Rosenbak,
Viola Hakkarainen and Xaviera Sanchéz de la Barquera Estrada.

XIV XV
Thank you, all UID colleagues – former and present – for the dedication and During my PhD studies, I have spent quite some time in different archives in search
enthusiasm that makes Umeå Institute of Design such an inspiring place to work. of material. My sincere thanks to all the archivists and librarians who have helped
I owe special thanks to Tapio Alakörkkö for once bringing me onboard full-time at me in the detective work! And heartfelt thanks to Pernilla and Johan Schuber who
UID, after many years as a visiting teacher. I am also grateful for your inviting me have always – besides being wonderful friends in every other aspect – provided both
to be part the leadership of the school, which allowed me to develop several other housing and company during all of my archival visits to Stockholm.
academic skills than those directly associated with research and education. Being I am grateful to the Ellen Key foundation for granting me a residency at Ellen
part of the leadership teams together with UID rectors Bengt Palmgren, Anna Key’s home Strand in the autumn of 2017. Not only did those weeks provide time
Valtonen, and Johan Redström (then, also with Monica Lindh Karlsson, Demian for re-starting PhD studies, but I also had the opportunity to access Ellen Key’s
Horst and Niklas Andersson), has been extraordinarily rewarding. Thank you all! library, with the knowledgeable support of Maja Rahm. And to Anna F. Liljekvist,
Gun Berger, and Ylva Wallinder, co-residents at Strand in 2017 – Lifvets gäng: Thank
I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Helena Bergman for the fact that I by now you for all the conversations and for the yearly writing meet-ups that have followed!
have worked some 25 years in higher education. Without her advice in the early After stepping down from UID leadership in May 2018, I have been able to
1990s, I would most likely have given up on university studies altogether. After the conduct PhD studies as part of the ‘repatriation time’ allowed from the Faculty of
first course I took, I was thoroughly convinced that this environment was not for Science and Technology. The leadership of Umeå Institute of Design has generously
me. Helena – who knew so much more than me about academia – suggested that I extended that with additional time dedicated to finalising my thesis. For that I thank
should give the history of science and ideas a try, and this indeed turned out to be Thomas Olofsson, Niklas Andersson, Linda Bresäter and Oscar Björk.
a discipline that immediately resonated with me. I continued to take one course Turning my thesis manuscript into a proper book has been a collaborative
after another until I suddenly found myself enrolled in PhD education at the process, and I am indebted to everyone who took part. First of all: thank you,
Department of Historical Studies. I wish to thank all of my former colleagues there Marije de Haas, for the round-the-clock work with design and layout of the final
for all the inspiring discussions at the seminar table as well as at the fika table. And manuscript, and with turning my rough illustrations into elegant graphics. Monica
in particular, my thanks go to Ronny Ambjörnsson and Kerstin Thörn. Not only are Lindh Karlsson provided ice-cream delivery and energy boosts during the final
they both remarkable pedagogues and storytellers but their research topics – on weeks of writing. And a team of proof-readers helped me rid the text of most of the
everyday life, aesthetics, and ‘materialised ideas’ – lead me towards what became errors and odd formulations: thank you Aditya Pawar, Anja Neidhardt, Brendon
my field of interest. It was also Kerstin Thörn who enthusiastically convinced me Clark, Catharina Henje, Corné de Beer, Heather Wiltse, Maria Lundgren, Sara
to apply to the PhD programme. Many thanks also to my supervisors back then, Eriksson and Suzanne Brink.
Peder Aléx and Lena Eskilsson. Peder: You once advised me to go ahead and make Lastly, but in no way least, to all the UID students I have met over the years
my thesis “really theoretical” – I believe I might have done something in that vein. as a design history teacher: thank you for engaging in discussions on if and how
As the first person in my family to study at university, learning the workings of history might matter to designing. Your questions and explorations have often, for
academia was a challenge. Almost equally challenging was trying to explain what I me, opened up new paths and perspectives, and I am grateful to you all for allowing
actually did when conducting PhD studies; especially when perhaps not knowing me to continue learning together with you.
full well myself what I was actually doing. Nevertheless, my parents Barbro and
Göran Olofsson have always unconditionally supported me in everything I have
done – practically as well as emotionally. From the bottom of my heart: Thank you! Umeå, 7 July 2020
This book is for you. Maria Göransdotter

Contrary to how many PhD students describe the final phases of thesis-writing as
stealing them away from their family, for me, the intense immersion in finalising
the thesis actually brought me back home. Instead of being the one always rushing
away, late for meetings, focusing on PhD education brought about a much-needed
slowing down of my overall everyday pace. To my travel companion in exploring
both the ways of academia and the roads of life, Rolf Hugoson, and to Evert and
Ingrid who have joined us along the way: thank you for all the joy you bring!

XVI XVII
Chapter 1 Presenting the past

1. Presenting the past

Over the recent decades, it has become obvious that the past ultimately conditions
the choices open to us as well as the trajectories plausible to draw towards the
future. The latest century of intense global expansion in production, consumption,
travel, and communications, continuing the paths set through the previous two
centuries of industrial and societal transformation, has given rise to entangled
effects of an unprecedented scale. These have by now become difficult or even
impossible to amend. What is already out there will continue impacting lives
for generations to come as the conditions for human and other living existence
are contingent on actions taken (or not) in the near and far past. The changes
needed in how we live, work, travel, and make things are enormous, if we wish
to achieve more sustainable future ways of life. However, what we can even think
of as possible depends on our outlook from the present situations in which we
find ourselves. What we experience in the present – what we can see, and how we
think – is shaped by the past.
Design has been integral to giving form to things that affect how we live,
shaping how we relate to and perceive each other and the world. The material
and immaterial compilations of things and environments of our everyday lives
have been created over time, building on ideas of what it is to be human, what
society should be like, and what things should do for us. Design itself is a practice
that has come about over time, in relation and response to the formation of
industrial and post-industrial society. How design is carried out, operating with
specific methods, tools, and aims, is something that has taken form over the
latest one hundred years or so. This means that the present ways of designing rest
on conceptual foundations rooted in other times than our own, and have to do
with design’s emergence in relation to specific societal, industrial, political and
economic circumstances.
How a design opportunity or design problem is formulated, what contexts
are defined as ones where design takes place, and which types of outcomes
might be expected in design, are all linked to the concepts and ideas governing
designing. These foundational ideas direct design towards certain practices,
certain situations, and certain ways of thinking. With growing insights into the
extent of humanity’s impact on the world, established ways of doing design have
increasingly become both criticised and challenged. In design research as well as
in design educations, central questions are nowadays how to transition towards
other practices that could support different and inherently sustainable future ways
of living, through rethinking how design is done, who is included in designing, and
according to which world views the aims of designing are formulated.1
Realising that past and present are interdependent in how and what we
design means that without an awareness of how historical mechanisms affect

1 Tony Fry, A New Design Philosophy: An Introduction to

Defuturing (Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999).

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Chapter 1 Presenting the past

and direct designing, it will be difficult to figure out what types of changes to aim of making the things we think with in designing itself, perpetuating or challenging
for in design.2 If methods and tools for designing are invented and implemented ideas and concepts that form the foundations and frameworks for doing design.
but the historical foundations for thinking and doing design remain stable, the History is a matter of design, and design is a matter of history.
frameworks and motivations of design will be difficult to challenge. Unless we The concepts design relies on have been formative for methods developed
actively deal with the historicity of design’s central concepts, we risk inadvertently to handle specific historical situations of industrial and social change in which
reproducing and reinforcing past norms and values in outcomes as well as in it once took form. In design, little (if any) attention is paid to what this means
practices of design. In other words, with the aim to open up other design spaces for what design can be expected to do. Even methods or design approaches that
than the ones we are already familiar with, and to develop design practices capable explicitly aim to question who designs, what is designed, with which purposes,
of engaging with a complex ‘now’ and with uncertain futures, history needs to be and towards what sorts of futures, rely on some core ideas and methods that
made present in designing. presuppose certain implicit conceptual foundations – and limitations. The design
This thesis is based on the proposal that presenting – as in making present practices that adhere to participatory and user-centric methods, for example, will
– the historicity of design can provide perspectives on design’s conceptual undoubtedly question how ‘participation’ best could be supported but not what
foundations that support shifts towards doing design differently. 3 In the working with the concept of ‘participation’ could mean in regard to the historicity
following, I argue that matters of history are crucial to probing and critically (re- of this concept. While a concept such as participation remains central to design,
or de-) activating core ideas and concepts in contemporary design. I propose the connection between its history – why, how, and with which purposes it was
an experimental approach to making design histories, in which a redirection of once brought into design – and its current application in methods and processes
design history’s focus from products to practices could contribute to different of designing has been lost.
In designing, projects and situations are set up and carried out with methods,
outlooks on present challenges in design. Combining approaches from practice-
tools and processes invented or incorporated in design at different points in time.
based design research and historical studies in critical analyses, I suggest that
Design methods, and the fundamental concepts these are based on carry over
such experimental design histories can be approached as prototypes, addressing
expectations, values, and definitions relating to design that stem from other times
the historicity of designing rather than telling histories of design’s past outcomes.
and situations than those where design takes place today. While this means that
These design history prototypes seek to contribute with different ways of seeing,
design’s ways of working are historical, having come about in times and contexts
and doing, design through presenting – making present – the historicity of design
other than the present, its methods and concepts often seem to be approached as
concepts and methods. if they were timeless or neutral. When these methods and processes operate, they
support ensuring that certain types of design outcomes come about as responses
or solutions to problems. At the same time, these ways of working also perpetuate
History matters implicit understandings of design’s foundations and frameworks: what design is
perceived to be, is established through the ways that design is done. When the
Design has emerged and evolved in response to specific situations and particu- embedded conceptual foundations in design operate without their historicity
lar understandings of the world. Doing design in certain ways springs from im- being brought to the fore, it is difficult to know what sorts of changes – conceptual
plicit and explicit definitions, made over time, of what counts as design. As such, as well as methodological – that are needed for actively supporting design’s ability
design is always something that takes place in history. This taking place can be to respond to new contexts and complexities.
understood quite literally since design outcomes often are manifest materially as
things and environments, and as the infrastructures, impacts, and remains of the Industrial beginnings
processes through which these have come into being. And, of course, design also Design’s contexts and materials have changed quite substantially over time. Design
takes place as actions in the present, in instances of designing. practices, and with them also many design educations, are still conceptually and
As we engage with the things that come out of design processes there methodologically often based in ways of designing as these came to be defined
are historically layered world views, norms and values embedded in these during the 20th century. The processes, methods and tools applied in design practice,
that continue to be in play. In a reciprocal and continuous process we are and taught in design education largely rest on understandings of what design once
simultaneously makers of and made by the designed world.4 But design is also part was, rather than on responses to or suggestions for what design could become.
Ways of doing industrial design have come about over approximately a
2 Clive Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures: Contending with what hundred years, with concepts and methods evolving along the way. These ways
we have made”, in Tony Fry, Clive Dilnot & Susanne Stewart of designing have been formed, imported, tried, rejected, adopted, discussed,
(eds.), Design and the Question of History (London/New York: debated, and developed over time. The specific societal contexts, world views, and
Bloomsbury, 2015).
understandings in which design has taken shape have influenced how its methods
3 Johan Redström, Making Design Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2017), 113-132.
have been formed and formulated. These methods and tools were developed to
4 Anne-Marie Willis, “Ontological designing”, Design Philosophy handle design issues out of a 20th century industrial and societal context, mostly
Papers 2006:2 (vol 4), 69-92. from perspectives of a Western and global North, and as such are not always well

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Chapter 1 Presenting the past

suited anymore for supporting and expanding the possibilities of designing in light be. The development, testing and incorporation of specific methods, tools and
of the increasing complexities of the post-industrial world of the 21st century.5 processes for handling new design materials, contexts, situations, and scales
Industrial design was once called into being in response to massive changes have been central to these shifts. Different ways of doing design have gradually
in scale and perspective brought about through the societal transitions towards taken shape to meet new demands and developments in the environments where
industrialisation, mechanisation, and expanding modes of communication.6 New industrial design has rooted itself. Design has continued its movement into areas
contexts and situations, and new modes of acting and thinking called for different of planning and giving form not only to industrially (mass)manufactured products
responses than before, in which early formulations of industrial design addressed and environments but to increasingly interconnected systems and services,
the separation of form-giving from making, and producing from consuming. experiences and interactions, and with increasing attention to how people go
Traditional ways of living and working, including craft-based forms of production, about using them.
were challenged in the shift from an agrarian to an industrial socio-economic Changes in the scope and scale of industrial design continue to bring about
system as this affected the lives of more and more people. new practices of designing, whether as a response, reaction, or resistance to the
The radical transformation that touched and altered practically all aspects values and logics governing what ‘the industrial’ over time has been perceived
of everyday life, from social norms and behaviours to politics and city planning, to be in relation to ‘design’. If design a hundred or so years ago came about in
was increasingly perceived as a state where the previously unthinkable was made response to questions of how to give form to physical things for people, it
possible; where “all that is solid melts into air”.7 While developing design methods nowadays increasingly revolves around processes of how to design things – that
and approaches that aimed to deal with how to give form to and how to make need not be neither material nor stable – in collaboration with people.
things, questions of the role of design in creating a different future society was Questions of what industrial design could be, and how designers should
highly present already from its beginnings. work, already from the beginning mainly revolved around figuring out how social
Now, once again, we seem to experience ourselves as living in a time of life and material things were connected: what sorts of things should be designed,
unprecedented change in regard to scale, complexity, and social transformation, how should they be made, who should design them, what should they look like,
leading to new demands on and contexts for design. What is it that designing how should they work, and what sorts of lives should they support people to live?
becomes when working with new composite, or ‘smart’, or even intangible design With design’s coming of age in symbiosis with industrialism, the world
materials – as in the case with ‘experiences’ or ‘big data’? And when designed things views, technologies, economies, societal practices and social norms that took
can be everything from artefacts to AI, or span over networked technologies in fluid form also shaped the development of design’s areas of practice. Ideas and values
assemblages to democratic assemblies, where does design begin and end? 8 These relating to these contexts have, however, over time, become deeply embedded in
questions also highlight other questions, such as for whom or for what, and with designing and continue to impact what is possible to do, and to think, in design.
which methods and motivations design is done and what that means for which Thus, many of our design methods and processes are based on concepts that carry
futures it supports or disables. As design expands and moves into situations that built-in norms, values and assumptions stemming from times and situations very
require addressing other materials, relationships and connections than before, the different the ones we find ourselves in. This means that many of the contemporary
methods and tools at hand seem to become increasingly difficult to apply. values and contexts that shape our present-day understandings, ambitions, and
The field of industrial design has continued to change and adapt in motivations for what we expect design to be able to address, are potentially at odds
response to societal changes and to new understandings of what ‘things’ could with the conceptual foundations guiding and shaping design practices.
The ways we think, and the things we think with often tend to change at a
5 Clive Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures: Contending with what slower pace than the material things or technologies we invent and surround
we have made” in Tony Fry, Clive Dilnot & Susanne Stewart ourselves with.9 What could be opened up as possible for design, when dealing
(eds.), Design and the Question of History (London/New York: with new contexts, new design materials, and new methods could actually remain
Bloomsbury, 2015); Arturo Escobar, Designs for the Pluriverse: unseen due to the limits set by what our ways of thinking allow us to perceive.
Radical Interdependence, Autonomy, and the Making of Worlds
As design expanded into situations quite different from those in which it once
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2018).
was called into being, the development of design methods has also shifted the
6 Clive Dilnot, “The Matter of Design” Design Philosophy Papers
2015:2 (vol 13), 116. emphasis in order to support handling new types of complexities and constellations
7 Karl Marx quoted in Marshall Berman, All that is solid in designing. New situations will most certainly continue to call new types of design
melts into air: The experience of modernity (London: Verso, into being in near and far futures. Therefore, design’s methods and tools need to
1983). Cf. Rolf Hugoson, “Clarifying Liquidity: Keynes and provide resilient ways of adapting to new practices, as well as to support taking
Marx, Merchants, and Poets”, Contributions to The History of action and making choices based on what appears as possible.
Concepts, 2019:2 (vol.14) 46–66. The potential futures – or non-futures – we can foresee, give cause to re-
8 Johan Redström & Heather Wiltse, Changing Things: The examine how we live our lives and to what things or situations we ascribe value.
Future of Objects in a Digital World (London: Bloomsbury
Academic, 2018); A. Telier [Thomas Binder, Giorgio De 9 Jaques Le Goff, “Les mentalités: Une histoire ambiguë” (77-
Michelis, Pelle Ehn, Giulio Jacucci, Per Linde & Ina Wagner] 94) in Jaques Le Goff & Pierre Nora (eds.) Faire de l’historie. III.
Design Things (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 2011). Nouveaux objets (Gallimard, 1974), 81-82.

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This tends to point towards that if we aspire to bring about changes that would ters of mutual concern. So, how could one then explore ways that design history
lead towards more resilient and sustainable futures, not only would we need to act and design might engage more directly with each other?
differently, but we would also need to learn to think differently to do so. The first Design is a practice that in its focus on current and future situations is largely
step towards such a shift in doing and thinking requires acknowledging that how a-historical. In design, the big issue is typically not where we come from, but
we understand our situation, what is perceived as ‘the present’, and what we can where we find ourselves today, and where we could be heading next. The past,
see from here, is in all aspects a thing shaped by the past. and how it relates to the present or the future is simply not a part of the picture
However, in current industrial design education and practice, the methods very often.11 On a similar note, design history seemingly has quite little to do with
and processes taught and applied are seldom considered as having something to present-day practices in design.
do with history. Instead, the processes and methods used in designing are often Histories of design often tend to begin with a definition – or re-definition – of
presented, and taught, as an assembly of tools in the designer’s basic tool kit – they the type of design that is to be studied. It could be on the basis of a particular variety
are just there, and they serve particular purposes. of design (the history of industrial design), a type of design object (the history
Indeed, there are critical discussions about which types of designing different of the telephone), or a specific material (the history of steel) and so on. Then, a
methods or tools support, or not, and how to go about deciding which methods narrative is built around that framework, tracing – and often also challenging –
to use in different situations. But these seldom include critically engaging with that phenomenon chronologically either to or from the present-day, highlighting
what it means for designing that the methods, concepts and approaches we use designers, design outcomes, and their contexts. This structure of chronologically
have come about in particular historical contexts to deal with situations specific tracing a sort of lineage in relation to work, author, and environment has been
to the times and places where this happened.10 The proposal in this thesis is that present in design history since its beginnings.
exploring design histories in terms of design’s ideas and world views rather than Design history began to take form as a university discipline in the 1970s,
through its products or objects can contribute to the critical unpacking of central in relation to design education. Aiming to introduce ‘theory’ in connection to
concepts needed if we wish to find ways to go about designing differently. ‘practice’ in design by focusing on the history of the design profession, design
history was brought into studio-based design curricula.12 Design history, or the
history of design, was not introduced in design education with the ambition for
Activating history in design
it to become an integrated part of designing, but with the aim of explaining, and
From proposing that historical perspectives can contribute to critically revisiting
questioning, the results of design and the formation of professional designing.
core design concepts, follows that history somehow needs to be activated from
Readings provided in design history courses would pick up on the few already
within design, and not only in relation to design. It would, perhaps, seem close at
existing publications, springing from the fields of art and architectural history.
hand to turn to design history for this, since it is the specific historical discipline
In these, the history of design was told as an account of progress, success and
that aims to engage with design’s past. At present, however, it seems that design
prosperity, leading up to a present state of design portrayed as the culmination of
and design history do not really align in terms of neither attention nor practices.
a more or less logical and rational development process.
The issues that design grapples with, e.g. how to find methods or tools that sup-
Despite its origin in design educational settings, the relationship between
port addressing matters of power and agency in collaborative designing, are not
design history and design education has, in a sense, continued to be defined
typically the issues that design history primarily works with. There, areas of inves-
by separation rather than by integration. And despite design history’s strong
tigation instead tend to revolve around critical approaches to materialities and
connection to design curricula, the nature of the relationship between design
meanings related to design outcomes or design cultures. With this non-alignment
education and design history has come to be questioned in the process of design
of outlooks between contemporary designing and design history, the relationship
history becoming a specialised area of academic scholarship. The question of if
between the two is one of polite interest, rather than of critical engagement in mat-
design history at all should aim to engage with or contribute to design education
and practice has been a contested and debated issue since the late 1980s.13
10 Examples of studies that have approached designing critically
As part of the process of academic establishment, the expanding and eclectic
also from a historical point of view are, for example, Andrea
development of perspectives and methods in design history has been parallel
Branzi, The Hot House: Italian New Wave Design (London:
Thames & Hudson, 1984); Alison J. Clarke, “Design for to boundary work in relation to not only the art historical tradition but also to
Development, ICSID and UNIDO: The Anthropological Turn
in 1970s Design”, Journal of Design History 2015:1 (vol.29)43- 11 Carl DiSalvo, “The need for design history in HCI”, Interactions
57; D.J. Huppatz, Design: The Key Concepts (London & New 2014:6 (vol.21), 20–21.
York: Bloomsbury, 2020); and Daniela K. Rosner, Critical 12 Joanne Gooding, Design history in Britain from the 1970s to
Fabulations: Reworking the Methods and Margins of Design 2012: Context, formation, and development, diss. (University of
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2018); Molly Wright Steenson, Northumbria: Newcastle, 2012). Victor Margolin, “A Decade of
Architectural intelligence: How Designers and Architects Created Design History in the United States 1977-87”, Journal of Design
the Digital Landscape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017); History 1988:1 (vol.1), 51–72.
Alastair Fuad-Luke, Design activism: Beautiful strangeness for a 13 Victor Margolin, “Design History or Design Studies: Subject
sustainable world (London: Earthscan, 2009). Matter and Methods”, Design Issues 1995:1 (vol 11).

6 7
Chapter 1 Presenting the past

the origins of design history as a ‘service discipline’ to design education. While matters that are foregrounded in design, it should make a disciplinary shift towards
design historians have pointed out the importance of including critical historical engaging with the foundations and practices that relate to how design operates.
perspectives on design in studio-based design curricula, issues have also been
raised as to the limits this sets for design history in terms of scope, aim, and Historical outlooks
establishment as an independent area of academic research.14 Though stressing In a casual everyday use of the word ‘history’, people generally tend to refer to a
the importance of historical perspectives as a subject of study included in design more or less distant past, distinct from ‘today’. This can make us prone to think of
education to bring about an understanding of the development of the design both as singular instances: there is one today, and there is one history. History in
profession and critical perspectives on design, design schools are not always this singular sense can be perceived as something intrinsically linear; a chain of
regarded as settings in which design history as an academic field of research linked causes and effects that can be traced back in time from our present-day
would necessarily benefit from being located.15 to explain how we ended up where we are (‘the history of television’, ‘the history
In light of this, it is perhaps not surprising that design scholarship defining itself of World War II’). In such a view of history, each link of the chain needs to neatly
as ‘design history’ generally does not explicitly aim to contribute to design practice attach to the previous and following. History becomes the logical back-drop and
today. And design’s disinterest in design history is not very surprising either, given explanation to where we find ourselves today, which often means that the events,
that central discussions and critical developments in design practice mainly focus thoughts, practices and complexities that would fail to provide a neat link or
on processes and methods in design doing, and not the things that design history coherent route to the present-day are either absent from the story or referred to as
studies: meanings, cultures, and qualities related to the outcomes of design. Design unsuccessful paths or failures.
history has seldom engaged in critically investigating design from a perspective of This view is seldom one that historians would take nowadays. That ‘history’
contemporary designing. Such aims tend to instead adhere academically to the is always plural, situated, and contested is instead a starting point for most
broader field of ‘design studies’, bringing together interdisciplinary perspectives historians.17 Nevertheless, in relation to other fields of practice, or knowledge, ‘the
on the meanings, practices and consequences of design in relation to current and history of’ a particular field or entity will often be reduced to a singular story for
future design doing – but not always including historical approaches.16 To some the sake of making a certain point, or just out of habit. In these cases, the past –
extent, the differences between these approaches can be seen as related to place neatly ordered in historical accounts – does not come across as once having been
and perspective. Design studies’ perspectives are often approached from within, or a present just as contradictory, multi-faceted and difficult to grasp as the world
in proximity to, contemporary design practices. Design historical scholarship has we find ourselves in today. It is only from a certain distance in time, from a certain
instead often turned its attention to design from a perspective of the specialised perspective, and by tracing trajectories in reverse, that history comes together in
disciplinary context of history, rather than from a position within design. a seemingly coherent and straightforward path leading to what is.
Over time, and specifically with the material turn and the influences from With the discipline of history rooted in the cultures and traditions of the
science and technology studies, the field of design history has vastly broadened humanities, as these were (re)formed in 19th-century European universities, this
both its scope and its methodological approaches, challenging and questioning has provided the predominant perspectives in design history as it has taken shape.
canonical grand narratives of design. While continuing to revolve around various This has led to historical research into design and many histories of design, but
sorts of things – outcomes of design – as a central focus or starting point, design to very few design histories that begin in design or that propose to do something
history increasingly studies design from a multitude of perspectives, relationships for design as a specific area of knowledge and practice.18 Design history, as stated
and contexts: societal, political, material and cultural. Also in the practices of by many historians, does indeed both aim and claim to contribute with critical
designing, issues of socio-political character, of materials, agency, and cultures in approaches to designing that could be considered useful from the designer’s point
design are present in design work and in design research both. But while design of view.19 However, as design histories do not substantially relate to most of the
history still in many ways takes its starting points in design of and as products, design
practice has more shifted its centre of gravity from product to process.
17 Reinhart Koselleck, “The temporalization of utopia” in
If design history investigates a what – what is brought into being through design
Reinhart Koselleck, The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing
– it is the how – the methods and processes of designing – that has become more
History, Spacing Concepts (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
focused in design research and design practice. For design history to shift towards the Press, 2002), 99.
18 Bruce Archer, “The Three Rs” [1976], Design Studies 1979:1
14 Jonathan M. Woodham, “Resisting Colonization: Design (vol.1), 17-20; Christopher Frayling, Research in art and design,
History Has Its Own Identity”, Design Issues 1995:1 (vol 11). Royal College of Art Research Papers 1993/94:1 (vol.1) (London:
Adrian Forty, “DEBATE: a reply to Victor Margolin” Design Royal College of Art, 1993); Nigel Cross, “Designerly ways of
Issues 1995:1 (vol 11). knowing: Design discipline versus design science”, Design
15 Kjetil Fallan “De-tooling Design History: To What Purpose Issues 2001:3 (vol.17), 49-55; C.P. Snow, The Two Cultures [1959]
and for Whom Do We Write?”, Design and Culture, 2013:1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
(vol.5), 13-19. 19 DJ Huppatz and Grace Lees-Maffei, “Why design history? A
16 Hazel Clark & David Brody (eds.), Design Studies: A Reader multi-national perspective on the state and purpose of the
(Berg: Oxford & New York, 2009). field”, Arts & Humanities in Higher Education 2012:12 (2–3).

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Chapter 1 Presenting the past

practices and challenges in contemporary designing, design history will not be It matters what matters we use to think other matters with; it matters what stories
likely to become something that strongly resonates with contemporary design we tell to tell other stories with; it matters what knots knot knots, what thoughts
research and design practice. For that to be the case, design histories’ outlook think thoughts, what descriptions describe descriptions, what ties tie ties. It mat-
would need to be closer to that of design; approaching history from within design, ters what stories make worlds, what worlds make stories.21
as well as design from within history.
Besides beginning with a shift in position and outlook, histories also have How, then, would one go about making design histories that bring other perspec-
to be made to work in a slightly different way than the usual in order to actively tives, that tell other stories, and that address the matters design thinks with? In the
contribute to addressing matters of concern in design. Histories that work to following, I suggest a framework for design histories that are explorative and prop-
activate awareness of the historicity of designing need to be different from the ositional, and that aim to support conceptual shifts that could bring about other
histories of design outcomes. In either case, the scope is to explore what comes practices in designing: making other stories, that these might make other worlds.
into view in terms of thinking and doing design when questions of history are
posed from a position of contemporary designing. Since these questions would be
directed towards histories of values, concepts, and ideas in design, one can hardly Transitional design histories
turn to the past and expect to find very clear-cut answers.
Activating an awareness of the historical dimensions of designing is not only This research rests on the idea that design does not have one past, but many
a matter of searching for the first instances, or origins, of concepts or practices in potential pasts. And following that: the past or pasts that are made visible and
design. As the aim is to support changes in designing through other perspectives present as histories both shape and limit what is possible to do in contemporary
on the worlds and the ways of thinking design has created for its practices, the designing. Presenting and making visible the historicity of design, aims to show
most central things to search for are the things we think with: the underlying that some of the difficulties and challenges that can arise in doing design stem
ideas relevant to the formation of design in the contexts or situations where its from discrepancies between what design methods and concepts once were made
key concepts arose. to handle, and what we presently try to apply them to. For design history to be
As design has evolved and expanded, some of its concepts and methods have able to activate an awareness of these things, the outlook from where histories are
gone from being novel and radical to becoming taken for granted and with that made, and the questions asked of the past, must be brought closer to the outlooks
also more or less invisible. A concept such as ‘user-centered design’ has gone from from where designing begins.
aiming to reframe designing in relation to agency and attention in both process With the risk of being overly simplistic, one could say that design histories tend
and outcome in a specific point in time of design’s trajectory, to becoming deeply to start with a ‘what’ (what type of design is the history about), and designing with
embedded in designing. This means that while the practices of designing for or with a ‘how’ (how could things be different than they are now?). While design strives
users might be critically addressed in regard to how, why, and with or by whom such towards the future and design history towards the past, they both share a common
design should be done, the basic idea of ‘use’ as an integral part of what design is, ground in that their respective queries spring from challenges in the present.
is relatively stable. As such it has become a basic concept in design so central that it History’s narratives about what has been and design’s proposals of what might
comes across almost as a given. We believe to have a shared understanding of what become are always situated in the ‘now’. However, not only do design and design
we mean when we think and act on ‘use’ in user-centered design. However, concepts history gaze in opposite directions; they do so from quite different outlooks in regard
do not only provide frameworks for understanding meanings. Concepts also carry to understandings of design. The complexities that contemporary design seeks to
agency, as they are made of layerings of historical experiences and expectations that deal with are often placed in an entirely different part of the realm of the present
change over time, and that shape and direct certain types of actions. Activating the than the one where design histories tend to take their starting point.
historicity of designing means re-activating the tensions and dilemmas – and the Design histories mainly work with outcomes of design and propose
potentials – inherent in the concepts that form the basis for designing.20 This can be narratives of the past that support understandings of how these things are
done through approaching them from positions that could make visible aspects that meaningful today. Design begins with exploring present situations and proposes
have been forgotten or that are as of yet unseen. different ways that design can bring about intentional change of these – by means
Through bringing forth other things than the usual in design’s history, other not only of making new things but through envisioning how these things can
types of narratives of the past will potentially also introduce new perspectives on lead to different types of actions, and to creating other future situations. Design’s
our understandings of the present. Or, to speak with Donna Haraway: attention is directed towards futures that seem reasonable to project from an
a-historical understanding of the present.22 Just as design seldom looks to the past,
design history rarely makes any moves towards positioning itself in relation to

20 Reihart Koselleck, “A response to comments on the

Geschichtliche Grundbergriffe”, in H. Lehmann & M. Richter 21 Donna Haraway, Staying with the Trouble: Making Kin in the
(eds.) The Meanings of Historical Terms and Concepts: New Chthulucene, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2016), 12.
Studies on Begriffsgeschichte. (Washington, DC: German 22 Harold Nelson & Erik Stolterman, The Design Way: Intentional Change
Historical Institute, 1996), 62. in an Unpredictable World (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

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Chapter 1 Presenting the past

present-day, or future, design practices. Attempting to picture this state of things History from where?
using the ‘cone of potential futures’, which depicts the range of possible, plausible, A starting point for providing a different outlook for design history that could
and probable, envisioned trajectories of what might become given actions taken connect more to design practices is to avoid beginning historical inquiries with a
from a particular outlook in the present,23 the disconnect in the positionings of specific definition of design. Instead of defining instances of design, the starting
design and design history could look something like this: of such histories would follow Johan Redström’s definition of ‘design’ as a fluid
and continuous spectrum spanning between what ‘a design’ could be (such as
products, or projects) to what ‘designing’ is understood to be (in terms of practices
and internal paradigms).24
DESIGN HISTORY

gm
m

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t
uc

ra

tic

di
ec

ra
og
od

ac
oj
past present future

pa
pr

pr

pr

pr
What a design is What designing is
ble
possi
When industrial design was called into being, its attention was quite strongly
plausible
focused on questioning what ‘a design’ could be: what things should be like gave
probable impetus to finding out how design should be done in order to achieve this. A wide
range of methods, tools and processes for designing has been developed to allow
design to take on challenges of proposing not only possible but somehow also pref-
DESIGN erable, futures. Design’s attention has with time increasingly moved towards ques-
tions of process and practice, placing the emphasis on how design should be done
to achieve certain things – and not explicitly starting with the things themselves.
This shift in gravitational pull, from product to design process, that has taken place
in designing has not yet come about in design history in relation to how ‘design’ is
defined as an object of research. There, historical narratives are still mostly placed at
the end of the spectrum that deals with what ‘a design’ has been, even if much of de-
From design’s point of view, the line of vision opens up towards a range of sign history indeed explores things, projects and situations in terms of production,
futures, more or less probable, but that could be made to come about through consumption and mediation, and processes of the creation of meaning and value.
different types of choices made in designing. Design history’s outlook starts in
definitions of design that typically entail establishing or questioning what ‘design’ ‘a design’
is, leading to chronologically linear narratives of, e.g. who can be regarded
a designer, what consumers’ roles are in design, what can be understood as

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relevant design outcomes, how ideas of design are mediated, and where designing

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pr
historically has taken place. While such design histories in many ways critically
question both present and past understandings of design, it does not directly DESIGN HISTORY
engage with issues of how the past connects to present-day and future designing.

t
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oj
pr
past present future

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possi

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plausible

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probable

ac
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23 Anthony Dunne & Fiona Raby, Speculative Everything: Design, DESIGN

di
Fiction and Social Dreaming (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013),

ra
pa
3; Redström, Making Design Theory, 126-130.
24 Redström, Making Design Theory, 30-47.
‘designing’
12 13
Chapter 1 Presenting the past

In present-day design practices, challenges addressed and probed in design once arose, and how these came to become foundational for design. This is a type
research instead gravitate towards the how of designing, rather than the what. How of design history that aims to probe what design could become, through making
do situations of designing relate to situations of use, and how would open-ended histories that speak to the instability and change inherent to design.
processes of designing work, where there might be no definitive beginnings or end- By shifting the outlook of design history from product to process – from things
ings of design projects or no clear boundaries between ‘designers’ and ‘users’? Pro- to thinking – an ambition is to sketch the contexts in which foundational concepts
cesses, not products, are the starting points of many of the issues probed: how can and central methods in design came about. The intent of this is to destabilise core
designing be carried out, by which types of design constellations, with what types understandings of ‘design’ based on what it has previously been, so that design
of methods, given the situations and complexities that form the contexts of design. can move in directions that perhaps have not been discerned as possible before.
Handling different complexities in various ways in order to find a space from This shift of position, in which design histories can provide a sort of provisional and
where to aim for a preferable future, is at the core of design. Thus, inherent to propositional scaffolding that activates an awareness of how – and why – the ways we
design are fluid and changing approaches to its own practice. As design situations design have been formed over time, is what makes these design histories ‘transitional’.
change, the ways designing is done also need to change. With design moving into
other fields than those from which it once sprang, questions such as what ‘form’ ‘a design’
is if it is intangible, or how design intent should relate to how people use designed
things, has led to a continuous development of methods, processes and concepts

t
uc
in designing that are anything but stable over time. But in design, there is little or no

od
pr
attention paid to these from a historical stance. For design histories to contribute to
these types of approaches, these would need to more actively engage in questioning
the how of designing from an understanding of an embedded historicity in ways of

t
ec
oj
thinking and doing in design practices. If design history is to be able to engage with

pr
contemporary designing, the first thing to do is to bring these closer to each other. past present future
Instead of contributing to accounting for past practices that could affirm or

m
ble
possi

ra
dispute definitions of design and designing, the scope here is to make histories that

og
pr
contribute to expanding the conceptual spaces in which we go about thinking and
plausible
doing design25. In moving the starting point of such design histories closer to the

e
tic
positions and situations of contemporary designing that deals with how design is DESIGN HISTORY probable

ac
pr
approached and carried out, these design histories take their cue from questions
regarding how design is done. A focus in this design history approach is to pursue

gm
stories that give glimpses of where the ideas underpinning contemporary designing DESIGN

di
ra
pa
25 Throughout this book, I speak of histories, and of history, in
terms of ‘making’ rather than ‘writing’, fully aware that the ‘designing’
expression “to make history” usually refers to an individual
Where we stand, what we see
or collective effort or event that has not been done before,
and that is of a character that immediately is recognized as
Transitional design histories aim to engage in a continued re-positioning of per-
something important to publicly note, record and remember: spectives on what is perceived as relevant, and difficult, in present design situ-
to include in ‘history’ as in historical accounts. For example: ations through exploring past assumptions and values embedded in designing.
the moon landing, or Rosa Parks’ protest against racial Placing the historical outlook on design in the part of the spectrum of design that
discrimination and segregation. But this is not what I refer deals with practices and ways of thinking that frame how designing is done, these
to when I speak of ‘making history’. While much of history histories engage with both explicit and implicit methods and concepts in design.
is indeed written, and I certainly also contribute to writing These histories are transitional, in that they do not provide solid foundations
history in the following, I approach history as something for, or explanations of, what design is or has been. Transitional design histories
that goes beyond written narratives published by historians. aim to work differently, as they instead are constructed to support making
History is made by means of many entangled practices –
conceptual moves that allow for thinking and doing design differently, through
academic and not – and through many more varieties of
historical representations than writing alone. Cf. Jaques
using historical perspectives in exploring if it would be possible to see, think, and
Le Goff & Pierre Nora (eds.) Faire de l’histoire. 1. Nouveaux do design differently not only for the future but in the present. The ‘transition’
problemes. 2. Nouvelles Approches. 3. Nouveaux objets (Paris: intended is thus not meant to be a passage from one clearly defined state or
Gallimard, 1974); Lynn Hunt, Measuring Time, Making History practice to another, or from a ‘now’ to a ‘then’, but something more akin to a quality
(New York: Central European University Press, 2008). or a logic in how this sort of history proposes to work.

14 15
Chapter 1 Presenting the past

‘a design’
Design can be many things and does, of course, not have one definitive
history but many potential histories. Since ‘design’ is not univocal, neither can
‘design history’ be thought of as one specific thing. And by proposing transitional
design histories as a type of history that might matter to designing, I do not mean
that these histories are something that should replace other design histories. On
the contrary. Just as there need to be many ways of designing and many voices
and knowledges present in design to address different situations and different past present future
ble
complexities, we need many varieties of design histories from many perspectives possi
and places. However, what I do suggest is that making design histories that take
a starting point in matters of concern in designing can more directly contribute plausible
to reframing how and what is possible to think and do in design than the types of
probable
design histories that focus on, for example, objects of design.
When these design histories are made from other perspectives, from designing,
what seems relevant for us to pay attention to in the past will change as will the meth- DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN
ods applied to probe new aspects of making histories. Through making transitional
design histories, the perspectives provided will lead to shifts in the position from which
design regards itself and what it engages with. As these perspectives lead to new ways
‘designing’
of seeing design, and new things are seen in design, the transitional design histories
that made this possible will at some point have played out the repositioning role. Then,
new outlooks and new challenges in and for design will call for yet other potential his-
tories: transitional design histories themselves are not fixed but fluid and responsive
to the changes in practice, position, and perspectives in and on designing.
Taking a perspective on something has to do with several things: Where Making histories of designing, therefore, requires an awareness of the situated
we place ourselves in order to look at something, what we use to help us look. A practices and knowledges that are integral to design. The proliferation of various
perspective, historically, was a sort of telescope – something to look through that design methods or representations, such as the wide-spread adoption of ‘design
made it possible to see distant things up close. What a perspective enables us to thinking’ or the ‘double diamond’ visualisation of the design process, might give an
see and how we then represent and handle that which we see as well as that which impression that some ways of doing design are more or less generic.26 Designing,
is hidden from sight, varies depending on what types of lenses we apply to look at however, is always a situated practice that deals with the particularities of a specific
things through. And all of this – where we stand, what we use to see with, what that situation, in a certain context, and for or with individuals that engage in the
guides us to look at, and what then comes into view – depends on what the intention process of designing in various ways. Making histories of designing, therefore, also
is with going looking for something in the first place. necessarily must entail at least some amount of precision in regard to which ways of
The above illustrations of the cone of potential futures and its relation to the designing and in which contexts its outlook and perspective is positioned.
histories of design are built around the idea of gazing in a certain direction, from In this study, the choice of position and context for exploring how to make
a particular point that gives a specific perspective allowing some things and not transitional design histories is a Nordic context, and more specifically the types of
others to come into view. What is possible or not to see depends on how wide or designing that tend to be labelled as ‘Scandinavian user-centered and participatory
narrow the frame of vision becomes when applying a perspective, and where the design’. The collaborative methods and approaches applied in designing referred
focus point of the perspective as lens lies. As the intention of transitional design to as the ‘Scandinavian tradition’ are today very present in design practices
histories is to contribute to critically exploring what design could become through emphasising co-designing, within academia in both design research and design
activating an awareness of design’s historicity, the shift in perspective here consists education, and in non-academic environments ranging from commercial or
of applying historical lenses from a position in contemporary designing, shifting industrial design practices to NGO initiatives and community-oriented social
both frame of vision and focus in regard to what sorts of histories to go looking for.
From a position in present-day designing, looking to the past through the 26 Nigel Cross, Design Thinking: Understanding how Designers
lenses of core concepts and methods in current design, this will bring into view Think and Work (Oxford: Berg, 2011); Tim Brown & Barry
ideas, practices and contexts within cultural and societal agendas that not only have Katz, Change by Design: How Design Thinking Transforms
allowed but perhaps also pushed for certain types of design practices to take form. Organizations and Inspires Innovation [2009] Revised and
But we might also see what that means for the limits these ways of doing design carry updated edition, (New York: HarperBusiness, 2019); “What
with them in the situations they are expected to address, and in terms of the norms is the framework for innovation? Design Council’s evolved
Double Diamond”, https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/
and values that shaped them and that now might be perpetuated through design.
news-opinion/what-framework-innovation-design-councils-
evolved-double-diamond (accessed 2020-05-30).

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Chapter 1 Presenting the past

designing.27 In probing how to go about making transitional design histories, I have that historians often work with, in the forms of mediated ideas and events as these
chosen to position my historical inquiries in relation to Scandinavian participatory come across in the reading and analysis of different types of texts, images, and
approaches to designing in a Swedish context. From the perspective of methods and objects. In the search for material for these studies, I have chosen to mainly focus
concepts central to this type of designing, I have looked for potential pasts relevant on published as well as archival material relating to organisations and contexts that
to these practices, that can have contributed to forming these ways of designing. to some extent already are present in Swedish design histories. The point with this
Though the primary purpose of this thesis is to explore how history might is to explore if and how the change in position and perspective of making histories
matter more to designing, and not to write a comprehensive history of Scandinavian that start in designing could also provide new entry points and understandings of
participatory and user-centered design, already setting this differently positioned already established Swedish design historical narratives.
perspective does contribute to highlighting some blind spots in how design histories
previously have been made. Design historians have indeed both contributed to Histories as prototypes
establishing and challenging histories of 20th century ‘Scandinavian Design’, in terms The studies in this thesis are conducted with the intent of experimenting with how
of what is included or excluded in histories and mythologizations of Nordic design.28 transitional design histories might be made, by means of which materials, which
However, what is referred to, studied and critiqued in terms of a ‘Scandinavian design forms they could take, and if the shift in perspective towards designing can make his-
tradition’ are certain material aesthetic, discursive, and ideological manifestations tories that contribute to other design practices. Given this, the examples proposed as
of Nordic design. The emphasis is often on the mid-20th century, and apart from the transitional design histories in this thesis aim to work as a sort of prototypes, and not
inclusion of select images of ergonomic hand tools or eating utensils for disabled as refined and finished final products. In design, prototypes are made and used in
persons in the context of inclusive design, the establishment of user-centric design various stages of the design process. An early-stage prototype can be made in a very
methods are not very visible in these histories.29 Almost entirely absent from existing simple way, to test design ideas and concepts that are still relatively openly articulated.
Scandinavian design history overviews, are the collaborative participatory design In contrast, more refined prototypes can be more detailed and functional in relation to
practices that sprung out of research and union initiatives linked to the introduction representation and fidelity of form and materials. Whatever the sort of prototype, the
of computers into workplaces in the 1970s and 80s. At the time, and perhaps still it whole idea with it is to test something that plays into a continuous process of making
seems, these contexts were not defined as ‘design’, and as such have not been made choices and proposing directions in an iterative design process.
part of design history either. Besides attempting to bring design and design history closer together,
While the positioning and perspectives applied here for studying participatory an aim of this thesis is also to explore what happens when bringing together
and user-centered design concepts and design methods as formed historically methodological approaches from designing and historiography respectively in
by design might be a somewhat novel proposal for how to do design history, the the prototyping of transitional design histories. Making histories as prototypes
ways I have gone about conducting these studies are based in traditional historical speaks to the idea of presenting histories that change in a reciprocal dialogue with
methods of text-based inquiry and analysis. The material I have used are the types design, since changes in contexts, challenges, concerns, and practices in the one
will trigger changes in the other. Design histories that work in this way need to be
27 Pelle Ehn, “Learning in participatory design as I found provisional and open-ended rather than stable and explanatory.
it (1970-2015)” in Betsy DiSalvo, Jason Yip, Elizabeth Thinking of design histories as prototypes, and not as definitive accounts,
Bonsignore & Carl DiSalvo (eds.), Participatory Design for brings together aspects of addressing change and complexity that, in different ways,
Learning: Perspectives from Practice and Research (New York: actually can be discerned as fundamental in both designing and historiography.
Routledge, 2017); in Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.), Designing responds to complexities in the present and proposes changes in and
Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design of certain things that could lead to different future situations. As design situations
(New York: Routledge, 2013).
change, the ways designing is done also need to change. Historiography handles
28 Kjetil Fallan (ed.), Scandinavian Design: Alternative Histories
complexities in the past, proposing stories about situations and changes in the
(London: Bloomsbury, 2012); Charlotte Fiell & Peter Fiell,
Scandinavian Design (Köln & London: Taschen, 2002). past that could somehow be meaningful for us in how we handle the present.
29 Lasse Brunnström, Swedish Design. A History (London: And as histories are told from different perspectives, views on what is relevant to
Bloomsbury, 2019); Kjetil Fallan, Designing modern us in the past will change, as well as the methods applied to probe new aspects of
Norway: A history of design discourse (London: Routledge, making histories. As prototypes, these histories aim to re-position design’s outlook
2016); Pekka Korvenmaa, Finnish design: A concise history in regard to in what it attends to, in what is valued or questioned, as well as in
(Helsinki: University of Art and Design Helsinki, 2009); Mark terms of itself as a discipline, and what that allows us to see and make sense of in
Mussari, Danish Modern: Between Art and Design (London: the present.
Bloomsbury, 2016); Widar Halén & Kerstin Wickman (eds.), Transitional design histories, made by starting in matters of concern in
Scandinavian design beyond the myth: Fifty years of design
contemporary designing, and bringing the historicity of current design methods and
from the Nordic countries (Stockholm: Arvinius, 2003); Hedvig
concepts to the fore, provide glimpses of other possible understandings of design than
Hedqvist, Svensk form, internationell design (Stockholm:
Bokförlaget DN, 2007); Kerstin Wickman, Formens rörelse: the ones readily visible to us. If we are to be able to change how design is done to address
Svensk form genom 100 år (Stockholm: Carlsson, 1995). issues of democracy and justice, global inequalities, distribution and negotiation of

18 19
Chapter 1 Presenting the past

power and resources, sustainment and sustainability, we need to bring into view what these might be like.33 Narrowing down and situating these studies in relation to a specific
is usually not in focus, and see more clearly that which is presently blurred. Transitional type of practice and view on design, Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design
design histories can provide lenses to support changes in perspective as well as in is selected as the type of designing investigated in relation to some of its core concepts,
position, opening up for other possible stories of the past, which contribute to plural methods and themes. This provides the outlook and starting point for the making of the
and diverse understandings of our different, potential, and ever-changing ‘now’. design history prototypes that follow. A very brief account is given of the emergence of
user-centered and participatory design in Scandinavia in tracing of some of the core ideas
Overview that carry over from these into design practices and research that build on these traditions.
The proposal in this dissertation, as presented in this first chapter, is that design Three prototypes are then presented of how transitional design histories could
needs a higher degree of awareness of its historicity to be able to alter its own be made by starting with concepts and themes in Scandinavian user-centered and
practices. And for this historical awareness to be activated, design histories need participatory design. As prototypes, these are constructed in slightly different ways
to be made differently. The aims are to investigate how to make design histories and aim to explore partially different aspects of mechanisms of and in design history
that can matter to design and also bring relevant perspectives to the field of and designing in relation to each other. Each takes a different starting point in terms of
design history through merging methodological approaches from design research what sort of perspective is applied, resulting in three separate but interlinked histories
and design history. Can a bringing together of design and design history make rather than a cohesive story.
visible the historicity of design’s conceptual frameworks, supporting a re- or de- The first prototype, chapter four, focuses on the concept of ‘participation’ related
activation of these that contribute to changes in designing? And does this shift in to historical conditions of importance for the formation of participatory design in
outlook lead to histories that matter for designing, making present other historical Scandinavia. Through searching for ideas revolving around situations in which ideas of
contexts, actors, and ideas that can also contribute to the field of design history? participatory practices and mutual learning took form around the turn of the century
Prototyping transitional design histories of core methods and concepts in de- 1900, this prototype highlights contexts and ideas of democracy and participation that
signing can contribute to altering the outlooks on how the present of design can be preceded the appearance of participatory design in the 1970s and 1980s suggesting
understood, and what designing could become. 30 The pasts activated as histories that ideas and practices unfolding in early 20th century Sweden became formative for a
are decisive for the situated presents we are able to perceive and for the futures we discourse that made possible the emergence of a collaborative approach to designing.
thereby make it possible to envision.31 The overall ambition, however, remains to The material for this study is mainly related to the thinking of Ellen Key, influential
test ways of doing design history that could be of relevance for understanding and writer in the fields of aesthetics, ethics, education and women’s and workers’ rights
expanding current and future design practices, aiming to “establish a thinking that nationally and internationally, in the early 20th century.
is capable of thinking past the paradoxical conditions of now and therefore capable The second prototype, chapter five, revolves around the concepts of use and
of opening our history, which is to say our future, to reflection.”32 users, and more specifically around the relationship between designed ideal or
In chapter two, I discuss the disconnect between designing and design intended uses and everyday realities of people’s actual uses of things. I propose
history arguing that historical perspectives are needed to make visible how the past that the conceptual tensions between ideal and real use have been there from the
conditions the present as well as the futures aimed for in designing. Providing a brief very beginning and that ideas (and certain practices) of the involvement of users in
overview of how design history has emerged as an academic discipline in relation design as these were introduced in Sweden in the 1940s both acknowledged and to
to design education and practice, I suggest that design histories could be made with some extent sought to deal with these tensions. The material for the study consists
the aim to contribute to shifts in contemporary design practices. For design history of publications and archival material from different investigations into ‘dwelling
to engage with issues in design it would need to reposition its outlook. Instead of habits’ conducted by, or in collaboration with, the design organisation Svenska
focusing outcomes of designing, these histories would inquire into the historicity Slöjdföreningen (SSF) between 1937 and 1943.
of designing itself by probing the ideas that once were formative of how core The third prototype, chapter six, works with methods development in user-
design methods and concepts came about. Making visible what this might mean centred and participatory design, proposing that histories of such methods can
for contemporary practices, design histories can contribute to critically exploring be traced to the discourse around material and behavioural reform of everyday
design’s foundations with the aim of supporting emerging design practices. domestic work in mid-20th century Sweden. Early instances of the introduction of
In chapter three, the propositional approach of transitional design histories is for example iterative prototyping and user studies are discussed based on published
outlined together with the suggestion of making prototypes of histories to explore what material from the research into everyday domestic work carried out at the Hemmens
Forskningsinstitut (HFI, The home research institute) in the 1940s and 1950s.
30 Cameron Tonkinwise, “Designing transitions – from and Finally, in chapter seven, these prototypes of transitional design histories are
to What?”, Design Philosophy Papers 2015:1 (vol.13), 85-92; reflected upon and discussed in relation to if and how this approach can provide
Redström, Making Design Theory, 96-99. histories for design, rather than histories of design. I argue that these types of
31 Ramia Mazé, “Politics of designing visions of the future”, histories can contribute to opening up views on and potentials for transitions that
Journal of Futures Studies 2019:3 (vol.23), 23–38; Tony Fry, could support the development of different ways of going about designing, and thus
Design Futuring: Sustainability, Ethics, and New Practice, (Berg:
the futures we make possible through design.
Oxford, 2009);
32 Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures”, 211. 33 Redström, Making Design Theory, 130

20 21
Chapter 2 Design/History

2. Design/History

In the introduction, I put forth the idea that design needs to activate an awareness
of its historicity in order to develop other practices. Therefore, design history should
be made to work differently and contribute to making the past more present in
designing. The question, then, becomes how to go about doing this? In this thesis,
I argue that one possibility is to make design histories that are propositional and
transitional, and that support fluid and changing understandings of and practices in
designing. These transitional design histories would be made to work as prototypes,
supporting shifts towards what design could become, rather than as well-rounded
stories of what design is or has been, by combining methods from programmatic
design research and historical research. In this chapter, I sketch how design history
has taken form as an academic field and discuss what that has meant for design
history’s role in relation to design practice, as well as that this has led to in the
relations between design history and designing.

Disconnected outlooks
Ever since it came about in relation to industrialisation design has been instrumental
in materialising ways of living that propose to somehow lead towards a better future.1
How ‘better’ might be understood depends on how the present is perceived, and on
what then seems possible to achieve through design in order to move towards the
envisioned future. This future orientation remains in design, focusing what is to come
and how to make other things possible than those readily present to us.2 Design his-
tory, instead, usually directs its attention to what has been: and towards the design of
things in the past and how these have come to carry cultural and economic signifi-
cance.3 So, though design practice and design history both are situated in the present,
they are located in different places and approach design from different positions.
The difference in the irrespective outlook makes it difficult to find common
ground for design and history to come together – and why should they? The
perceived usefulness of history in design seldom goes beyond treating design
history as a repository of inspirational or cautionary examples of form-given things,
or as a source for understanding the formation of the design profession. Since much
of design history has been written and produced along these lines, the limited forms
of engagement between designing and design history is not difficult to understand.
However, the lack of history in practices of designing can be rather problematic.4

1 Ramia Mazé, “Politics of designing visions of the future”,

Journal of Future Studies, 2019:3 (vol.23), 23-28.
2 Johan Redström, “Certain uncertainties and the design of
design education”, She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and
Innovation 2020:1 (vol. 6), 83-100.
3 “Editorial policy”, Journal of Design History 2019:4 (vol.32).
4 Clive Dilnot, “The Matter of Design”, Design Philosophy Papers
22 2015:2 (vol. 13), 115-123. 23
Chapter 2 Design/History

As design makes things that propose to alter present situations, it can governs its outlook on the world, and in the methods and processes that guide its
unknowingly perpetuate past ways of being and thinking in its outcomes and also actions and its aims. The contexts that have formed design over time have left traces
through its processes. That the past makings of design are present as material artefacts entangled in how design is carried out, and in the expectations on what design can
and environments brought into the world is quite obvious. However, that the very bring to the situations it engages with. Many of the concepts in design that still form
understandings of the world, ingrained in designing as such, are also made in the past its foundations, setting frameworks for how and what design engages with the world,
and activated in how design presently operates can be more difficult to see.5 Though stem from times other than our own. These conceptual foundations are present in
aiming for different futures – more just, more sustainable – design might instead the ways that design is done and in the world views of design , often implicitly taken
inadvertently reinforce precisely some of the mechanisms it seeks to avoid.6 for granted as a stable ground for design practice.
While design might critically engage with questioning how to design in For example, there is a vast body of design research exploring what open-ended or
relation to problematic aspects of its core concepts, it seldom questions the collaborative design processes means for practices in user-centered and participatory
ideas or mechanisms that historically brought these concepts to become central design, in terms of how ‘designers’ and ‘users’ might come together in design activities,
to designing. Without an awareness of how the past is present in design there is what this does for emerging design practices, and the roles of ‘designers’ and ‘users’.9
a substantial risk that, when addressing the complex challenges of new design While the category of ‘users’ in such approaches tends to be critically questioned, as
situations, design will remain blind to its own historical baggage. This blindness du understandings of how ‘use’ might be defined, the fundamental idea that design
will limit design’s potential of finding and inventing other practices.7 does have something to do with use and users remains unchallenged. These concepts
Design history could engage in exploring how design methods and concepts thus provide a seemingly stable foundation for design that aims to be ‘user-centered’.
carry historical assumptions and values into contemporary and emerging design However, the concept of ‘use’ has not always been part of design’s foundations, and
situations and thus provide perspectives on what is made possible, and what is neither has the idea of designing for – or indeed with – ‘users’.
made difficult, given the historicity of designing. Making present the historicity of When design emerged, in connection to industrial and societal change,
concepts and world views that govern design, can contribute to de- or reactivating its initial focus was on how material things should be made by certain people
ideas and ideals in design, allowing for broader views on what might be needed to (designers) for other people (consumers, or users). The ideas of designing for
consider in repositioning design to make other future trajectories possible. use, and for or with users, have come about as responses to specific challenges
However, design history seldom engages much with matters of what design and changes in design and society, in specific times and contexts, and have over
could become but has its attention directed towards what design has been. This time formed into concepts embedded in design. The concept of ‘use’, for example,
outlook stems from a starting point in understandings of what design is – often connotes intentional and directed acts that are specifically tied to things that
formulated in terms of past design outcomes or products. Contemporary designing, ‘users’ – not ‘consumers’ or ‘people’ – perform in relation to the intentions and
on the other hand, is more interested in questions of how: How can design make a actions of ‘designers’. While concepts such as these remain both activated and
difference in changing existing situations into preferred future ones? How would critically discussed in design, in different ways, the connections to the how and
design methods and tools need to be set up, to support the types of designing the why that once called them into the realm of designing have been more or less
that current challenges and situations seem to require? The themes and research forgotten. The assumptions embedded in these core concepts continue to form
interests of design history do not readily provide connections that could support how we think, how we talk, and how we take action in design.
design in grappling with questions of how design could be done differently.8
9 To give only some examples: Liesbeth Huybrechts, Virginia
Tassinari, Barbara Roosen, & Teodora Constantinescu, “Work,
Concepts and definitions labour and action: the role of participatory design in (re)
The development of methods for handling new design situations is central to activating the political dimension of work”, in Proceedings
design. Methods are, however, not often considered in terms of how, when, or why of the 15th Participatory Design Conference. i. (ACM, 2018),
they once came about. Design is conditioned by history through the thinking that 1–11; Åsa Ståhl & Kristina Lindström, “Politics of Inviting:
Co-Articulating Issues in Designerly Public Engagement”,
in Rachel Charlotte Smith, Kasper Tang Vangkilde, Mette
5 Cameron Tonkinwise, “Always Historicise Design”, Design Gislev Kjaersgaard, Ton Otto, Joachim Halse, & Thomas
Philosophy Papers 2006:1 (vol. 4). Binder (eds.) Design Anthropological Futures (London:
6 Joanna Boehnert, “Design vs. the Design Industry”, Design Bloomsbury Academic, 2016); Thomas Binder, Eva Brandt,
Philosophy Papers, 2014:2 (vol.12), 119–136; Tony Fry, A New Pelle Ehn & Joachim Halse “Democratic design experiments:
Design Philosophy: An Introduction to Defuturing (Sydney: between parliament and laboratory”, CoDesign, 2015:3-4
UNSW Press, 1999). (vol.11), 152-165; Johan Redström, “RE:Definitions of use”,
7 Susan C. Stewart, “And so to another setting”, in Tony Fry, Design Studies 2008:4 (vol.4), 410–423; Nelly Oudshoorn,
Clive Dilnot & Susan C. Stewart, Design and the Question of Els Rommes, & Marcelle Stienstra, “Configuring the User as
History (Bloomsbury: London & New York, 2015), 275-297. Everybody: Gender and Design Cultures in Information and
8 Tony Fry, “Whither design, whether history” in Fry et al., Communication Technologies”, Science, Technology & Human
Design and the Question of History, 8-9. Values 2004:1 (vol.29), 30–63.

24 25
Chapter 2 Design/History

An aim in contemporary design is to find ways to address emerging and History is always a history of something, and at the same time, it is made for
complex challenges, bringing plural perspectives and distributed agency into something. In order to provide causal explanations that make sense for explaining
designing. The situations that design seeks to address in the present are the results what was before in relation to what is now, history typically relies on ideas of
of choices and actions in the past. If the alliances with industrialism, with the continuity. Approaching histories as chains of events, where one event leads to
production of consumer goods, and the intentional or unintentional reproduction another, conjures up a sort of idea of intentional directionality, where things are
of these mechanisms are some of the issues that design seeks to revise or address, it what they are due to these continuous happenings. If we take a closer look at
is hard to see how this could be done without an awareness of design’s historicity. the past, things that seem necessarily connected in a chain of events are made
To achieve such a historical awareness in designing, design histories would need to appear as such through how history is represented. As economic historian
to ask questions about what design does, rather than what design is. Alexander Gerschenkron put it:
The aim with shifting focus to regard design practices and processes of
design in light of the historical contexts in which they arose, is to make way for continuity must be regarded as a set of tools forged by the historian rather than
design histories that take critical views on design’s foundational concepts and as something inherently and invariantly contained in the historical matter. [---]
methods, challenging assumptions that otherwise are either taken for granted or It is the historian who by abstracting from differences and by concentrating on
simply invisible. If design history is to engage with the concepts that are central to similarities establishes the continuity of events across decades or centuries filled
with events that lack all pertinency to the continuity model. It is the historian
designing, the positioning from where histories are made needs to change.
who decides how far back the causal chain should be pursued and by his (sic)
Returning to the respective outlooks of design and design history and how fiat creates its ‘beginning’ as he creates endogenous and exogenous events.11
these are positioned in different understandings of ‘design’, this can – as described
in the previous chapter – be approached in light of a definition of design suggested That history is about narrative, about stories we tell, is apparent already in the
by Johan Redström as being fluidly made over a spectrum ranging from ‘a design’ name of the discipline. In a sense, all research – not only historical – is about
to ‘designing’. Here, a conceptual definition of design spans from the particular making meaning out of the world by choosing something particular to pay
of what a design (product) is to more general paradigmatic notions of designing attention to, and finding a way to tell a story of what it means to understand
(as practices and processes).10 Much of design history’s attention so far could the world and its workings through that perspective. Design differs from many
be generically categorised as located in the product and project part of such a other disciplines in that it aims to approach understandings in terms of handling
spectrum. With its attention focused on the design of things – objects – and their complexities as meaningful wholes rather than as particulars. To find ways to do
designers, design history has its centre of gravity in the part of the spectrum of that, design methods and processes often aim to find many ways of making change
design that probes what a design can be considered to be in a certain context. in relationally entangled and diverse ecologies. Thus, design histories also need to
The shift in perspective proposed here builds on moving design history’s support seeing and approaching multiplicity and difference, counteracting ideas
outlook towards the part of the spectrum of design definitions that revolve around of singular worlds and universalist world views.
practice and process, to explore what becomes visible from there. This does not Historical perspectives on contemporary design practices could provide
mean that instances of design or history that deals with things– the ‘a design’ end of openings for seeing the present differently, from other angles. Making other
the spectrum – would be uninteresting. It means that what these design histories will design histories can make room for sketching many different potential ‘presents’
try to make visible would be more of a why and a where than a what. By situating the – multiple ‘nows’, rather than a singular ‘now’ – that could speak to design’s
outlook in concepts and methods at the core of designing – in practice – the central continuous movement between potentiality and actuality. In order to provide
questions guiding the making of design histories would not primarily be what the design histories that might more fluidly both respond to changes in design practice
outcomes of these ways of designing have been, but how design can be understood today, and that might contribute to redefining what designing could become, the
as making and defining itself through what it does (products and projects) as well move towards designing is needed to shift position and allow us to see things from
as through how and why it works (processes and practices). a different point of view than the usual. This shift in perspective towards histories
This historical approach would move away from stable definitions of design of designing also builds on the proposal that definitions in design are made in
as things, materials or mediations as starting points for making design histories. several ways, one of which is through design itself.
Working with an understanding of design defined as a spectrum, the types of Thinking of design as something defined through tensions and movements
design histories that revolve around design practices, would not really have a along a spectrum between what it makes, what it does, what it proposes to be, its
defined starting point – neither in terms of precise definitions of design nor in conceptual spaces and world views, it follows that fluidity and change are at the
terms of historical times or periods pointed out to be investigated. The purpose core of such design definitions. Histories that spring out of such an understanding
of moving design history closer to issues in designing is to pose questions, rather of design definitions also need to be inherently unstable and transitional, if they
than provide answers, about how and in response to what sorts of contexts present are to support processes of continuous unfolding relating to what design can
ways of designing have come about.
11 Alexander Gerschenkron, “On the Concept of Continuity in
10 Johan Redström, Making Design Theory (Cambridge, MA: The History”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
MIT Press, 2017), x. 1962: 3 (vol. 106), 208.

26 27
Chapter 2 Design/History

become, rather than confirming or perpetuating ideas of what design is. Building Bauhaus, modernism, Raymond Loewy, postmodernism, and so on. In the repeated
on this, design histories would need to be transitional, in that they aim to resonate actualisation of these stories, the questions and topics of design history will continue
with design understood as something that becomes rather than something that is: to be of a certain sort, given the disciplinary practices supported or reacted against.
In this sense, there will almost inevitably be some concepts, approaches, and stories
Our framework was never meant to account for what is and its relation to what that stabilise or even fossilise as a more substantial core narrative of what design
was; it was not meant to be a general theory in the sense other disciplines think is, and has been. Consequently, ‘histories’ layered upon each other will eventually
of such things. It was the scaffold we needed to make sense of a vast range of become ‘the history’ rather than ‘a history’ – whether or not this is intentional or
possibilities open for us: for navigating the potentiality of what could become, even desired. Repeating a certain story enough times will inevitably solidify it as a
not the actuality of what became. But over time, it shifts from being a transitional
central part or as a given in design history.
and temporary foundation, and when it does, it is no longer a support for
development but a framework for making sure things stay the same. It becomes
Despite highlighting the importance of multiple perspectives in design
history, not in the sense of a reflective and critical understanding of the past and history, the histories that become the ‘grand narratives’ of the field both support
its influence on the present, but in the sense of a now confined to repetition.12 and perpetuate certain understandings of what is considered to be design, and of
how and why design is done. The problems associated with stable, or fossilised,
Transitional design histories, then, could provide materials for the temporary stories have been core to discussions about canon and narratives internal to the
scaffoldings that would support provisional foundations that design could build its discipline of design history for several decades. However, this is not the only
becoming on. Shifting perspectives to more practice-oriented histories of designing problematic aspect. The ways in which designing happens is built on historical
will make visible other things than the ones we usually notice and that have so far understandings of design, embedded in the ways design is done.
not been actively considered or included in histories of design. This also means Histories of design have primarily taken their starting points in understandings
that we could expect to discover aspects, values and limitations embedded in of design as visual and material form performed by individuals identified as
today’s design concepts and methods relating to the designing these will be able to ‘designers’. Design history has thus come to revolve around issues of exploring
support. This opens up for making design histories that are propositional rather than what could count as design things, and in which types of contexts one would find
definitive histories of what design has been or is, in that they contribute to seeing people that do design. As the frame of vision for design history has broadened,
and questioning current concepts and methods in design in light of the historical more aspects of what can be seen and understood as design have been included in
contexts in which they have emerged and been formed. design historical narratives. Given this ongoing reframing, it would be reasonable
to assume that there are aspects of the past that have not yet been made visible in
design’s histories.
Histories, presents, and perspectives
Histories of design, as these have been told so far, have often focused on objects and Taking a different approach to what history could do in design, as well as how
the socio-cultural contexts in which they have come about, and come to use. And for present and past relate to the making of design history, things might emerge that
good reasons. Making things is at the core of designing, and much of what has been can not only reframe what becomes visible in the past but also in the present. In
designed has left substantial traces in the world and in our lives. The vast body of work other words, historical perspectives on present-day designing can shed light on
that addresses material historical aspects of design outcomes and design culture in aspects of contemporary practice that otherwise might not be easy for us to see.
a broad sense will, of course, continue to be crucial to deepening and broadening Making visible some of the assumptions and world views that historically have
a collective understanding of aspects of design and its outcomes, past and present. shaped the processes and methods of designing could enable shifts in the very
The contemporary practice of research in design history is generally agreed positions from where designing takes place in the present, and provide openings
upon to be a pluralistic endeavour of multiple rather than singular stories. Most for seeing other possible ways of designing.
design historians emphasise that their contribution is only one of many possible Victor Margolin noted already in the mid-nineties that “’design’ does not
histories that could be told. The adoption of different historical perspectives, signify a class of objects that can be pinned down like butterflies. Designing
methods and areas of investigation will not lead to a definitive description of what is an activity that is constantly changing. How then can we establish a body of
the past actually was like, but will constantly give rise to new questions as “the knowledge about something that has no fixed identity?”14 Instead of trying to pin
concerns of the present [are] projected onto the past.”13 down definitions of design and designing and exploring the past in terms of which
Even if the gradual accumulation of a corpus of design histories does not aim things, practices, uses and situations should be present in histories of design, we
towards a definitive account of the past, it nonetheless makes certain histories more could try making design histories that actually speak to the characteristics of
visible than others. These more established stories tend to be told, re-told, and change at the core of design.
indeed also questioned, in publications, in design museums, and in design history If we were to sidestep the questions of which objects or classifications of
surveys in design curricula. People, periods and places that turn up in most, if not design we might need to define for basing design history on and instead work with
indeed all, of these stories are for example the Great Exhibition, William Morris, the

12 Redström, Making Design Theory, 66. 14 Victor Margolin, “Design history or design studies: Subject
13 Dennis Doordan, “On history”, Design Issues 1995:1 (vol.11), 76. matter and methods”, Design Issues 1995:1 (vol.11), 10.

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Chapter 2 Design/History

the idea of design as something characterised by constant change, the starting Design history: The formation of a field
points for making design histories will move away from histories of design defined
as things. We might, therefore, want to pay somewhat more attention to not only An object-focus has been profoundly present from the early days in design
things made and events played out in the past and presented to us as history, historical research and has since continued to be central to the ways design
but also to how choices of foci and practices adopted – in designing as well as histories have been told. This approach was highly related to not only the contexts
in historiography – have rendered some potential ways of thinking and doing in which design history as a practice emerged but also to the early roles that design
invisible, rather than impossible.15 history played in relation to the emergence of new practices in design itself. Some
of the early discussions around what design history could or should be in terms of
To make other histories visible, that might be of relevance to contemporary and both an emerging discipline, subject of study, and in relation to the field of design,
emerging design practices, we will need to shift the starting points from which we arose in Great Britain. There, higher education reforms in the 1960s had stipulated
begin our inquiries, and question what the ‘design’ is that we are looking for. Instead that all arts-based education – such as design – must include teaching in historical
of searching for a ‘history of design’ – trying to pin down the butterflies, to speak and contextual subject areas connected to the area of specialisation. In design
with Victor Margolin – the idea here is to investigate how to instead approach the education, the subject of art and design history came to fill this role.17
historicity of designing in relation to the potential tensions between intentional Many of the people teaching history within design curricula were of the
change and unintentional reinforcement of historical values or mechanisms. view that the field of design needed histories that spoke to the subject of design,
Being a practice that has come about in response to particular historical and that more related to critical perspectives on the issues in design practice
situations, design’s processes and methods have been developed based on concepts and education rather than providing art historical foundations and overviews.
and modes of thinking specific to these historical contexts. With time, the world Therefore, in 1975, a group of scholars gathered in Newcastle for one of the first
views, or proposals, that the development of certain ways of designing was built conferences on design history.18 The following year in London, the theme for the
upon have become so embedded in doing design that these are no longer expressly conference was the concept of leisure in twentieth-century design history. In the
articulated or even visible. Moreover, when new methods or tools for doing proceedings following the conference, the field of design history was described
design emerge, these will either build further on or be presented as alternatives as a new discipline not yet understood, and not accepted, despite already having
to established design practices, proposing that design could be done differently been incorporated in design education.19
than it is now. While this search for other ways of doing, of finding approaches that The design history conference statements of the mid-seventies bear witness
could support design in responding to constantly changing societal, technological to a reaction against the sort of knowledge and approach to design then present in
and disciplinary contexts is central to design, this is seldom something that the discipline of art history. At the design history conference of 1976, the agenda
design history engages with. It is precisely here that design history could provide was to establish design history in its own right rather than its being “a poor relation
approaches to historically formed concepts and practices which design would need of Art History”.20 The type of history that the new design historians wished to
an increased awareness of if the ambition is to design differently. distance themselves from was one that was based on ideas of connoisseurship,
By changing the outlook on what could be perceived of as design’s history, we such as distinguishing significant works in design on the basis of criteria of
could, “shift perspectives – if only slightly – to provide short glimpses of something aesthetics and excellence. Design history should, instead, deal with objects that
else” by trying to analyse things that are seemingly familiar and known to us in were not categorised as objects of art, but industrially produced everyday things:
ways that could perhaps open up for other ways of understanding and using
them.16 This approach, here, is applied to making fluid and transitional histories In the first place, Design History is concerned with artefacts – things created
that mean something to design, out of what is relevant to look for in the present in by man to fulfil a particular function and thus satisfy a social need. It seeks to
terms of changing conditions and practices in designing. examine and, eventually, to explain these artefacts by reference to a wide range
of criteria – social, technological, psychological, political and economic ones, in
Transitional design histories aim to contribute with elements to the
particular – within a historical context.21
expanding, or layering, of many diverse design histories that bring a variety of
perspectives, thematics and contributions to the field of design knowledge
and design inquiry. This also suggests that transitional design histories could
eventually solidify and form parts of more generic or mainstream components of 17 Joanne Gooding, Design history in Britain from the 1970s to
“design history”. In the following, let us take a brief look at design history as it has 2012: Context, formation, and development, diss. (University of
formed academically, and approach the reasons why that type of design history Northumbria: Newcastle, 2012), 38f.
has not yet seemed to resonate with design practice. 18 Gooding, Design history in Britain from the 1970s to 2012, 58f.
19 Bridget Wilkins, “Introduction”, Leisure in the twentieth
century. History of Design. Fourteen papers given at the Second
Conference on Twentieth Century Design History 1976 (London:
Design Council Publications, 1977), 5.
15 Tony Fry, “Whither design, whether history”, 9. 20 Wilkins, “Introduction”, 5.
16 Redström, Making Design Theory, 2. 21 Wilkins, “Introduction”, 5.

30 31
Chapter 2 Design/History

Not only the “beautiful” or “decorative” artefacts should be studied, but all sorts of with focus on how an understanding of ‘good design’ and criteria for judging the
objects, that were the results of the work of a designer “immersed in society (…) to aesthetics of modern design practice had undergone radical changes during that
understand its needs and attempt to provide solutions to them”.22 period. In line with practices in traditional art history, the structure of Pevsner’s
history was formed around the authorship of individual designers and examples
From the beginning of its formation, design history has included a vivid discussion of their works, together with style-based periodisation.
on the methods and areas of study adequate to the subject – the history of design Despite recurring critiques of this narrative, Pevsner’s text nonetheless became
– both of which have been notoriously difficult to define.23 The first design history seminal as one of the early textbooks on design history. It has remained of quite central
conferences aimed to establish frameworks and practices in the history of design importance to the discourse of design history, in relation to how its basic structuring
were convened in the mid-1970s, gathering many of the academic practitioners of ‘the history of design’ continues to resonate with the teaching of design history
active in teaching and researching design history in design educational settings. survey courses – albeit with critiques and perspectives added to or challenging the
The discussions of which varieties of histories would be of relevance to design Pevsnerian structure and approach. If we take a closer look at Pevsner’s text as a part
education quite soon veered towards a process of establishing design history as of the history of design rather than as a design history textbook, the time and context in
a specialised discipline in its own right. These conferences led to the formation which it was published can explain its focus on defending and defining the aesthetics
of the Design History Society in 1977, and in the 1980s to the establishment of of modernism from the point of view of designing.
specific journals dedicated to, or including, design historical scholarship, and to Pevsner’s history of design traced a continuity from William Morris’ critique
specific educational programs dedicated to the study of history of design in its own of industrial production in favour of the hand-made to the incorporation of a
right rather than only as a part of studio-based design education.24 crafts-based while industrially oriented pedagogy in the socially and industrially
Design historian Penny Sparke noted, after the third design history conference oriented Bauhaus education as fronted by Walter Gropius. This was portrayed as a
in 1977, three main approaches to the history of design that could be discerned as linear and causal evolution in line with the needs of contemporary society. Through
forming design history: history of designing, social history with a focus on designed this way of doing history, already established within art history (great artists, great
objects, and “a more deliberately ‘art historical’ track, examining the problem of style works, stylistic evolvement), Pevsner gave the new outcomes of industrial and
and its analysis in objects.”25 While these new directions in design history mainly standardised object production and modernist architecture a solid foundation in a
arose out of a criticism of traditional art history, in relation to categorisations and historical chain of important events and styles of art and architecture. In this sense,
value judgements of its objects of study, the methods and modes of structuring art Pevsner’s history of design took its starting point in the service of supporting the
history also continued to have a strong presence in design history. radical changes he saw in contemporary (industrial) design practices, by providing
legitimacy through history in regard to emerging design ideals that emphasised
other objects, other aesthetics, and other practices than before.
Establishing narratives We might need to remind ourselves that the Bauhaus, when Pevsner’s book
A standard narrative of the history of design had initially been set in a book was published in 1936, was a relatively small and experimental German design
that was a standard textbook in design history for many decades: Pioneers of school that had closed only three years earlier. During the time the school had
the Modern Movement: From William Morris to Walter Gropius by art historian been open, between 1919 and 1933, it had relocated twice, and had continuously
Nikolaus Pevsner. This book was originally published in 1936 and later revised and developed its curriculum, under three different leaders, aiming to introduce a new
reprinted several times with new titles, first Pioneers of Modern Design and later type of design education in service of modern industry and society. Exactly how
The Sources of Modern Design and Architecture.26 Heavily emphasising the built that new design education should be shaped and what the curriculum should
environment and visual form, a history of modern design is told with a starting include, was a matter of almost constant debate and experimentation. In the
point in industrialisation and culminating in the emergence of modernism, words of Anni Albers, one of the students who went on to engage in teaching
and design experimentation at the Bauhaus, the environment was not always
22 Wilkins, “Introduction”, 5.
perceived as an education in its time:
23 John A. Walker, Design History and the History of Design
(London: Pluto, 1989).
(…) well, the Bauhaus today is thought of always as a school, a very adventurous
24 Gooding, Design history in Britain from the 1970s to 2012, 139-174.
and interesting one, to which you went and were taught something; that it was
25 Penny Sparke, “Design History: Fad or Function? Some
a readymade spirit. But when I got there in 1922, that wasn’t true at all. It was
Afterthoughts”, in Design History Society Newsletter number
in a great muddle and there was a great searching going on from all sides. And
three, December 1978, 14-16.
people like Klee and Kandinsky weren’t recognised as the great masters. They
26 Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of the Modern Movement: From
were starting to find their way. And this kind of general searching was very
William Morris to Walter Gropius (London, 1936); Pioneers
exciting. And in my little articles this is what I called the creative vacuum. But
of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius
the word “education” was never mentioned. And the people we think of as the
(New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1949) [new editions
great masters – Klee and Kandinsky – they weren’t available for questions. They
1957, 1960, 1968, rev. 1974, 1986, rev. & exp. 2005; The sources
were the great silent ones who talked among themselves maybe, but never to
of modern architecture and design (London: Thames and
small little students like me. But we knew that what the Academy was doing
Hudson, 1968) [rev. 1975].

32 33
Chapter 2 Design/History

was wrong and it was exciting that you knew you had the freedom to try out The history presented by Pevsner, pointing to modernism as the pinnacle
something. And that was fine. But, as I say, it wasn’t that you went there and were of formal and ideal development in design and to the Bauhaus as central to
taking something home from there. You were a contributor.27 developments in design practice and design education, has to a large extent
continued to serve as a model for constructing design history. Specific objects
In Anni Albers’ description, the environment at the Bauhaus comes across as deemed to be of extraordinary quality (thus excluding things made for everyday
an exploratory and experimental environment rather than as an organised use) and individual designers, such as Walter Gropius and William Morris, were
design school. The Bauhaus, at the time of Pevsner’s publication of his book in established as especially significant with reference to their perceived creative and
the 1930s, was far from the internationally well-known forerunner of modern aesthetic genius.30 This history has been perpetuated through latter narratives and
design education that it later has become established to be.28 The subsequent, counternarratives – and through the design practices these have supported. The
and formative, role the Bauhaus has played in design education can largely be teleological attitude towards industrialism, for example, as the almost ‘natural’
attributed to how design history has been made, and how its narratives were result of progress and development was still in the 1930s one of projecting a desired
canonised through Pevsner’s and others’ descriptions. The later affirmation of the and preferred future from the stance of a present that was socially and politically
Bauhaus as a seminal design education also took form through the establishment turbulent, to say the least. The idea of a better and more egalitarian future, and
of various design educations by former Bauhaus staff and students, explicitly the hope of a different material manifestation through design of this future, was
labelling the new design educations as adhering to or reviving ‘Bauhaus curricula’ integrated into Pevsner’s account.
or ‘Bauhaus ways of teaching’. Later, in the following decades, the same basic story of design and industry
Modernism was, in the 1930s, an aesthetic, an idea and an ideology still in a new take on the relationship and practice leading to progress was told from
highly contested – both from ‘without’ and ‘within’. As the narratives of design other perspectives critical to Pevsner’s history. Sigfried Giedion, for example,
history grew strong under the auspices of art history, the understanding of and in his 1948 book Mechanisation takes command: A contribution to anonymous
attention to design history as primarily dealing with the visual and material form history, attempted a social history of design told through the lens of industry and
of objects was introduced as part and parcel of the field. The historical legacy from technology rather than in terms of style and authorship. 31 Later, in 1960, Reyner
Morris to Gropius traced by Pevsner can be seen as serving a legitimising and Banham’s Theory and Design in the First Machine Age brought in issues of function
polemical function in advocating the radical and revolutionary modernist agenda and functionalism – in terms of utility as well as performance – as starting points
and its visual and material form expressions with arguments rooted in history for writing a history of design.32 However, all three of these histories of design
and tradition. This placed the emerging new and industrially based practices of followed the same overall narrative, thus consolidating a story that has continued
design of the 1930s in a historical lineage traced back to the British Arts and Crafts to provide a structural foundation for industrial design history: beginning with
movement. The historical narrative was thus used to legitimise the – in Pevsner’s industrialisation and the arts and crafts movement, emphasising tensions
day – still highly contested expressions and practices of modernist design and the between crafts-based and industrial means of production in relation to form-
ideals of a new type of society based on industrial production and democratic giving, and tracing works of influential design – mainly understood as visual form
governance that these were associated with. We can see similar rhetorical practices – in a linear development towards the present. This type of art-history-based and
making use of history to argue for modernism, for example, in the Swedish context object-attentive design history contributed to stabilising and legitimising a general
when ‘functionalism’ was introduced at the Stockholm exhibition of 1930. In texts understanding of designing as being about giving (visual) form to artefacts. This
and brochures promoting the exhibition, ample references were made to the also largely became the story disseminated through design history classes in
“glorious traditions” of Swedish handicraft and arts industries that formed the design educations with a strong focus on designed products.
trajectory leading up to the modern(ist) objects and environments “aimed at the
practical needs of modern life”.29
Histories of what?
In two articles in the mid-1980s mapping the field of design history and its
problems and potentials, design historian Clive Dilnot pointed to the problems
associated with design history being “called on to legitimate particular forms of
27 Oral history interview with Anni Albers, 1968 July 5. contemporary design practice” in its continued Pevsnerian focus on distinguishing
Smithsonian Archives of American Art. https://www.aaa.
si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-anni-
albers-12134 (accessed 2020-06-10).
28 Laura Forlano, Molly Wright Steenson, Mike Ananny, Ramia
Mazé, Fred Turner, Joichi Ito, Natalie Saltiel, Andre Uhl, Carol 30 Margolin, “Design history or design studies”, 6-9.
Strohecker & Stuart Candy, Bauhaus Futures (US: The Mit 31 Sigfried Gideion, Mechanization takes command: A
Press, 2019). contribution to anonymous history (New York: Oxford
29 Stockholm: Stockholmsutställningen 1930 (broschure), Svenska University Press, 1948).
Trafikförbundet & Stockholmsutställningen 1930 (Stockholm: 32 Reyner Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age
Centraltryckeriet, 1929). (London: Architectural Press, 1960)

34 35
Chapter 2 Design/History

good design and great designers.33 Design history would need to broaden its studies, the themes of consumption and consumers became incorporated into
understanding of the subject of study, to incorporate designing as understood design history during the 1980s and 1990s, taking into account objects and
from current practice, referring to industrial designer Victor Papanek’s definition environments from the perspective of people’s everyday appropriation of and
of design as “the conscious attempt to impose meaningful order (…) through the encounters with these.38 This also coincided in time with the material turn in
planning and patterning of any act toward a desired foreseeable end”.34 design history, in which methods and theories were adopted from anthropology
The question of how to find definitions of ‘design’ and by consequence also and archaeology, and design outcomes were regarded not only as objects of study
of ‘design history’ have encompassed a variety of approaches and perspectives. for design history but also as source material in its own right and as artefacts
From time to time, discussions have arisen – mainly in the context of debating shaping and influencing aspects of human life.39
the direction and focus of design history – where the topic of debate has revolved Building on material culture studies, and on socio-technically oriented
around whether or not design history should be linked more closely to contexts sociology, the Latourian actor-network theory has also substantially added
of design practice and design education. Advocates of the necessity of more to the design historical toolbox, in working with studies cutting across areas of
collaborative or integrated efforts in bridging historical and design research, as production, consumption and mediation, in which discourses of design as well as
well as bringing history and designing closer together, have been contradicted agencies of objects and people are understood and studied relationally.40 Recent
by those who instead have pushed for the importance of design history’s design historical scholarship has also advocated both locally situated as well as
independence from design practice to develop as a free-standing discipline that global design histories that challenge canonical and hegemonic narratives, not
is still able to contribute to design on its own terms.35 only in terms of geography but also in terms of design as widespread everyday
Traditional design historical narratives have largely continued to be actions carried out by other than ‘design professionals’.41
formed from a Western and global North point of view, and have – in a structural
inheritance from art history – mainly been ordered chronologically and 38 Adrian Forty, Objects of Desire: Design and Society from
thematically around objects, designers, styles and periods. Over time, this way of Wedgwood to IBM (Pantheon: New York, 1986); Maria
approaching design’s history has been increasingly questioned in relation to how Göransdotter, “Smakfostran och heminredning: om estetiska
design history is taught within design education as well as in relation to research diskurser och bildning till bättre boende i Sverige 1930-
practices and perspectives within design history as a discipline.36 Scholarship 1955”, Johan Söderberg & Lars Magnusson (eds.), Kultur och
aiming to expand the history of design in the 1980s and 1990s brought in feminist konsumtion i Norden 1750-1950 (Helsinki: Finska Historiska
and gender theory, with contributions leading to broadening perspectives on Samfundet 1997), 253-274.
historical agency in design, and also to questions of which areas of practice that 39 Judy Attfield, Wild Things: The Material Culture of Everyday
should be included in design.37 With impulses from feminist theory and cultural Life (Berg: Oxford, 2000); Elizabeth Shove, Matthew Watson,
Martin Hand & Jack Ingram, The Design of Everyday Life (Berg:
Oxford & New York, 2007).
33 Clive Dilnot, ‘The State of Design History, Part 2: Problems 40 Grace Lees Maffei, “The Production-Consumption-Mediation
and Possibilities”, Design Issues, 1984:2 (vol.1), 12. Paradigm”, Journal of Design History 2009:4 (vol.22), 351-376;
34 Victor Papanek quoted in Dilnot, ‘The State of Design History, Kjetil Fallan Design History. Understanding Theory and Method
Part 2”, 15. (Oxford: Berg, 2010); Alice Twemlow, Sifting the Trash: A
35 Jonathan M. Woodham, Twentieth Century Design (Oxford: History of Design Criticism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017);
Oxford University Press, 1997); Kjetil Fallan “De-tooling Guy Julier, Anders V Munch, Mads Nygaard Folkmann, Hans-
Design History: To What Purpose and for Whom Do We Christian Jensen & Niels Peter Skou (eds.), Design Culture:
Write?”, Design and Culture, 2013:1 (Vol.5), 13-19. Objects and Approaches (London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts,
36 Victor Margolin, “A decade of design history in the United 2019); Maria Göransdotter, “Ting, tecken, text: Om semiotik
States 1977-87” Journal of Design History 1988:1 (vol.1), 51-72; och smakfostran”, in Brita Brenna & Karen M. Fjeldstad (eds.),
DJ Huppatz & Grace Lees-Maffei, “Why design history? A Kollektive identiteter, ting og betydninger (Oslo: Senter for
multi-national perspective on the state and purpose of the teknologi og menneskelige verdier, 1997), 49-62.
field”, Arts & Humanities in Higher Education 2012:12 (vol.2–3) 41 Victor Margolin, World History of Design, Vols. 1&2.
310–330; Sarah A. Lichtman “Reconsidering the History of (Bloomsbury: London, 2015); Daniel J. Huppatz, “Globalizing
Design Survey”, Journal of Design History, 2009:4 (vol.20), Design History and Global Design History”, Journal of Design
341-350; Jennifer Kaufmann-Buhler, Victoria Rose Pass & History 2015:2 (vol.28) 182–202; Kjetil Fallan and Grace Lees-
Christopher S. Wilson (eds.) Design History Beyond the Canon Maffei, eds., Designing Worlds: National Design Histories in an
(London & New York: Bloomsbury, 2019). Age of Globalization. (New York & London: Berghahn Books,
37 Cheryl Buckley, ‘Made in Patriarchy: Towards a Feminist 2016). Glenn Adamson, Giorgio Riello and Sarah Teasley,
Analysis of Women and Design’, Design Issues, 1986:2; Judy eds., Global Design History. (London: Routledge, 2011); Pat
Attfield, ‘FORM/ female FOLLOWS FUNCTION/male: Kirkham and Susan Weber, eds., History of Design: Decorative
Feminist Critiques of Design’, in John A. Walker, Design History Arts and Material Culture, 1400‒2000. (New Haven, CT and New
and the History of Design (London: Pluto Press, 1989), 199–225. York: Yale University Press and Bard Graduate Center, 2013).

36 37
Chapter 2 Design/History

The complexities involved in changing and envisioning human practices Notably, the tensions and discussions around design history’s relationship to
of sustenance and sustainability are topics also brought to the fore, merging design practice seem to have been productive ones, leading to the formation of not
perspectives from various fields of research with design history and environmental only a discipline of design history44 but also the field of design studies,45 and more
history.42 Many of these stances have also over the latest decades made their way recently also in proposals of design culture,46 as areas of scholarship. Whereas
into design research, such as perspectives and methods adopted from material design history as a free-standing discipline has been described as “the study of
culture studies, gender theory, anthropology, science and technology studies, and designed artefacts, practices and behaviours, and the discourses surrounding
Latourian actor-network theory. However, despite the overlapping adoption of these, in order to understand the past, contextualise the present, and map possible
some methodological and analytical research tools, design research and design trajectories for the future”,47 the domain of design studies is usually situated in
history seem to continue to move more in parallel than to find common ground nearer proximity to current and future design practice and design education.
or points of intersection. Stemming from its emergence out of multidisciplinary attention to theories
and criticisms of design outcomes and practices, design studies is something that
“encompasses issues of product conception and planning, production, form,
Relating history to practice
distribution, and use. It considers these topics in the present as well as the past.
The disconnect between design and history, as manifest in the a-historicity of
Along with products, it also embraces the web of discourse in which production
contemporary design practices as well as in the disconnect between research
and use are embedded.”48 Design culture, in turn, proposes to “go beyond the
practices in design and design history, has occasionally been acknowledged in
classic dispute” between design history and design studies, instead focusing on
design history’s formation as an area of research. Questions of how to expand
design’s contemporary manifestations in a broad understanding of ‘cultures’
and consolidate design history as a field in its own right have intersected with
related to design’s histories, professions, institutions and systems rather than to
issues raised around not only how, but also indeed if, history could be expected
“the individual objects per se that populate them.”49
to contribute somehow to design practice.
Whether more fluidly or precisely defined as disciplines or fields, and
Debates have arisen in relation to expectations of if and how design history
whether labelled ‘design history’, ‘design studies’ or ‘design cultures’, all of these
should be made more instrumental to design practice, and if so, why (or why
in one way or another lay claims to incorporating historical perspectives and
not). One debate often referred to, is the one between ‘design history’ and ‘design
scholarship as significant contributions to understanding design. In many of
studies’, as it played out in the journal Design Issues in the mid-1990s. Design
these approaches, histories of design are still primarily studied in terms of its
historian Victor Margolin put forth the argument that pursuing the development
outcomes as artefacts, around which broader contextualisations and analyses are
of a discipline of design history might not be a viable way to further historical
made. Design, on the other hand, rarely stakes any claims at all to design history
knowledge of more direct relevance to understanding and critically engaging with
as something of relevance to its practices – neither in profession-centred practices
design. He instead advocated the formation of a field of ‘design studies’, in which
of designing nor in the design carried out in practice-oriented design research.
design history should be a part, and that would work from an understanding of
One of the distinguishing features of design is its propositional future-
studying design as a changing practice that invents itself over time, rather than
oriented-ness, as “thought and action for solving problems and imagining new
focusing on categorisable artefacts as the subject of design history:
futures”.50 Perceived as actions directed towards making things, solving problems,
But even looking at design from new vantage points we must still ask ourselves
creating possibilities, and initiating change, design brings things, ideas and
whether we are studying a specific class of things that are stabilised in categories
such as industrially produced objects or whether the subject matter of design is 44 Grace Lees-Maffei & Rebecca Houze (eds) The Design History
really much broader. I think the latter is true. The history of design in the 20th Reader (Bloomsbury: London & New York, 2010).
century shows us that designers, unlike architects, have not worked with a set 45 Penny Sparke & Fiona Fischer (eds.) The Routledge Companion
of principles and rules that have proscribed the scope of their work. Rather they to Design Studies Routledge: New York, 2016); Hazel Clark &
have invented the subject matter of their profession as they have gone along. David Brody (eds.) Design Studies: A Reader (Berg: Oxford &
[---] The momentous changes the world is currently undergoing are forcing us New York, 2009).
to revise our old categories of thought and to pose new questions for research. 46 Guy Julier et al. (eds), Design Culture: Objects and Approaches
Rather than think of design as we once did, we need to reconsider the way we (Bloomsbury: London & New York, 2019); Ben Highmore (ed.)
approach design as a subject for study. I would argue that it is the broad activity The Design Culture Reader (Routledge: New York, 2009).
of designing, with its multifarious results, that can open up a range of new 47 Grace Lees-Maffei & DJ Huppatz, “Why design history? A multi-
important questions about design that have not been coherently posed before national perspective on the state and purpose of the field”, Arts &
and at the same time can enable us to consider new possibilities for practice.43 Humanities in Higher Education 2012:2-3 (vo.12), 311.
48 Margolin, “Design History or Design Studies”, 14.
49 Julier et al., Design Culture, 2.
42 Kjetil Fallan & Finn Arne Jørgensen “Environmental Histories 50 Harold Nelson & Erik Stolterman, series foreword in the
of Design: Towards a New Research Agenda”, Journal of Design Design Thinking, Design Theory MIT Press series, eg. Johan
History 2017:2 (vol.30), 103-121. Redström, Making Design Theory (Cambridge, MA: The MIT
43 Margolin, “Design history or design studies”, 12-13. Press, 2017), xii.

38 39
Chapter 2 Design/History

actions into the world that propose that life could be different than it is at present. educations. On the other, it was also one of criticising and expanding the narratives
This strong grounding in the experiential now, and the outlook towards the of what design was considered to be, formed within this new historical practice.
future, seems – at least in the present day – to be connected to a rather a-historical As design history took form in the 1970s and 1980s, it was initiated from an
understanding of design.51 impetus to propose histories of and historical perspectives on design as part of the
Design history predominantly continues to revolve around investigating curricula aiming to educate future designers. As stated by Clive Dilnot, looking
design in terms of visual and material outcomes – their contexts, the processes back at the early formation of design history in the 1970s, the hopes were that
through which they acquire meaning and hold agency – while emerging design design history “would play a crucial role in shaping the discourse of design.”55 The
practices have shifted focus from product to process. Questions of what a design topics of design history’s – or more generally history’s – role in and relevance for
thing can be, how it comes about through design and through use, and how design practice have since then occasionally been actualised by design historians
collaborative practices of design play out in increasingly open-ended ways have advocating the importance of history in and for design.
come to the fore, especially in the design practices that stem from a participatory, In the 1960s, practices and educations in design expanded in relation to
user-centered tradition.52 the contexts and methods of design. During the 1950s and 1960s, for example,
If design understood as process is not very present in design history, design education at the German school HfG Ulm proposed and promoted an
historical contextualisation and reflection is equally rare in these contemporary approach to design in which processes rather than products would be central to
design practices. Whether in regard to how problems or possibilities are framed or design practice.56 Moving away from the, until that point, basic understanding
in the methods and processes with which designing is done, history appears to be that industrial design should take its starting point in issues of how to give form
a non-issue. Similarly, in design history traditions that work with design as objects to objects for mass production in terms of relationships between aesthetics and
and with socio-cultural contexts of the consumption, use, and mediation of these, technology, the Ulm approach increasingly emphasised design as an analytical
histories that relate to the actual contemporary – and historical – practices of activity for addressing problems and solutions on more systemic levels. Design
designing are all but invisible.53 for the situations that contemporary society and industry stood before could not
Victor Margolin already noted this in the mid-nineties, describing design be resolved only according to principles of artistic form-giving by an individual
history as not having a successful engagement with aspects of current design designer, but were in need of being addressed in team-based and multidisciplinary
practice in terms of “new technologies, innovative collaborative efforts among formats where designers would have the role of ‘integrator’ or ‘coordinator’ rather
design professionals, a concern with the impact of complex products on users and than merely ‘form-giver’.57
the relations between the design of material objects and immaterial processes”.54 The focus on developing new methods and processes for designing were
If design since the mid-20th century increasingly has become disconnected from a made in relation to the levels of scale and complexity of situations that design had
sense of historical context, design history equally appears to have disengaged from moved into. Designing on systemic levels entailed addressing situations that were
many of the issues pertinent to design as practiced in its contemporary setting. not easily defined or restricted to identifiable problem-solution-relationships,
and that could no longer be resolved by the industrial design methods that had
developed during the first half of the 20th century.
Developing design methods
As John Chris Jones, one of the forerunners of the design methods movement
Discussions on the relationship between design practice and design history have,
in the early 1960s, stated in his 1970 publication Design Methods, the “world-wide
in various degrees of intensity, been present since the emergence of design history
dissatisfaction with traditional procedures” in design required a collective seeking of
as a field of academic study in the 1970s. The formation of a specific field of study
new methods, borrowed from other disciplines as well as developed within design,
called ‘design history’ was, in a sense, a double reaction to something already
as well as “new procedures, (…) new aims and a different level of achievement.”58
existing that was deemed not sufficiently fulfilling the needs of knowledge in and
As areas of knowledge and research from the sciences and social sciences such as
of design. On the one hand, proposals for a new design history was a reaction
psychology, sociology, mathematics, semiotics and economics were incorporated
against an art historical canon and curriculum taught in the context of design
into design, questions were raised and proposals made as to how to develop design
methods and practices for handling the new situations in which design was called
51 Clive Dilnot “History, Design, Futures: Contending with what upon, and the changing knowledge and skills needed in design.
we have made” in Tony Fry, Clive Dilnot & Susan C. Stewart
Design and the Question of History (Bloomsbury: London &
New York, 2015), 149f.
52 A. Telier [Thomas Binder, Giorgio De Michelis, Pelle Ehn, 55 Clive Dilnot, “Some Futures for Design History?”, Journal of
Guilio Jacucci, Per Linde, and Ina Wagner], Design Things Design History 2009:4 (vol. 22), 387.
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2011); Leslie Atzmon & Prasad 56 Herbert Lindinger, Ulm Design: The Morality of Objects
Boradkar (eds.), Encountering Things: Design and Theories of (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1991).
Things (London & Oxford: Bloomsbury, 2017). 57 Tomás Maldonado, Design industriale: Un riesame (Feltrinelli, 2008).
53 Dilnot “History, Design, Futures”, 151. 58 John Chris Jones, Design Methods (1970/1981), 2nd edition
54 Margolin, “Design History or Design Studies”, 20. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992), xviii.

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Chapter 2 Design/History

People such as John Chris Jones emphasised that the development of new design historians also began searching for other ways of doing history than what
methods for designing aimed at finding ways to incorporate intuitive and artistic had arisen out of art history traditions. Depending on the subject of the design
designerly practices and systematic and describable methods in a design process curriculum, these design histories would be directed towards material-based or
that would aim for something beyond the idea of solving specific problems: subject-related histories, economic and production-focused history, or leaning
towards socio-cultural history.63 However, in similarity to traditions in art history,
To think of designing as ‘problem-solving’ is to use a rather dead metaphor for the early canons of design history also strongly emphasised aspects of judgment
a lively process and to forget that design is not so much a matter of adjusting the and appreciation, in distinguishing between objects of excellence or importance
status quo as of realising new possibilities and discovering our reactions to them. and attributing these to the work of extraordinary individuals.
To make or invent something new is to change not only one’s surroundings but By the early 1980s, the focus in design historical narratives centred on
to change oneself and the way one perceives: it is to change reality a little.59
distinguishing ‘good’ or ‘important’ design from design of lesser importance,
as well as the focus on individual designers, came to be both questioned and
However, the strong emphasis on planning, analysis, science and systems that later
challenged from different perspectives. While design history by then had started
emerged as one strand from the design methods movement proposed that design
to take form as a discipline of its own – albeit with fluid and contested definitions
could be approached and established in terms of a rational, scientific activity. The
of boundaries as well as of subject matter and methods – the distance between
still widely cited definition of designing given by Herbert Simon – “[e]veryone
design history and design practices (designing, design research and design
designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into
education) remained. This paradoxical situation of distance between design
preferred ones” – stems from his work aiming to formulate a science of design
history and designing is all the more interesting to note, since design history’s
based on rational principles for decision-making in relation problem-solving.60
academic beginnings had its impetus from within design education and the
Another aspect of the design methods movement, was the emphasis on
perceived needs of integrating history into design and designing.
the plurality of possibilities in designing that needed to be addressed through
the development of new methods. John Chris Jones, distancing himself from
the design methods movement that he perceived had turned too far towards The relevance of history
searching to stabilise ideas and practices of rational design methodology rather A recurring argument in favour of the importance of history in relation to design
than continuous developments of ways to design collaboratively in complex practice often brought forth by design historians, is that design history would
situations for new ways of living, stated: support a specific critical understanding of the objects of design and the situations
in which these have come about and come into use. Design history would, from
If, as I think now, the main purpose of ’the design process’ is collective learning, this perspective, allow learning from the past to understand the present, and
the deliberate seeking of new ways of living, then we must expect to make in order to impact the future. This is usually linked to examples given of how
changes in our processes and procedures.61 incorporating historical courses and perspectives in studio-based design curricula
would contribute to the design student’s individual situated understanding of their
As design research evolved out of the design methods movement, and while place in design history, which in turn would inform their future design practice.
design education changed, especially in the more technologically oriented design The methods applied in providing these historical critical perspectives for
curricula in polytechnic settings veering towards finding systematic and rational design students are often based in exposing students to design historical research
methods of a design science, or aiming more to address processual complexities methods, such as analysing historical texts and objects, in order for them to better
of “wicked problems” through design, the shared idea was that design needed to appreciate their own place in a historical trajectory of producing design outcomes.
develop new methods for designing, and new understandings of the situations For example, as expressed in a recent publication on design history in the US
and contexts of design.62 educational context:
It was in parallel – if not in actual direct relation – to these aims to develop
methods, knowledge, forms and frameworks for a different way of designing, and Engaging students in more active forms of analysis, particularly using diverse
the changes that this entailed for design education, practice and research, that primary sources and objects gives them the tools they need to craft their own
understanding for design history. And find their place within it.64

59 John Chris Jones, “1980 edition: a review of new topics” in

Jones, Design Methods (1970/1981), 2nd edition (New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992), xxix.
60 Herbert Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (1968), 3rd edition.
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996): 111. See also D.J. Huppatz,
“Revisiting Herbert Simon’s ‘Science of Design’”, Design Issues 63 Gooding, Design history in Britain from the 1970s to 2012, 75f.
2015:2 (vol.31), 29–40. 64 Jennifer Kaufmann-Buhler, Victoria Rose Pass & Christopher
61 Jones, “1980 edition: a review of new topics”, xxvii. S. Wilson (eds.), Design History Beyond the Canon
62 Jones, Design Methods, 27-44. (Bloomsbury: London & New York, 2019), 3-4.

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Chapter 2 Design/History

A similar view, not uncommon as a starting point for including design history Despite its claims of importance to influence the practice of designing,
in a design school curriculum, could be further exemplified by Swedish design specifically through influence in design education, design history is framed largely
historian Lasse Brunnström: as a retrospective area. Through looking ‘back’ in history, we can contextualise the
present and avoid repeating mistakes or repeating what has already been done
It is in my opinion important for prospective designers to train themselves to before in terms of form-giving. Design history, it appears, does not make much
take a historical-critical approach. A new design is ultimately a small step in a of an impact neither on design practice nor on design research, despite its claims
larger context. Studies of older design solutions often yield ideas, demonstrate to provide critical perspectives or approaches that would be relevant to design.
exemplary role models or by contrast, reveal approaches to distance oneself In regard to design history’s relevance to design, Clive Dilnot has consistently
from. Outdated technology, unsuitable material or another age’s aesthetic
argued that contemporary practices of and conditions for design would require
principles may have formed a temporary dead end. Ensuring that one has
critically evaluated previous design efforts becomes, in other words, part of the
a different type of history than what design history has generated so far, since
quality assurance in the design process.65 the “historical frameworks developed in the 1970s and 1980s (…) are simply no
longer adequate, as history, to comprehending the past from the standpoint of
Affirmations such as these of the importance of design history for a critical today’s present.”69 Additionally, Victor Margolin, as we saw earlier, has pointed
contextualisation of current design practice are quite common, whether the topic out that design history/design studies would need to take more account of design
revolves around the need for historical perspectives in design education or a as a contemporary and changing practice. Similarly, Tony Fry has emphatically
broader take on the ways that knowledge of design history would be relevant to proposed that history in relation to design should be approached as fundamental
design practitioners. To a substantial extent, though, design historical perspectives for addressing issues of futuring or de-futuring, as history conditions what is
in design curricula have built on narratives and approaches perpetuating a possible or not to act upon from the present.70
Pevsnerian approach to design history as the history of objects and styles. In this Many design historians have pointed to the relevance of design history
way of narrating the history of design, the central elements of study remain objects, for design as a means of critically questioning and contextualising design as a
their designers, and their form and aesthetics qualities. Since Pevsner’s accounts, social activity, as well as its outcomes – while the actual ways in which design
discussions have arisen on which objects, or who to consider as a designer, or how history could be incorporated in design practice or design research remain
to understand or appreciate formal and aesthetic aspects of things, especially from unarticulated. As Sarah Teasley notes in her study of design history’s relationship
perspectives questioning the narratives and ideals of modernism.66 to design research, there were statements on the part of early design research
as to the importance of including historical aspects in design research as well
as in methodologies of designing. However, much of the writing regarding the
In two oft-referenced articles from the mid-1980s, Clive Dilnot pointed out that
connections between design research and design history refers to the lack of
there was “little explicit consideration of aims, methods, or roles of Design History
communication between these fields.71
in relation to its actual or potential audiences” in design practice.67 If we were to
There are examples of design researchers situating design history in the realm
turn to design practice today – whether in professional or academic contexts – and
of design research, and even noting history as potentially contributing to design
ask for how history might be part of the processes of designing, chances are quite
research methods. For example, this was the case when Bruce Archer, then RCA
slim that any historical methods or considerations would be an obvious part of the
professor in design research, in the late 1970s and early 1980s pointed to design
designer’s tool box. Design history may be used to commemorate and highlight
history methods as a relevant part of design research in terms of socio-cultural
design practices in the contexts of jubilees of educations or design consultancies,68
as well as cognitive understanding and contextualisation of design.72 However,
but rarely – if ever – would it be an integrated part of the process of designing.
despite this early acknowledgement of the affinity, or at least connections,
between design history and research into design practice, neither field has made
any substantial attempts to actually bringing history and practice together.
While proponents of design history continue to point to the contributions
65 Lasse Brunnström, Swedish Design. A History (Bloomsbury:
that it could make to design, the levels of enthusiasm demonstrated from the field
London, 2019), xxiii.
66 Jan Michl, “Taking Down the Bauhaus Wall: Towards Living of design practice seem low, to say the least. This mutual disinterest, Clive Dilnot
Design History as a Tool for Better Design”, The Design Journal has argued, is due to that “in the vast majority of design research the capabilities
2014:3 (vol.17), 445-453. of design are understood essentially ahistorically” while “the cavalier disregard for
67 Clive Dilnot, “The State of Design History, part I: Mapping the
Field”, Design Issues 1984:1, 4-23. 69 Dilnot, “Some Futures for Design History?”, 384.
68 Norbert Andersson, Designed in Umeå: Industrial design at 70 Tony Fry, Design Futuring: Sustainability, Ethics and New
the Umeå Institute of Design, Sweden (Stockholm: Infobooks, Practice (Oxford: Berg, 2009).
2009); Susanne Pagold, Function rules: A Swedish approach 71 Sarah Teasley, “Methods of Reasoning and Imagination”, in
to design glamour (Stockholm: Arvinius, 2006); Kerstin eds. Michael J Kelly & Arthur Rose, Theories of History: History
Wickman, A&E Design: The Book (Bromma: Business History Read Across the Humanities (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), 191.
Publishing, 2018). 72 Teasley, “Methods of Reasoning and Imagination”, 191.

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Chapter 2 Design/History

how design is constituted and formed within historical circumstance by design Design is about bringing forth propositions of how things could be otherwise, based
has its echo in the double disdain for the relation to practice and for thinking on potential and possibility in the present directed towards future conditions.
design analytically manifest by design history.”73 History is similarly about bringing forth proposals of what was, based on possibilities
However, if we believe that there is something of relevance that history might of understandings of that which has been in relation to what is. In this sense, design
bring to designing – what would that something need to be, for it to resonate with and history are both centered around potentiality and possibility, proposed through
design practice?74 Were we to attempt to bridge the gap between design history the making of things, whether ‘histories’ or ‘designs’. While in a linear understanding
and design practice (including practice-oriented design research) through moving of time, design typically takes off towards a future trajectory, history moves towards
design history and design practice closer to each other – what would that move be a past. Both history and design begin with the starting points and perspectives in
like? From which starting points could histories of design then be made? Before the ‘here and now’, in ideas of what is relevant to us in the present. However, just
coming back to these questions, let us first take a moment to consider history and as ‘design’ is not the same as ‘the future’, ‘the past’ and ‘history’ are not the same
how it relates to pasts, futures, and to the present. – despite the fact that we in everyday language (and sometimes also in academic-
speak) use these latter terms as if they were more or less equivalent to each other.

Design pasts, presents, and futures The past consists of that which has been: people, things, events, actions, thoughts,
experiences and environments that have taken place, appeared and disappeared
How we form and take part of histories of design will impact our understanding of in time. We can, of course, never grasp the past in its entirety, nor can we revisit it
what is perceived as important in and for design. How design and designing have or render a comprehensive account of all that it has been. We can only use what is
been defined is what also defines how histories of design are constructed. Design available to us as traces and mediations of the past to create our understandings of it.
and history are, in this sense, mutually constitutive. What we today understand In order to attempt to at least grasp some aspects of the past, to account for and analyse
as ‘design’ is a historically contingent construct, that has been shaped over time events, actions and implications of these of relevance to us today, we have ‘history’.
through different practices having to do with what has been identified as ‘design’ History is always a particular and partial story told of the past, from a certain
and ‘designing’, and the stories told about this. What design is perceived to be, perspective and a specific intent in the present. The past is what it is, and the events
and how and why design is done, is formed by the past conditions in and through that took place can never be fully appreciated or thoroughly made transparent to us.
which it has come about. However, what we can make transparent in our histories at least to some degree, is
Depending on what is identified as incorporated in ‘design’, the stories will what we choose to go in search of, and how we account for the why and how we choose
vary when we account for how this particular ‘design’ came about and what that that particular perspective of the past for making history. The meanings assigned to
might mean to us today. Furthermore, through what is regarded as important the aspects and events chosen to make present – or not – are contingent to the contexts
in present-day designing, certain historical phenomena are actualised as the in and methods with which we make history. Debating and probing which topics,
trajectories leading to these practices, thereby establishing design histories also interpretations, and contextualisations of the past are relevant to whom, and why, in
through how designing is done. The outlook on design and its capabilities is regard to the present is also a central way in which history is made.
thus formed by the intertwining of histories and practices of design that result in Histories of the past will always entail leaving out more than what can be
proposals and outcomes and that all shape the possible trajectories for the design brought in. Many things, many events, and many people will always be missing.
futures we can envision. In his 1970s book on design methods, John Chris Jones Much of historiographical criticism and debate revolves around these types of
pointed to the intrinsic entanglements of past, present and futures in design: issues, and have led to both methodological and theoretical developments that
have quite radically changed perspectives on and in history through contestation,
A great many people will have to lower their belief in the stability of the present critique and negotiations. Marxist history with class perspectives and social
before it becomes socially feasible to plan on the basis of what will be possible history in the Annales tradition opened up perspectives and methods on how to
in the future rather than on the basis of what was possible in the recent past. write history “from below”, bringing in new methods and types of source materials.
The new idea that has to be grasped here is that the details of how the present Feminist, gender and postcolonial theory brought critical perspectives on power
population has adapted to what exists are of little account – the important
and representation that brought more than merely “complementary” stories to
thing is to identify the ease or difficulty with which a future population can be
expected to break through the thresholds between the way things are now and
mainstream histories.76 These perspectives fundamentally challenge not only
each of several different ways in which things could be reorganised.75 how histories are told but also periodisation in and perspectives on history as a
discipline, and why histories are told in certain ways.
76 Joan W. Scott, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical
Analysis”, The American Historical Review 1986:5 (vol. 91),
73 Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures”, 151. 1053-1075; Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the subaltern
74 Victor Margolin, “Design in History”, Design Issues 2009:2 speak?” [1985], in Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason:
(vol.25), 94–105. Toward a History of the Vanishing Present (Cambridge, Mass:
75 Jones, Design Methods, 33. Harvard University Press, 1999).

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Chapter 2 Design/History

History is to a substantial degree made through these ‘historical frictions’, from archaeological findings of stone tools and hearths to the contemporary
where different narratives and interpretations are contested not only among skyrises and congestions of global megacities manifest and embody diverse social,
historians but also in broader contexts as history is called upon to support or technological and cultural practices of humanity that are present to us now, and
contradict, empower or disarm.77 In this sense, we cannot easily define or explain that we not only use to make history but that rather materially form and impact
what history is in itself, especially considering that the quotidian use of “history” the world in which we currently find ourselves.
often confuses it as synonymous with “the past”. However, history is not the same as How we arrange our everyday lives materially and through practices
the past; it is only the parts of the past that we somehow choose to pay attention to. founded in culture, religion or science that shape how we relate to each other
and the world around us, are equally bearers of different histories actualised
History is continuously made in the ways it is manifest, performed and used, in the ways we behave and think. In the intertwined actuality of our material
through language as well as through other practices and mediations: The roads and behavioural everyday lives, design and history come together. The things –
we travel, the houses we live in, the books we read and the films we watch, the physical or immaterial – brought into the world with an intent to shape something
things we encounter in stores and museums, the work we do and the educations new, something different than before, are in a broad sense all manifestations of
we get (or that are not available to us to get), and the traditions and ways of living design that have come about in specific contexts, and that we in many cases still
that are part of our communities.78 live with today. History is, in this sense, very much an inescapable aspect of and
We will always see different things, find perspectives that open up to new condition for the present.
‘facts’ or phenomena, and that will resonate – or not – with what we define as that
which we need to search for in the past in order to make sense of the present and When we form histories, we always do so from where we experience ourselves to be
the future. Similar to design, then, history is something that is formed and made situated in the present. But where does the present start, and where does it end? If
in practice and through use. We make history through our practices, the way we we attempt to talk about the present as now, the time it takes for us to write, speak, or
bring things to the fore, the way our considerations today inform what we regard as think now will inevitably have passed into a then by the time it is done. Being in the
important to highlight in the past. History is in this sense never given, but always present is ever a becoming, and never a single stable or static position in time. From
fluid and in many aspects speculative. such a point of view, we are always heading somewhere, from somewhere – and the
In academic contexts, history is mainly made through the practices, methods potential trajectories of that movement connects the past and the future through the
and narratives associated with historical research in disciplines or fields within or ever-shifting understandings of what the present might be.
close to the humanities and social sciences. The history made in these contexts is Who ‘we’ perceive ourselves to be, as the collective ‘we’ that history is made in
often referred to as something that is ‘written’ or ‘told’. Undoubtedly, language is respect to is a deceptively inclusive thing. In the idea of ‘we’, used to form a common
not only one of the fundamental forms of mediation used in history, as the written ground for establishing that there are shared experiences and commonalities that
material that historical research largely relies upon as carriers of ‘primary sources’ link us together in our understanding of the world we inhabit and of the things that
for accessing different aspects of the past. Language is also the mediating matter are important to us. Nevertheless, a ‘we’ – used as I have used it frequently so far in
itself from which histories are made, as given in forms that allow us to access and this text – presupposes that there also are others that are significantly different to ‘us’
relate to parts of the past in the present, in written historical accounts such as and thus not included in our ‘we. Consequently, at any time, in any situation, there
books and articles, and narrated orally in stories, lectures, films and the like. So is a multitude of possible constellations of who ‘we’ are, of who is excluded and who
yes, we do both tell stories and write histories, and that is a very substantial way included, that forms both the situations and the perspectives from which we define
that history is made. what the present is to us, and what is regarded as important. The now in which we
History is also made in and through other materials, tangible and intangible. find ourselves can, from this perspective, never be anything but historical and highly
There is, of course, an abundance of visual material used in history publications as situational, as are ‘we’. In the words of historian Reinhart Koselleck:
illustrations, and in fields such as art and design history visuals constitute much of
the central material used as the subject of study. With the visual turn, and similarly all temporal dimensions are always intertwined, and it would contradict
the material turn of the 1990s, visual and material things and practices also gained experience to define the ‘present’ as, for instance, one of those moments that
prominence in broader fields of historical and social studies.79 In the construction accumulate from the past into the future – or, conversely, that slip as intangible
of history, then, the very concrete material manifestations of human settlements, points of transient from the future into the past. In a purely rhetorical manner,
all history could be defined as a permanent present in which past and future are
77 Leslie Witz & Ciraj Rassool, “Making histories”, Kronos: contained – or as the continuous intertwining of past and future that makes any
Southern African Histories 2008:34, 12. present constantly disappear.80
78 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (1953),
revised 4th edition (Blackwell: Oxford, 2009), 6e.
79 Margarita Dikovitskaya, Visual culture: The study of the visual
after the cultural turn (Cambridge,MA: MIT Press, 2015); Anne 80 Reinhart Koselleck, The Practice of Conceptual History. Timing
Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello, Writing material culture history History, Spacing Concepts (Stanford CA: Stanford University
(London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015). Press, 2002), 30.

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Chapter 2 Design/History

The futures that are open to us to imagine and to aim for are conditioned, and as design, such as things or practices; that which could have been but was not
in many aspects also limited, by the past. What has been done or not in the past, actualised; and what remains to be actualised as social practices in design, history
cannot often be undone or changed in the present – and will, therefore, set the is something that not only contributes to understanding design but that in itself is
direction for what we see as plausible or possible futures. However, what emerges of and in design.84 As the relationships and boundaries between what we perceive
in terms of possibilities in respect to futures is not only conditioned by what is as relevant to us in our pasts, presents and futures shift with our changing notions
done or not, but by what is possible for us to discern: to see, think, or even imagine of what design can be, our histories and how we approach them will need to
in terms of potential trajectories. This is how history and future are intrinsically change as well. History, Dilnot suggests, might then be regarded as prospective
entangled: the futures we can envision are dependent upon our understanding rather than retrospective as “the subject matter of design history is the capacity of
of and in the present, the limits of which are construed through the past and design as we see it historically from the point of view of our endangered present.”85
conveyed through histories.
If we want to find ways of seeing other potential futures, different from the ones A different type of history, then, does not only become an alternative story told
we appear to be heading towards, we would have to make different histories than about events past, but supports the opening up of spaces of action in the present –
the ones readily available to us. Furthermore, in order to make alternative histories the “most futile and slippery of the tenses”86 – through addressing the temporality
that could support seeing other futures, the present understandings of who ‘we’ are, and the historicity of the ‘now’ in designing. Transitional design histories would
in relation to where our ‘now’ is located, and what then is important to look for in in this sense, I propose, be actively engaged in the re-making of the present as
the past, will have to be a matter of repeated questioning and continuous change. well as re-orienting the potential envisioning of meaningful futures, by means of
Following Heidegger, who stated that design and history are both “inescapable presenting the past in design. Such design histories would be directed towards
for the future” and thus should be of mutual interest to one another,81 Tony Fry and making histories in which entangled pasts, presents and futures could be
Clive Dilnot have both pointed to history’s relevance to design, and design’s to perceived differently, rather than with making ‘History’ that in a causal and linear
history, in the making of futures of resilience and sustainment: perception of temporality would highlight events or products as milestones in a
view of design-as-progress.87
We cannot think where we are, we cannot think the transformations that have
This brings us back to the questions around the positionings and the narratives
led us here, we cannot think futurally within frames of thought and practice that
of design’s histories. If we wish to make design histories that are prospective and
eclipse time, if we continue to try to think design only within the corpus and
limits of the present.82 propositional, that could contribute to designing through making a difference
in relation to the things we think with, as well as retrospective in the sense of
Be it in the material aspects of our world, or in the cultural expressions that shape contributing to histories of design – the stories we use to tell other stories with –
our ways of being with each other, or the scientific, religious, or other world views then from where and with what perspective would one start making such histories?
that set the frameworks for what is possible for us to think and imagine in terms Design is not singular as a practice, and methods and processes of designing
of how we understand ourselves and our world – these are all the outcomes of are diverse and varied depending on the field of design and the specific situation
historical processes and constructs. History thus conditions our understandings of design engages with. Therefore, to experiment with how design histories could
and actions in the present, which in turn is only a sequence of transitional ‘nows’ activate foundational concepts in design, more precision is needed to narrow
that, to speak with Hanna Arendt, are “no more than the clash of a past, which is down which types of designing, and which key ideas, to explore in making
no more, with a future, which is approaching and not yet there”.83 What has come transitional design histories. I have chosen to position a design historical outlook
before us, what has been made and unmade, what has been rendered possible in practices that are central to design research practices, established in commercial
and impossible, are all results of previous actions or non-actions, that thoroughly industrial design work, and taught in many contemporary design educations;
affect what could become of, and in, the present and in the future. the sort of design doing that is defined as user-centered and participatory. These
If we, with Clive Dilnot, see the realm of design as composed of (at least) three practices are based in codesigning, through developing design methods and tools
‘things’: that which was and has been actualised as something we understand supporting designers’ and non-designers’ collaborative work. In the next chapter, I
further outline a proposal for how to go about making transitional design histories
– histories for design – with examples pertaining to certain core methods and
81 “Design and history are, each in its own way, inescapable concepts in Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design.
for the future. The two, however, are also insufficient for the
future so long as each busies itself with its own affairs in
separation instead of listening to one another. They are able 84 Dilnot, “Some Futures for Design History?”, 378.
to listen if both – design and history – belong to the future” 85 Dilnot, “Some Futures for Design History?”, 393.
Heidegger quoted in Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures: 86 Arendt, The Life of the Mind. One/Thinking, 205.
Contending with what we have made”, 136. 87 Virginia Tassinari, “The Wunderkammer of the Future:
82 Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures”, 162. Philosophical Notes on the Idea of History in Speculative Design
83 Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind. One/Thinking, [1971] Practices”, z33Research, https://z33research.be/2018/04/virginia-
(Harcourt: San Diego, New York, London, 1981), 205. tassinari (published 2018-04-13, accessed 2020-05-25).

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

3. Methodologies
and positioning
In making design histories for design, what could be relevant as methodological
frameworks, positioning, perspectives, and materials? In this chapter, I outline
how transitional design histories can be made by combining methods from the
fields of programmatic design research and historical research. I further propose
that we can investigate how to make histories that take an outlook from designing
by means of exploratory examples, through prototyping how these might be built
and how they might work.
Before engaging with making prototypes of transitional design histories –
which are presented in chapters four, five and six – I discuss the materials and
methods applied in this process. Since the prototypes are proposals of design
histories positioned in relation to designing in a tradition of Scandinavian
user-centered and participatory design, I begin with giving a brief account of
how histories of participatory and user-centered design practices so far have
been handled in Swedish design historical publications. Following that, I give a
brief account of how histories of these design approaches are usually narrated
internally within the field of design practice and research. Besides framing
and contextualising the historical prototypes, these introductory examples of
historical narratives also intend to make visible the current disconnect between
design history and design practice. Following this, I sketch the overall frameworks
and aims of user-centered and participatory design, highlighting methods and
concepts central to these practices. The prototyping of transitional design histories
that follows in the subsequent three chapters, then, revolves around three of these
core concepts.

Methodologies combined
In the first chapter of this thesis, I proposed that approaches from programmatic
design research could be used to bring design history closer to that of design
practice, to make histories that could activate an awareness of design’s historicity.
In the following, I will further introduce these methodological considerations,
first from the perspective of programmatic design research, and then from
the perspective of historical research methodology. The combining of these
methodologies forms the framework for how I then propose that transitional
design histories can be prototyped.

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

A programmatic design research approach These design histories are not meant to serve as genealogies of design methods
In design research where design practices are an integral part of research or concepts. Instead, transitional design histories make propositions that open for
processes, the notion of programmatic design research provides a framework for questions in a sort of double loop: taking a position from which to ask ‘what sort
experimenting with what design could be, and what designing could become.1 of history can be made from this outlook in design?’, the history that is made from
Through setting up a program that forms a provisional framework of “a diverse set that point of view is a propositional answer to the question. In turn, this gives rise to
of inherently unstable and transitional world views”,2 explorations can be made another question: ‘what could designing become, if this were its history? This does
of how design can be done and what its outcomes can be. These explorations can not mean, however, that making these types of histories would draw on some sort of
take different forms, as can the questions asked, depending on what the program radical relativism, in which one could think that almost anything would be possible
was set up to investigate. Whether aiming to probe what design practices would to propose as a relevant history of and for design.4 On the contrary, transitional
be possible or what a particular practice could lead to in terms of products or design histories engage with the ideas, concepts, and methods that are so firmly
outcomes, the making of examples and prototypes through design is central to established in designing that they seem almost ‘natural’ or ‘given’, forming the very
this type of research investigation. Depending on what emerges in the exploratory foundations that design builds on.
examples when different ways of designing are prototyped, both program
and subsequent explorations will begin to change. In the design work and Making histories of concepts central to the foundations of and practices in
situations where examples are made – whether these are prototypes, methods, design, the intent is not to attempt to define or follow terminologies related to
or theories – new questions will emerge. These can then be explored further in specific ideas or practices. Though tracing core concepts of design etymologically
relation to the program’s frameworks and provisional world view. In sequential and semantically would most certainly also provide perspectives that expand
experimental moves, the limits and structures of the program can be probed, until understandings of design thinking and doing, exploring how and when these
the provisional framework set by the program can no longer support the ways have entered into the language and practices of design, this approach does not
of designing that the program set out to make possible, and new programs need build on that sort of conceptual history.5 Instead, transitional design histories
to be formulated to address changes in the contexts and practices of designing. aim to explore how concepts central to design can work to support processes of
The proposal of making transitional design histories builds on this programmatic change and fluidity, as well as how these contribute to the fossilising or stabilising
approach to design research.3 of particular understandings of design.
Transitional design histories are made as propositional and exploratory Through making histories that take a perspective positioned in conceptual
examples that aim to shift outlooks on designing in order to support design’s ability foundations of designing – the ideas, rather than the words (albeit they do often
to respond to increasingly complex and connected present and future challenges. coincide) – these studies explore and investigate the contexts and preconditions
Through making such examples, or experiments, other questions and perspectives in which different concepts came to emerge, and how they have been acted out
will be brought forth within the program, changing the outlooks for further and put to use, as well as imbued with meaning, over time.6 To clarify: this is not a
explorations of design histories, from other positions. In a continuous movement,
each new position will provide new outlooks and new questions – and new histories.
4 Just to be clear: this is neither a project aiming towards
total historical relativity, nor towards making some kind of
counterfactual or alternate design history. While these latter
methodological approaches are also aimed towards linking
future and past narratives through ‘what if’-questions, the
1 Laurene Vaughan (ed.), Practice Based Design Research (New aim here is not to consider what might have happened in
York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017); Gesche Joost, Katharina the present or the future if historical events had played
Bredies, Michelle Christensen, Florian Conradi & Andreas out differently, but what the understandings of ‘present’
Unteidig (eds.) Design as Research: Positions, Arguments, and ‘future’ might become if past events and contexts
Perspectives (Basel: Birkhäuse, 2016); Jonas Löwgren, Henrik are actualised in design historical narrative as making a
Svarrer Larsen & Mads Hobye, “Towards programmatic design conceptual framework for designing. Cf. Kathleen Singles,
research”, Designs for Learning 2013:1-2 (vol.6), 80–101; Ilpo Alternate History: Playing with Contingency and Necessity
Koskinen et al., Design Research Through Practice: From the (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013); Richard J. Evans, Altered Pasts:
Lab, Field, and Showroom (Waltham, MA: Morgan Kaufmann, Counterfactuals in History (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University
2011); Thomas Binder & Johan Redström, “Exemplary Press/Historical Society of Israel, 2013).
design research”, Design Research Society Conference, Lisbon, 5 Reinhart Koselleck & Todd Samuel Presner, The Practice
November 2006. of Conceptual History: Timing History, Spacing Concepts
2 Johan Redström, Making Design Theory (Cambridge, MA: The (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002).
MIT Press, 2017), 95. 6 Reinhard Koselleck, “Modernity and the planes of historicity”, in
3 “Chapter 3 Research Programs” in Ilpo Koskinen et al., Design Reinhard Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical
Research Through Practice, 39-50. Time (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 9-25.

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

matter of extrapolating recent ideas ‘back in time’,7 or to retrospectively construe fragmented, and often personal. Additionally, such accounts are often framed
historical situations into things that fit with contemporary understandings of in relation to the fact that many of the persons conveying these histories are still
design.8 Instead, the ambition is to illuminate some of the ideas that come together active designers or design researchers. Their referencing of history often intends
in these concepts, and the historical layering of uses and practices that make up to strengthen a certain perspective in their current practice, rather than primarily
their meanings in various ways. aiming to give a historical account as such. Piecing together design histories that
The historical narratives that emerge out of perspectives positioned in begin with issues in current practices, requires some attention both as to how
contemporary designing should not be understood as a step towards a finished perspectives are set and to the materials from which histories can be made.
product (this is what the history of designing is) but as suggestions made to elicit
questions, reactions and responses (what could designing be if this were a history Methods and materials for making histories
of design). Therefore, this way of making histories as examples in relation to a There is not only one way of making design histories – nor should there be. Since a
programmatic design research approach has more in common with prototyping historical account is always only a history in relation to something, and not the history
than with the production of a final thing. of something, we need many different ways of making design histories that bring
In practice-oriented design research, prototypes and processes of prototyping different formats, methods, materials and perspectives on design in the broadest
hold a central position as a means for representing design ideas and propositions.9 sense. However, there are certain methodological basics that historical disciplines
A prototype is something that is not meant to be completed and finalised, but share, design history included, which have to do with the crafting of histories in terms
something that in itself is transitional: it points to that something else will follow. In of materials and methods, as well as practices of interpretation and mediation.10
design, prototypes can be made in various degrees of refinement in different stages Taking a programmatic design research approach and introducing prototyping
of a design process, to test, explain, or explore design ideas or directions, but also to as one way to explore making design histories, these prototypes need to be made out
provoke reactions, or enable actions. Prototypes can be everything from very rough of some sort of materials, with some types of methods, that still make them relevant
and simple representations of an idea, in simple materials, to functional prototypes as histories. And – of course – they also need to be made from somewhere – in terms
in a high degree of refinement and detail, elaborated to be very similar to ‘the real of perspective – that supports the aim of exploring the research program in relation
thing’. Prototyping most often entails an iterative process, making various prototypes of to some sort of more specific context. As mentioned earlier, and as will be further
increasing degrees of refinement or complexity for different purposes along the way. expanded on later in this chapter, the prototypes that will follow after this chapter
Making prototypes of design histories seeks to probe two things: On the one have all been situated in relation to practices in the tradition of Scandinavian user-
hand, these prototypes try out a way of shifting perspectives on how to go about centered and participatory design.
making design histories that take a starting point in designing to explore how the Crafting prototypical design histories of Scandinavian user-centered design, in
design histories that emerge might differ from established design history. On the a Swedish 20th-century context, the methods and materials used are those commonly
other, these prototypes aim to investigate contemporary concepts and challenges associated with methodologies of making history, as initially formulated in the mid-
in doing designing, through activating a historical awareness that could contribute 19th century.11 In historiography, materials used in research are usually referred to as
to making a difference for transitioning towards sustainable futures through design. ‘sources’ and usually categorised as ‘primary’ or ‘secondary’ sources. A secondary
In moving the outlook of design history closer to that of contemporary source is somehow mediated, such as an account of an event by someone who was
designing, one methodological issue is the discrepancy between what has been not present when it actually happened or consists of previous research made into the
passed down as histories within design practices and what has been made relevant field of study. A primary source is some sort of material understood as being ‘directly’
and disseminated as design’s history through design historical publications and connected to the event, period, or entity it refers to. Text-based primary sources can
representations. Stories of the (recent) past from within designing tend to be briefly be meeting minutes, diaries, lists of inventories, letters, and publications of different
referenced in design research publications, and shared orally in public talks, or sorts, and are often – but, again, not always – stored in public or private archives, with
within organisations, offices, and in the fields of practice they ‘belong’ to, rather registries listing the archived materials. Primary sources are often text-based but not
than in what could be considered “design history formats”. As such, these accounts only: almost anything printed, photographed, recorded, built or human-made can
of pasts highlighted from the perspectives of design practices often are partial, be regarded as a primary source, depending on the questions asked and on the field
of historical study. In design history, visual material – photos, sketches, drawings,
7 Kjetil Fallan, “‘The ’Designer – The Eleventh Plague’: Design publicity, films – and material artefacts are also often addressed as primary sources.
Discourse from Consumer Activism to Environmentalism in
1960s Norway”, Design Issues 2011:4 (vol.27), 34. 10 Kjetil Fallan, Design History: Understanding Theory and
8 Clive Dilnot, “The State of Design History, Part II” in Victor Method (Oxford: Berg, 2010).
Margolin (ed.), Design Discourse: History, Theory, Criticism 11 For a concise overview of historiographical methodologies in
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 233–250. general, and of design history in particular, see D J Huppatz,
9 Stephan Wensween & Ben Matthews, “Prototypes and “Introduction to Methodology: Virtual Special Issue for the
prototyping in design research”, in Paul A. Rodgers & Joyce Yee Journal of Design History 2018”, Journal of Design History,
(eds.) The Routledge Companion to Design Research (New York: 2020:1 (vol.33), e25–e40, https://doi-org.proxy.ub.umu.
Routledge, 2015). se/10.1093/jdh/epy021 (accessed 2020-05-31).

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A historical research process consists of relating the research question to While studies in the history of ideas often will revolve around political,
what could be supposed to be adequate primary source material, locating and scientific, and philosophical ideas, inspiration from social history has over time
making suitable selections of that material, critically analysing it, and constructing also brought attention to practices and ideas of everyday life. With the ambitions
a historical narrative. This process is seldom linear but proceeds in iterative loops of writing histories of everyday life, other historical source materials than the
when new questions and perspectives arise out of the analysis of materials. This traditional written sources have been sought to highlight other contexts than
leads to new archival explorations and material searches, in a simultaneous weaving only those of ‘learned history’. Using material things, environments, photographs,
together an analysis of past phenomena with accounting for these – most often in film and other visuals as historical sources has also opened up for exploring
written narrative – based on sources that provide legitimacy for these processes of analytical and methodological approaches from other fields than history. These
interpretation, presentation, and representation. initiatives aim to take on perspectives of ‘ordinary people’s’ understandings of
In historical research, methodological considerations to a large extent the world15, histories of everyday life16, and histories of marginalised groups or
revolve around which sources that can be found, accessed, and analysed in from non-mainstream perspectives.17 The approaches aiming to make other types
relation to a research question, and which perspectives of analysis are applied. of histories also led to historians actively searching for other ways of not only
Searching for, finding, and selecting materials, verifying their authenticity and analysing but also of representing histories, with scholars such as Michel Foucault
reliability (this is called ‘source criticism’), defining the time frames for the study, proposing an ‘archaeology of knowledge’ in which multiplicity, relationality, and
and refining the research question(s) is a process carried out in close relation to complexity emerge as perspectives in the mode of analysis as well as in modes of
the selection of perspectives and frameworks for the analysis. Which materials one historical representation.18
goes looking for, and how they are chosen, searched for, and interpreted, is highly
dependent on the analytical perspectives chosen for a study. One ambition with prototyping transitional design histories is to investigate if
The historical methods put to use in this thesis when making prototypes of the shift of perspective through positioning history-making in designing, rather
transitional histories are largely based on methodological stances from the history than in design outcomes, can lead to changes in terms of what comes into view.
of ideas.12 Focus in historical analyses of ideas is on how specific ways of thinking With this in mind, the search for source materials for making these studies has
(‘ideas’) have come to expression within and in relation to diverse contexts – socio-po- been located to contexts, times, and areas that have already been identified as
litical, academic, scientific, religious, philosophical – and how these move between somehow ‘important’ to design, and thus already studied from previously adopted
contexts, relate to each other, and shape understandings of the world. As Arthur O. design historical stances. The contexts in which the material for these prototypical
Lovejoy described it, topics of interest in the history of ideas could, amongst others, be: histories have been located are among those that already – at least in part – are
very well-known and researched in 20th-century Swedish design history. This
The history of the development and the effects of individual pervasive and widely
goes for both individuals previously identified as somehow holding influential
ramifying ideas or doctrines, such as evolution, progress, primitivism, diverse
agency in relation to the formation of design in Sweden, such as Ellen Key, and for
theories of human motivation and appraisals of human nature, mechanismic
and organismic conceptions of nature and society, metaphysical and historical organisations such as Svenska Slöjdföreningen (SSF, The Swedish Association of
determinism and indeterminism, individualism and collectivism, nationalism Arts and Crafts). The primary source material used and analysed in these studies,
and racialism.13 is to a large extent textual: different publications in the form of books, pamphlets,
journals and newspapers, and also various collections of archival material
With an approach that is quite interdisciplinary, highly attentive to contexts, and such as meeting minutes, registers and various sorts of other administrative
focused on how ways of thinking form and are formed by different practices, documentation found in various archives.
studies in the history of ideas vary in their encompassing of historical time. From
the perspective of examining how ideas travel and change over time, the framing
of such studies can span everything from the longue durée of how ideas evolve and 15 Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou: Cathars and catholics
change slowly over time, spanning centuries or even millennia, to delving deep in a French village 1294-1324 (London: Scolar, 1978); Carlo
into the conceptual foundations of a specific period or situation in time.14 Ginzburg, Il formaggio e i vermi: il cosmo di un mugnaio del
‘500. (Torino: Einaudi, 1982); Ronny Ambjörnsson, “Om
möjligheten av en folkets idéhistoria”, Lychnos: årsbok för
12 The history of ideas as an academic discipline is quite specific idé- och lärdomshistoria. 1983. (Uppsala: Lärdomshistoriska
to the Nordic countries. In other geographical and academic samfundet, 1983), 158-165.
settings, these perspectives and research trajectories will be 16 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and capitalism: 15th-18th
found under academic labels such as intellectual history, century. Vol. 1, The structures of everyday life: The limits of the
history of science, history of philosophy etc. possible [New ed.] (London: Collins, 1981).
13 Arthur O. Lovejoy, “Reflections on the History of Ideas”, 17 Michel Foucault, [1976] Madness: The invention of an idea. (New
Journal of the History of Ideas 1940:1 (vol.1), 7. York: Harper, 2011); Michel Foucault [1975] Discipline and
14 Fernand Braudel, [1958] “Histoire et Sciences Sociales: La punish: The birth of the prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
longue durée”, Réseaux 1987:27 (vol.5), 7–37. 18 Michel Foucault, L’archéologie du savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1969).

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However, since the perspectives chosen and the approach made to prototype constitutes ‘design’ visually, materially, and ideally. In many of these other ways of
different histories have brought other aspects than the usual to the fore, in some representing history, however, text-based narratives tend to show up at one point
cases the texts identified and used in the historical analysis are ones that have or another. An exhibition, for example, is usually accompanied by a catalogue
not previously been very present in design history. Some of the text-based source including texts, and textual signage incorporated in the exhibition space. Using the
material has not in the first hand been approached as ‘historical sources’ at all in the form of narrative text in making transitional design history prototypes is certainly
context of Swedish design history, such as publications in the field of participatory not the only possible way one could go about experimenting with how these could
and user-centered design research of the latter decades of the 20th century. Thus, in be made, but – given the centrality of textual narrative in design history mediation
some cases, these publications are handled as elements of the design research in – a highly relevant way for at least this first iteration of these prototypical histories.
relation to which this thesis is situated, while in the prototyping examples the same The narrative adopted in the three prototype chapters moves between
texts are instead approached as objects of historical study or as sources. a chronological account and a format that is not always clearly linear or
Several of the authors of these texts are also still active design researchers and chronological, while still attempting to adhere to something that resembles a
practitioners. From this follows, that the analyses and interpretations, of course, coherent ‘story’. These slightly different ways of building the stories could have
can be contested by these authors and designers – which is not regularly the case been taken further, and perhaps included more diverse experimentations with
in history, as it is a field usually working with ‘plucking the dry bones of the dead’ styles of writing, with fragmented narratives, or other textual formats that even
as a professor in the history of ideas once described it over a conference lunch19. more could have highlighted the aim of making ‘different’ histories. However,
So, any objections that people still active in the field of design research might making these first prototypes as part of a doctoral thesis that as a genre in itself
make as to the interpretations and readings would of course both be reasonable, sets certain expectations on form and content, posed certain limits to this idea.
relevant and highly welcome: they were there and had first-hand experience of Additionally, presenting this work in a way that could be meaningful and also
what played out from their perspectives. make sense in a design research context as well as for a context of academic design
Why not, then, include first-hand accounts, for example through interviewing history, has led to considerations in terms of how to balance contextualisation,
people who were engaged in the formation of participatory and user-centered research positioning, accounting for ‘established’ practices in design and design
design in the latter decades of the 20th century? That would, of course, be more history, and also in the formats and narratives applied in the thesis.
than relevant, and would be something to do in later iterations of transitional While the stories that emerge in the design history prototypes are connected
design histories, as well as for histories of design that more specifically aim to in different ways, each chapter is meant to be able to stand, and work, on its own.
go to the bottom with what actually happened. Again, the aim with the design The three studies are carried out thinking of the operation as a sort of cross-sections
history prototypes presented here is not to try to provide an accurate and definitive through historical time in which different aspects become visible depending on
description of the history of participatory and user-centered design, but proposals what we look for, and from which perspective. The narratives, therefore, intersect
of how histories of central concepts and methods can shed light on embedded at several points in regard to materials, contexts, and historical time, but also
ideas that form and inform current design practices. In working with these highlight different phenomena in relation to the concepts studied. Thus, partly
prototypes, the main aspect to test is if a change in perspective – from design as different, partly similar, histories are made. What is in focus are why and how
product to design as practice – could tease out other histories than the usual. central ideas and concepts in Scandinavian user-centered and participatory
Maintaining a fairly strict focus on “basic” primary sources in textual form, and design have come about in specific historical situations (programs), how they
not bringing in interviews and methods of oral history, is then part and parcel of have been actualised or materialised (products, projects), and what it means that
making the moving parts of the prototypes as few as possible. some of these have transitioned into embedded understandings or foundations
The prototypes presented later in this thesis, have been given the form of for doing design (practices, paradigms).
text-based narratives. There are of course several other ways than text-based
prose-like narratives could be used to present, represent, and mediate histories:
in visual form, through films, historical games, etc.20 In design history, for Positioning perspectives
example, a narrative format highly present is that of exhibiting things – as design
museums do – according to a selection of objects based on perspectives of what When selecting materials and formats for the prototypes of design histories that
follow, the choices of materials and analytical perspectives have been made with
19 This statement was made by the first appointed professor in regard to what it is that these explorations set out to do, for design as well as for
the History of ideas at Umeå University, Gunnar Eriksson – design history. Since one proposal here, is that shifting the outlook of design
and there is little I can point to as a source for the quote, since history closer to designing as practice, a specific type of practice needs to be
this happened over a lunch during a national History of Ideas
selected, and specific perspectives used to analyse it. A general history of design
conference in Uppsala in the late 1990s.
20 Jaume Aurell, “Rethinking History’s essential tension: between
is not only impossible to make, but would also be of little use for probing ways
theoretical reflection and practical experimentation”, that historical perspectives could contribute to change in practices of designing.
Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice 2018:4 In the cases of the prototypes of transitional design histories presented later in this
(vol.22), 439-458. thesis, the perspectives applied in looking for histories are concepts and ideas that

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come across as central in design research endeavours and contexts positioned as told, I will probably contribute to a layering or fossilisation of this narrative. Why,
following a historical trajectory of a (or, the, as stated in several papers and articles then, provide such an overview?
in the field) Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design tradition. The reason to do so, here, is firstly to sketch the history that is in a sense
In terms of trajectories, a user-centered tradition is one that is also strongly already made, but not made very explicitly or coherently, through different
present in my everyday context of work. The participatory and user-centered articulations and representations in design practice of where user-centered and
design approaches that came to be influential in the Nordic countries – and participatory design is perceived to have its origins.
beyond – were a strong impetus in setting up the institutional environment Secondly, through providing this summary of a history of user-centered and
in Northern Sweden of which I myself am a part.21 The new industrial design participatory design, this will set a reference point, so to speak, for what tends to
curriculum introduced at the Umeå Institute of Design (UID) in 1989 was be seen from existing perspectives on the field. This can then be contrasted and
grounded in user-centered and participatory design methods and approaches, related to the stances that I introduce as possible conceptual perspectives that aim
and in many ways still remains quite firmly situated in these ideas and practices. I to make other things visible.
have worked as a teacher in design history and design theory in the studio-based Thirdly, this overview also serves as an example of a history of designing as
industrial design education at UID since the mid-1990s, with a background in the narrated in design from a perspective of design practice, that is all but invisible in
academic field of the history of science and ideas. Starting as a consultant teacher, existing design histories of Nordic design, thus contributing to the field of design
visiting once or a couple of times a year to deliver a few weeks of design history historical knowledge. In contrasting the different outlooks that design history and
teaching, I gradually transitioned to employment as a full-time UID teacher. This designing currently have regarding histories of participatory design practices, this
meant that I could engage not only in the dedicated design history survey teaching disconnect between history and design quite evidently comes into view.
but could work more with integrating historical perspectives in other parts of the Later, in the final section of this chapter, I will return to discussing some
curriculum. This transition of my own, from initially teaching design history from matters of concern that are present in contemporary participatory and user-
an ‘outside’ perspective (history of design) to integrating historical perspectives in centered design, with the purpose to take that as the final step towards teasing out
user-centered and project-based studio education (histories for design), has been some conceptual lenses through which to look for transitional design histories.
significant for considerations of research questions as well as for the selection of But before that, let us take a closer look at how design histories relating to Swedish
methods and materials for the studies. Combining methodologies from design user-centered design have been told so far.
history and programmatic design research, a re-positioning of design histories
and design practices in relation to each other, might – I hope – make visible other
Histories of user-centered design
possible trajectories for emerging design practices.
User-centered in Scandinavia emerged in a historical situation where established
design practice and methods fell short of addressing the types of design situations
Now, after having presented the above considerations of methodologies and that came about in light of social changes and technological advancements.22 In
materials, the background and context of positioning perspectives on and in user- the 1960s and 1970s, the role of the designer came to be challenged and criticised,
centered and participatory designing will need a more substantial introduction not least from within the design profession itself. There were calls for new design
before going into detail of how to make prototypes of transitional design histories. methods and approaches, which could expand the scope of design from a sales-
The way I will be providing background and context for this positioning, is and-production-oriented profession to one that could – and should – address
through first searching for accounts of user-centered design in existing design issues of democracy, equality and inclusion through design.23
history, and after that piecing together a historical narrative that outlines how Designers increasingly advocated developing methods that would include
a history of Nordic participatory design generally tends to be conveyed from knowledge of and dialogue with the people not only buying but also using the
within contemporary design research practice. One could – and rightly so – argue outcomes of design. Attention to design for the ‘third world’, for disabled persons,
that this is precisely the type of design historical storytelling that I have voiced and for ‘professional users’ increasingly highlighted the potential for design
objections to. Through repeating the history of participatory design as it is usually to make change for people in a specific situation of use. In Scandinavia in the
mid-1960s, design students made a joint cause of critiquing the current design

21 The Umeå Institute of Design at Umeå University was founded

in the end of the 1980s (in 1989, to be precise), merging
regional university and municipality initiatives with national- 22 Pelle Ehn, “Learning in Participatory Design as I Found
level action by design practitioners wishing to reform design It (1970–2015)”, in Betsy DiSalvo, Jason Yip, Elizabeth
education in response to user-centered design methods as Bonsignore & Carl DiSalvo (eds.), Participatory Design for
well to as a closer connection to industry rather than an art Learning: Perspectives from Practice and Research (New York &
school tradition. Norbert Andersson, Designed in Umeå: London: Routledge, 2017).
Industrial design at the Umeå Institute of Design, Sweden 23 Anna Valtonen, Redefining industrial design: Changes in the
(Stockholm: Infobooks, 2009); Lasse Brunnström, Swedish design practice in Finland, diss. (Helsinki: University of Art and
Design. A History (Bloomsbury: London, 2019), 179-180. Design, 2007).

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education and calling for other, more socially responsive, approaches to design.24 for disabled persons, describing how an impetus towards ergonomics in design
The discourse on socially relevant design was shaped in dialogue with designers was introduced in Swedish industry, almost by accident, in the 1950s.
invited to tutor summer school courses, one of whom was Victor Papanek who With a starting point in Taylorism and time studies of work, the consequent
after that also published the first version of his book Design for the Real World in establishment of a view that addressed factors of safety and ergonomics became a
Swedish as Miljön och miljonerna in 1970.25 way to not only increase industrial production efficiency but to view workers as a
User-centered product design in Scandinavia came to have a strong focus on resource to be maintained and cared for. These practices are traced to the concept
ergonomics and use that soon carried over into working with concepts of cognitive of ‘human engineering’, as practiced and promoted in American industrial design
ergonomics and usability in design for what later became labelled as interaction by Henry Dreyfuss, whose book Designing for people is pointed to as making a
design. The aims of the new, user-focused, methods proposed were to take on new significant impact on early Swedish industrial designers.28 Brunnström quotes a
ways of approaching complex design situations in order to bring about change study trip made to the US by Swedish industrialists and construction technicians
through design, and also to build new types of research methodologies in order in 1955 as the point in time when – due to an error in translation – what was going
to advance knowledge in and through design. to be a six-week study program to American technical construction offices, instead
Developing methods and tools to support shared design processes based became a tour of industrial design offices and consultancies.29 This is presented as a
on new relations between designers and users in terms of both power and turning point when the introduction of ergonomics and the ‘measures of man’ that
participation, was at the core of the user-centered design that sprang forth. The Dreyfuss had created became incorporated in Swedish industrial design practice.
introduction of computers into working life led to the development of specific The main impetus for a shift in design practice, towards ergonomic design
methods of participatory design, incorporating the centrality of use and users in for work, is in Brunnström’s publication mainly attributed to increasing focus on
design processes. Simultaneously, design methods with a strong emphasis on the safety issues in work life, but also to a more inclusive approach to people in society
work situation and the effects of work procedures on the human body formed a which led to approaches of design for all. In this context, the systematic work
foundation for ergonomic design approaches. These aimed to include users in initiated by Arbetarskyddstyrelsen (The Swedish Work Environment Authority)
designing to minimise physical strain, while also incorporating perspectives of and the Handikappinstitutet (the Handicap Institute) in the late 1960s to promote
production efficiency. the design of more inclusive aids for disabled persons was of great importance
These developments in design are reflected in a design history publication to the developments within Swedish user-centered design. In the journal Form,
from the late 1990s, documenting the emergence of Swedish industrial design.26 In published by the organisation Svensk Form (the Swedish Society of Crafts and
the book, historical overviews by art and technology historians as well as accounts Design), there were recurring calls for designing for disabilities. In 1968, a special
by “first generation” Swedish industrial designers map the establishment of issue on the topic was published, advocating designing together with people with
the industrial design profession. In a chapter dedicated to the turn towards expertise in the field in order to provide adequate and inclusive design solutions.30
ergonomic and safety-centred design in post-war Sweden, user-centered (or,
rather ‘consumer-centred’) design is discussed by art and design historian Lasse In the late 1960s and early 1970s, constellations of young Swedish designers
Brunnström.27 With a focus on design for increasing workplace safety design, he founded design consultancies such as Ergonomidesign (1969), Designgruppen
gives an overview of design work resulting in more ergonomic tools, safer working (1969) and A&E design (1968), all working with ergonomics and user-focused
conditions including safety in cars and tractors, and development of tools and aids design methods in their consultancy work. From 1979, a merger between two of
these, profiled in ergonomic design, resulted in the joint consultancy Ergonomi
Design Gruppen. Several of these also applied for funding from government
24 Ida Kamilla Lie, “‘Make Us More Useful to Society!’: The
bodies and institutes, setting up collaborative design research projects aiming to
Scandinavian Design Students’ Organization (SDO) and
Socially Responsible Design, 1967–1973”, Design and Culture
improve work environment conditions in specific areas or to focus on disabled
2016:3 (vol.8); Cilla Robach, Formens frigörelse: Konsthantverk
och design under debatt i 1960-talets Sverige (Stockholm: 28 Henry Dreyfuss, Designing for People [1955] New edition, (New
Arvinius, 2010). York: Paragraphic, 1967).
25 Mateo Kries, Amelia Klein & Alison J. Clarke, (eds.) Victor 29 Brunnström ”Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 302.
Papanek: The Politics of Design (Weil am Rhein: Vitra Design 30 “Att leva med handikapp” [To Live with Disabilities].
Museum, 2018);Victor Papanek Miljön och miljonerna: Design Form 1968:10. This was a special issue of the journal Form
som tjänst eller förtjänst (Stockholm: Bonnier, 1970); Victor produced as material aimed for study circles interested in
Papanek, Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social understanding the constructed environment. The study series
Change, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971). was themed “Active Perspectives on Environments” (Aktiv
26 Lasse Brunnström (ed) Svensk industridesign: En miljösyn), and was made up of twenty-four slides, twenty-
1900-talshistoria, (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997). four text cards, six study pamphlets, and different exercises or
27 Lasse Brunnström ”Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare tasks. The cards included imagery and presentations relating
liv” in Lasse Brunnström (ed) Svensk industridesign: En to disabled persons’ living conditions, tools, rehabilitation,
1900-talshistoria, (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997), 302. and clothes.

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persons’ situation. At Ergonomi Design Gruppen in the mid-1970s, for example, The design process behind a series of ergonomic painting tools and brushes
a collaboration between designers Maria Benktzon and Sven-Eric Juhlin and for the company Anza in the mid-1970s is presented with examples of innovative
disabled users focused on the design of everyday utensils – cutlery, knives, pens detail solutions and materials. However, in relating to the user-centered studies
– based on extensive ergonomic studies of grips and handles together with both that must reasonably have been part of the process, only very brief references are
medical experts and with users.31 made to iterative user-inclusive processes. The text about paint brushes mentions
The work carried out together with disabled users in the development that these were “tested with regard to the correctness of grip and the function of
in different aids and tools, led to the introduction of user-centered methods in the hanging device”, which led to modifications and new working models that were
designing tools for professional use. In the mid-1970s, a series of screwdrivers was “prepared and tested”, reworked again and “tested and modified”.35 How these
redesigned with a starting point in ergonomic user studies and interviews with processes played out between designers and users, which methods developed and
people working professionally with these tools. Using video filming, different work what that meant for design practices and for how designers and non-designers
situations were studied and analysed, and iterative prototyping then took place related to designing together, is not explicitly mentioned or discussed.
together with users in regard to grips, torques, and handle sizes. Both Wickman and Brunnström have contributed immensely to Swedish
This way of working with users at Ergonomi Design Gruppen is described by design history as a field, and have published extensively on various aspects of
design historian Lasse Brunnström as a “tangible work method with consumers histories of Swedish design. However, in these accounts and in those by other
as co-creators in the design process [that] shall be seen as a further development design historians, user-centered design is all but completely missing. In a 1990s
of the 1940s Swedish tradition of consumer research.”32 While noting this longer publication compiling Swedish design histories by both academics and designers
historical trajectory of the emergence of new design methods, the shift in design that were active in establishing industrial design as a practice in Sweden, a clear
practice brought about in working with users is not further highlighted in this focus is on the design of artefacts, and on the role of the individual designer and
Swedish design history publication, besides stating that it has “given exceptionally his (for they are all ‘he’) career trajectory.36
good results, but at the price of both time consuming work and high costs.” Risks User-centered design methods are often only mentioned in passing, such
with the process are noted, such as designers possibly nudging “test persons” in as in designer Rune Monö’s account for the shift from a focus on aesthetics and
desired design directions, or that the methods might entail the designer abdicating styling to function, including ergonomics and psychology: ”During the 1960s
from “design responsibility and simply give people what they want”.33 and -70s, they [the industrial designers] increasingly emphasised that it was
Overall, what comes across in this historical account is a strong emphasis on not the beautiful product that they strove for, but that which best suited the
the role that work-life ergonomics, safety and security perspectives and design for user; implicitly, from all aspects!”37 Monö references American designer Henry
disabilities have had on Swedish design. This is of course a valid account in many Dreyfuss’ work in Designing for People in this context of adapting products to
ways. The innovative design and engineering work carried out in this context are human physical demands: “In Sweden the word ergonomics came to the fore in
undisputable – but in telling the story in this way, a blind eye is turned to what the 1960s, and at the beginning of the 80s the concepts environment and ecology
these contexts and design situations have brought in terms of opening up new suddenly became important.”38 The consultancy Ergonomi Design Gruppen’s 11
spaces for design, and new methods and practices in relation to this. step program is presented as emblematic of the change view of industrial design
from the 1940s to 1960s “tentative, to a large extent, despite everything, intuitive
Similarly, design historian Kerstin Wickman also does bring attention to the rise of one-man-theatre to professional scientific and methodically verified team-work”,
ergonomics in Swedish industrial design in her history over the design consultancy stressing that the work done by Ergonomi Design Gruppen has “to a higher degree
A&E.34 Against a background of the crafts-based and traditional Swedish design than most of our design companies incessantly, and with success, driven this
education of the 1950s and 1960s, she highlights the dissatisfaction and critique scientific methodology as a condition for a good result.”39
among young designers that surfaced as critiques of the roles of designers in What comes across in these histories is a strong focus on individual designers
relation to social responsibility. While the publication does pay a good deal of and the objects created by them. Any collaborative design work is mainly
attention to design processes from the perspective of form work, and different described as work conducted in pairs or teams of professional designers – such
stages of iterative prototyping of products in relation to ergonomics, materials and as Sven-Eric Juhlin and Maria Benktzon at Ergonomidesign, or Tom Ahlström
production techniques, there is hardly any mention of what the new user-centered and Hans Ehrich at A&E design. Some texts will mention collaborations between
methods for designing entailed. designers and other professional expert groups, such as engineers, technicians,

31 Maria Benktzon & Sven-Eric Juhlin, På lättare sätt: En 35 Wickman, A&E Design, 106
rapport om utveckling av äta - dricka redskap (Stockholm: 36 Lasse Brunnström (ed) Svensk industridesign: En
Folksam, 1981). 1900-talshistoria, (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997).
32 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 37 Rune Monö ”Produktdesign för arbetslivet” in Lasse
321. [my translations, here and in the following] Brunnström (ed) Svensk industridesign: En 1900-talshistoria
33 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 321 (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1997), 281.
34 Kerstin Wickman, A&E Design: The Book (Stockholm: Business 38 Monö ”Produktdesign för arbetslivet”, 283.
History Publishing, 2018). 39 Monö ”Produktdesign för arbetslivet”, 295.

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and marketing people, but rarely mention neither the users involved in iterative are exhibited in design museums around the world, not least because they, besides
prototyping, testing and designing nor the processes and methods for doing this. being ergonomically functional, have had a beautiful form.”45
The work of designer Rune Zernell, who set up the design department within Narratives such as these tend to highlight specific objects as design historically
Atlas Copco, manufacturer of drilling and pneumatics equipment, can serve as important in relation to their artistic qualities from a position of connoisseurship, for
an example. Zernell’s work on developing ergonomic hand tools for the company example in statements presenting these in terms of that “the functionally simple also
is mentioned, in which he during the late 1950s worked together with a medical is the beautiful.”46 In the focus on design as materiality, concepts, as well as actions
expert “for help with the science concerning the hand’s anatomy, muscles and nerve of continuity and disruption in design, are approached from a form-giving point of
centres in connection with his experiments with different grip models in plaster view. In these Swedish design histories, the changes in process and perspective in
and plasticine”.40 Iterating and testing plaster and wood models with co-workers led designing brought about when developing methods for user-centered design is, at
to the development of a series of ergonomic hand drills that minimised strain on best, touched upon in relation to ergonomic design and design for all.
the body, both in terms of static and dynamic injuries and in terms of drastically While collaborative and user-centered designing brought about the exploration
reduced noise and thus less risk for hearing impairments.41 The description of the and invention of new methods and different processes in design, these considerations
design work leading to the launch of the ergonomic hand drill is very brief while the are relatively invisible in a Swedish design historical context. Even in cases where
actual design work would, of course, be more extensive than what comes across in the “common knowledge” is that the period between 1960 and 1980 was one when
the historical narrative. This narrative does not include any pointers towards the designers increasingly begin to work with new methods for understanding and
methods applied, or any mentions of interviews or tests with actual users of hand working with users, the processual, conceptual and methodological perspectives
drills, which might otherwise have been indicative of these early considerations of on design as designing are rarely present. While the ergonomic or design-for-all-
ergonomics in Swedish user-centered design. Instead, the focus is more on design as perspectives are included in some sense in Swedish design histories, the processes,
a physical object and marketable commodity. These histories map the emergence of approaches, and methods development of collaborative designing that came to be
industrial design from the perspectives of designers, design contexts and designed called ‘participatory design’ are not present at all.
things – which undoubtedly contributes to the understanding of key aspects of
design discourse in Sweden, but not to the centrality of new methods in the (re)
formulation of industrial design practices at that time. Concepts in participatory design
Overviews of Swedish industrial design point to the 1970s turn towards ‘design In place and in time, ‘cooperative design’ emerged in Scandinavia in the late
for the disabled’ or ‘design for all’ as important for establishing ergonomics and 1960s to -80s.47 As this approach eventually merged with developments in user-
inclusion as central aspects of Swedish design.42 Examples presented are mainly centered design as well with research initiatives in an Anglo-American context in
everyday utensils such as knives and forks designed for disabled persons, and the 1970s through -90s, it came to be called ‘participatory design’. During this time,
screwdrivers or other ergonomic hand tools for professionals. Products tend to technological innovation and changes in the organisation of workplaces gradually
be described as things in which the aspects of “function” and “aesthetics” came brought computer-based technologies into the realm of designing.
together, for example in “handicap adapted products”, which would make these Between the 1960s and the 1990s, participatory design in Scandinavia grew
suited to “everyone”.43 Design objects are portrayed as having inherent artistic out of initiatives that strove to include skilled workers and a range of stakeholders
qualities, where for example cutlery for persons with reduced hand and grip into the design of new computer-based work tools. As such, participatory design
functions is described as “a work of art in plastic”, with reference to its public could be seen as an aspect or a strand of user-centered design, but with a strong
exhibition in museums as well as the sales of these items in museum shops.44 connection to its computer-oriented origins. As defined on the very first page
With the focus on design as products rather than as process, in the turn towards of a recent handbook: “Participatory Design is about the direct involvement of
‘design for all’ these are presented as designers’ reactions to broader societal issues and people in the co-design of the technologies they use.”48 Perhaps it is this coming
discussions on equality, democracy and critiques of consumption. Simultaneously, about of participatory design in a field – computers and ‘IT – not traditionally
and perhaps sometimes more explicitly, the formal qualities of these designed object seen as pertaining to one where design takes place, that has led to its exclusion
are emphasised from a perspective of their having been “awarded design prizes and from design histories. In the type of design history that focuses on design as
material outcomes and on the formation of the professional roles of designers,
40 Lasse Brunnström, Swedish Design. A History (Bloomsbury:
London, 2019), 3. 45 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 321.
41 Brunnström ”Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 46 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 321.
304-305. 47 Yngve Sundblad, “UTOPIA - Participatory Design from
42 Lasse Brunnström, Swedish Design. A History (Bloomsbury: Scandinavia to the World”, History Of Nordic Computing
London, 2019); Kerstin Wickman, A&E Design: The Book 2010:3, 176–186.
(Stockholm: Business History Publishing, 2018). 48 Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.), Routledge
43 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 317. International Handbook of Participatory Design (Routledge:
44 Brunnström, “Hjälpmedel för ett säkrare och jämlikare liv”, 321. London & New York, 2013), i.

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the ways of designing and the constellations of people doing design in these early As in any emerging field, participatory design has been simultaneously
participatory design situations would probably not qualify as “design”. defined and questioned through the theoretical and methodological
Participatory design approaches and methods have with time have moved contributions of its practitioners. Conference papers and publications positioned
well beyond the realm of “pure” technology (if such a thing even exists). They in participatory design contexts often include an initial or integrated brief history
are nowadays strongly present in the design of various products, services, of of the emergence of participatory design and highlight the own position in regard
social phenomena, political processes and much more, collaboration between to one or several of the aspects that are seen as fundamental to this approach
people is at the core of this type of designing. In Norway, Sweden and Denmark, (or field, or community). These include approaching design as a social and
‘cooperative design’ evolved in close collaboration with trade unions, inspired by collaborative practice of mutual learning that includes designers, users and
action research, as a method of supporting workplace democracy in developing IT stakeholders; empowering users as experts of their own experience in the design
systems in different workplaces. In these initiatives, design methods and processes process as well as in future use contexts; enabling non-designers to have a voice
aimed at bringing designers and skilled professionals together in collaborative or a say in the design process through introducing tools, methods and techniques
processes of designing computer-based tools. that support a shared language and shared design actions; and addressing issues
The design approaches formulated in the design methods movement,49 as well of politics, power, influence, expertise, accountability and agency in design as well
as corporate research into use and usability in IT sector such as the ethnographic as on societal levels.51 For some, Participatory Design explicitly also must deal with
methods adopted by the Xerox PARC,50 eventually merged with Scandinavian the design of computerised technologies or systems (and is then capitalised when
cooperative design in formulating research initiatives to further practice and referred to in writing), while others extend participatory design to apply to many
knowledge in the field of ‘participatory design’, or ‘PD’ for short. The first Design other contexts of design.
Research society conference on the topic of “Design participation”, held in Great That participatory design can be understood and practiced in different
Britain in 1971, is often referred to as a starting point for research on the theme of ways while sharing some fundamental basics, is perhaps embedded in the
participatory design, while the year 1990 marks the establishment of a specialised approach itself.52 Discussions of what participatory design actually is, should
biannual conference on participatory design (PDC) focussing both academic be, or could become are, in a sense, highly reflective of the ethos of participation
and practice-based methodologies, theories and practices. A heterogeneous ‘PD and prototyping at its core. However, in the discussions and practices aiming
community’ has formed, which through design practice and design research seeks to define and develop ‘participatory design’, there are of course differences in
to both constitute and challenge what participatory design is, or could be. starting points, emphases, conceptual definitions and aims with what is meant
with participatory design both as a practice and as a concept.
Scandinavian participatory design emerged in a historical context where established With a very rough generalisation, we might say that understandings, definitions
design practice and methods fell short of addressing the types of design situations and suggestions tend to lean towards either descriptions (what participatory design
called for in light of social changes and technological advancements. Participatory currently is), prescriptions (what participatory design should be) or projections
design aimed to take on new ways of approaching complex design situations in (what participatory design could be becoming). With this follows that some of
order to bring about change through design and to build new types of research the ideas, concepts and aspects in participatory design also are approached and
methodologies in order to advance knowledge in and through design. Over the almost understood in partially similar, partially different ways over time and in relation
five decades that participatory design has been practiced, there have been continuous to the types of designing they connect to. What is it, then, that we talk about in
developments of and discussions on its methods, tools, aims and contexts. participatory design, when it comes to some of its core concepts and practices?

49 “Looking back now, at this book, and at what has become of

design methods, I think that this is the crux of the matter: the
new methods permit collaborative designing whereas the old
methods do not. The change the nature of designing, or can if 51 Toni Robertson and Jesper Simonsen, “Participatory Design:
one lets them. (…) The new methods, properly used, release An introduction” in (eds.) Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson,
everyone from the tyrrany [sic] of imposed ideas and enable Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design
each to contribute to, and to act upon, the best that everyone (Routledge: London & New York, 2013).
is capable of imagining and doing.” John Chris Jones in the 52 The dual scope of furthering knowledge and understanding as
foreword to the 1980 edition of Design Methods (1970). In John well as bringing about change through design action comes
Chris Jones, Design Methods: Second edition with new prefaces across already in the titles of many publications, not least the
and additional texts (New York, 1992). anthologies springing from an early 1990s PDC conference
50 Jeanette Blomberg, Jean Giacomi, Andrea Mosher, Pat initiative and the latter 20 year jubilee of the conference:
Swenton-Wall, “Ethnographic Field Methods and Their Participatory Design: Principles and Practices (New York,
Relation to Design” in (eds.) Douglas Schuler and Aki 1993), eds. Douglas Schuler & Aki Namioka, as well as the
Namioka, Participatory Design: Principles and Practices (New more recent Routledge International Handbook of Participatory
York, 1993), 123-156. Design (2012).

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

Projects to timelines, funding, people, stakeholders and other resources, with emphasis
Practices and developments within participatory design have, since the 1970s, been on certain design and research aims of interest for and in participatory design
project-based. To a large extent these projects have, from the very beginning, either methodology and practice: that of people participating as users in co-designing
originated in or been substantially connected to research. In Scandinavia, the pro- something for instances of future use.57
cesses of initiating design projects that were also practice-based design research In the last ten years, researchers in design have been suggesting perspectives
projects came about in a context of changes in workplace legislation in the 1970s. in which design could be approached in more open-ended manners. Design
New regulations governing workers’ influence on substantial changes in processes in traditional participatory design focus designing for use-before-use
the work environment and work process resulted in trade unions expanding – in which ‘the user’ as such does not yet exist – calls into question what (or who)
their roles and range of influence and negotiation into the emerging sphere of is actually being designed.58 An increasing focus on design-after-design, and how
new technologies of communication and digitalisation. Unions that had until the design could allow for change and adaptation of what is designed in and through
early 1970s mainly negotiated issues of wages, physical working conditions and use by ‘designers-in-use’,59 complicates the idea of the ‘project’ with a definite start
work hours now actively engaged in influencing the introduction and design of and endpoint of a design process. With strong influences from STS studies and
new technologies and workflows in professional life. In this process, questions ANT theory, researchers are increasingly instead proposing that design would
of industrial democracy manifest in power relations between workers, unions come about around shared ‘matters of concern’ and that this could take form as
and management were linked to needs to develop not only new work practices ‘design Things’ in which people and other entities come together in different ways
or designs for implementation at work but also new methods for new types of to both formulate and address issues through design.60
knowledge development in these processes.53 Such a broad spectrum in viewing what participatory design could be, from
In Norway, the late sixties saw legal reforms aiming towards industrial the taking on something to be collaboratively designed between designers, users
democracy specifically in relation to socio-technical developments. This brought and stakeholders in a process with a clear start and end, to seeing it as an open-
about trade union initiatives that pushed for the development of knowledge that ended design Thing that revolves around matters of concern in which humans
reflected workers’ interests in conjunction with the introduction of computers into and non-humans somehow take part, of course also opens up for substantially
working life.54 With the Swedish Joint Regulation Act in the late 1970s, the legal right different understandings of what ‘participation’ might be.
was established for workers and unions to be part of codetermining work organisation
as well as design and introduction of new technologies.55 The seminal projects, in a
Participation
Scandinavian participatory design context, such as the iron and metal workers union
As a concept, ‘participation’ – the action or state of someone taking part in
NJMF project in Norway, and the later projects inspired by this in Sweden (DEMOS,
something – is fundamental to participatory design. There are of course differences
UTOPIA) and Denmark (DUE) thus largely sprang from changing legal frameworks on
in starting points, emphases, conceptual definitions and aims with what is meant
national levels, in combination with societal and academic movements.
with participatory design, and with ‘participation’. With this follows that some
One of the driving forces for establishing participatory design projects has
ideas and aspects in participatory design are also approached and understood in
been that of furthering research in this area, initially mainly within computer
partially similar, partially different ways over time and in relation to the types of
and systems related areas, but increasingly also in other contexts. Many of these
designing to which they are connected.
have initiated as research projects, formulated by design researchers in relation
For some, Participatory Design (or PD, capitalised, to mark the specificity
to research interests, as well as to funding opportunities and organisations or
of the term) explicitly must deal with the design of complex computerised
government authorities, for example in relation to policy or legislation changes.
technologies or systems. Others extend participatory design (in lower case, to
Research constellations in these settings can include both design researchers
signal approach rather than category) to apply to broader contexts of design,
active in academic environments, researchers from other disciplines, designers
including social innovation. A consensus in participatory design is that it as
and design researchers based in industrial or commercial contexts, as well
a practice cannot be reduced to limited definitions or formal principles, but
as people in the capacities of ‘users’ and ‘stakeholders’.56 Participatory design
that it is characterised by “a commitment to core principles of participation in
projects, in this sense, have been set up by designers/design researchers according
design” that in their turn connect to a wide range of different methods and tools.61

53 Pelle Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, diss. 57 Pelle Ehn, “Participation in Design Things”, in Proceedings of
(Stockholm: Arbetslivscentrum, 1988), 251-252. Participatory Design Conference (Indiana University, 2008),
54 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 272. 92-101.
55 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts 256-58. In 58 Johan Redström, “Towards user design? On the shift from
Swedish, MBL: Lagen om medbestämmande, enacted in 1977. object to user as the subject of design”, Design Studies 2006:27,
56 For example the constellation of HCI researchers from different 123-139.
universities and three Danish companies with usability 59 Warwick John Tie, “The subject supposed to design”, CoDesign
labs described in Sussanne Bødker and Jacob Buur “The 2017:1 (vol. 13), 19.
Design Collaboratorium – a Place for Usability Design”, ACM 60 Ehn, “Participation in Design Things”, 92-101.
Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 2002:2 (vol.9). 61 Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design, 3.

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

Participation in Particpatory Design thus from the very beginning has been in decision-making processes regarding changes in work organisation and
something fundamentally constitutional, that goes beyond mere involvement technologies, the question of who should participate in these design projects was
by people (such as user testing in which users are objects of study or givers of fairly given. What was not given, was how a participatory design process in which
information), and that involves people not defined as designers becoming active non-designers took part could or should be set up.
and acknowledged collaborators in the design process as such.62 Hence, the strong emphasis in participatory design on developing methods,
Practices of participation vary substantially in participatory design, in regard tools and techniques to support and enable users to, through making, have a voice
to who takes part, where and how collaboration takes place, and how extensive in the design of technologies, without necessarily having to be able to ‘speak the
it is in time and engagement in relation to the design process.63 However, neither language’ of design. Language and knowledge were central to the formulation of
as a concept nor as a practice does ‘participation’ have a generally agreed-upon practices of participatory design. Bringing designers and users together with the aim
definition within participatory design.64 How participation and collaboration of mutual sharing of not only formal knowledge but also experiential know-how was
are supported, what participation does for designing, what counts as genuine what pushed for other than language-based ways of bringing experience, skill and
participation, and how much participation is “enough”, have been recurring embodied knowledge to the fore. The purposes of introducing, for example, lo-fi
topics in participatory design research.65 Attention has also been drawn to how prototyping and workshop methodologies were not only to enable discussion and
decisions of participation and legitimacy of participation come about in projects: decision-making in the design process but also aimed to bring forth other types of
who decides who gets to participate – which users, which stakeholders – and how knowledge in the process through practice.
are these processes initiated?
In many participatory design projects, the design researcher or the organisations From the 1980s participatory design projects and onwards, the development of
with which she collaborates in the project would have a strong influence on which tools to enable and support sharing experiences, engaging in mutual learning
users and stakeholders would be considered for inclusion in the process and how between designers, users and stakeholders, and supporting collaborative
power is distributed, negotiated or challenged in the processes of designing. That design practices has been central to participatory design. This design-by-doing
many papers and articles refer to participants as being “invited” to participate, approach has, in combination with ethnographic methodologies, brought about
suggests that someone already holds power over the design domain, and extends a number of tools, techniques and methods used in different stages or aspects of
the invitation allowing others to step into the process. What does it mean in terms design processes.67 Whether aiming to support formulation and aims of a design
of power relations and ambitions of empowerment to be ‘invited’ to participate, as endeavour, sharing of experiences, analysis and reflection, or making other types
opposed to ‘come together’ around matters of concern, or to see participation as a of design decisions, these methods and tools include working with prototypes,
method for the formation of publics in processes of social innovation?66 mock-ups, scenarios, probes, design games and various tool-kits.68 The continued
Since the union-initiated Scandinavian participatory design projects of development of tools, theoretical foundations and methods for participation
the 1970s and 1980s came about in a legal-political context of changes in work and involvement in design action is core also in the more recent and emerging
legislation that by law gave unions and union members the right to have influence participatory design initiatives, aiming for more open-ended practices. The
question of where design ends and use begins – and thus the questions of how to
62 Routledge international handbook of participatory design, 5. mediate or support participation between ‘designers’ and ‘users’ during ‘design
63 Kim Halskov & Nicolai Brodersen Hansen, “The diversity time’– also leads to explorations revolving around how to ‘design for design
of participatory design research practice at PDC 2002– after design’, when design things continue to change and evolve through use.69
2012”, International Journal of Human - Computer Studies, 2015 Infrastructuring, designing for a continuous appropriation and redesign through
(vol.74), 87.
64 Halskov & Hansen, “The diversity of participatory design
research practice at PDC 2002–2012”, 81–92. 67 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 18.
65 Victoria Gerrard & Ricardo Sosa, ”Examining Participation”, 68 Methods and tools are the “most well-described aspects of PD
PDC’14:Proceedings of the 13th Participatory Design in the early proceedings” of PDC, between 1990-98, according
Conference: Research Papers - Volume 1, Windhoek 2014, to Ditte Amund Basballe, Kim Halskov and Nicolai Brodersen
111-120; Jon Whittle, “How much participation is enough? Hansen, “The Early Shaping of Participatory Design at PDC”,
A comparison of six participatory design projects in terms in PDC ‘16: Proceedings of the 14th Participatory Design
of outcomes”, PDC’14:Proceedings of the 13th Participatory Conference, Aarhus 2016, 23. Also in later PDC papers, the
Design Conference: Research Papers - Volume 1, Windhoek development of methods has a strong presence both in
2014, 121-130; Andrew Drain & Elizabeth B.-N Sanders, “A ”traditional” PD contexts and as discussed in papers relating
Collaboration System Model for Planning and Evaluating to PD moving into new contexts: Halskov & Hansen, “The
Participatory Design Projects”, International Journal of diversity of participatory design research practice at PDC
Design2019:3 (vol. 15), 39-52. 2002-2012”, 83.
66 Christopher A Le Dantec and Carl DiSalvo, “Infrastructuring 69 Elisa Giaccardi, “Metadesign as an emergent design culture”,
and the formation of publics in participatory design”, Social Leonardo 2005:4 (vol.38), 342-349; A. Telier, Design Things
Studies of Science 2013:43(2), 260. (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 2011), 170-181.

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

and in ‘use time’ is suggested as ways of opening up for more flexible design Many people have become uneasy about terms like user, consumer, and client,
processes, that support ongoing changes in design through use as practices, which pin people down in narrow and restrictive roles. At this moment, we refer
technologies and society evolves.70 to them as participants and partners, or just people, to express the multiple roles
and perspectives that are needed.72

People Who can define what it is to be a ‘user’ or a ‘stakeholder’ of an as of yet non-exis-

That people – often referred to as ‘users’ or ‘participants’ – should come together tent future something, and what does that then mean for who gets to participate
collaboratively in the design of things that affect their everyday life, is an idea – and how – in co-designing? And in projections of future practices where trajec-
central to participatory design. So is also the ambition that design should happen tories are drawn towards situations where “everyone designs”, what happens to the
with people rather than for people.71 Design should take its starting point not in roles of people hitherto labelled ‘designers’?73
considering which objects or products to make, but in questioning how things Questions of which people, in which stages of design initiatives, should be
– situations rather than objects – are used, are experienced by, and affect the the ones to have a say in how other people are invited, included, engaged, at all
people engaging with them. The people labelled ‘designers’ or ‘design researchers’ considered, or even seen, have increasingly become weighed into considerations
should, therefore, work together with people referred to as ‘users’, since the aim of power, bias and perspective on how participatory processes come about
of early participatory design was to co-design tools and systems that would and play out.74 Building on Latourian actor-network perspectives, questions
enhance and strengthen the workers’ professional skills in a work-life context. also arise as to whether participatory design should exclusively be about
People involved in the design process, who were neither ‘users’ nor ‘designers’, designing with people, or if other entities also should and could be included in
would be ‘stakeholders’, representing, for example, workplace management, other participatory processes – and if so, how.75 Participation then not only becomes a
professions, groups, organisations, providers of funds or infrastructures that had question of which people and in which capacities (such as ‘designers’, ‘users’ and
some sort of interest in or relation to the design initiative. ‘stakeholders’) engage in collaborative practices in design, but also how humans
As participatory design increasingly moved into new areas of professional and non-humans could come together around ‘matters of concern’, and how
practices, users would also be categorised in different types – such as primary design comes about in relation to agency and power.76
or secondary users, end-users, or weak users. Categorisation would depend
on different aspects of context such as how directly or indirectly users would
work with a designed thing; how professionally skilled or unskilled they were in
relation to it, or how likely it was that they would be able to fully participate with
equal voice and standing in a design process (in relation to, for example, health,
sickness, age and cognition) where designers and often also workplace managers
or leadership took part. 72 Liz Sanders & Pieter Jan Stappers, “From Designing to Co-
Over time, the developments within participatory design practices in Designing to Collective Dreaming: Three Slices in Time”,
conjunction with technological becoming increasingly fluid and digitally Interactions Nov.-Dec. 2014, 30.
interconnected, not only in professional but increasingly also in everyday 73 “The people whom we currently call designers are the
contexts, has brought about yet other ways of thinking and doing in relation to toolmakers, making the tools and providing the materials the
rest of us use to imagine and express our collective ideas about
people involved in co-design processes, which is also reflected in terminology:
future experience.” Liz Sanders & Pieter Jan Stappers, “From
Designing to Co-Designing to Collective Dreaming: Three Slices
in Time”, Interactions Nov.-Dec. 2014, 33. See also Ezio Manzini,
Design, When Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for
Social Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2015).
70 Per-Anders Hillgren, Anna Seravalli & Anders Emilson, 74 Henry Mainsah and Andrew Morrison, “Participatory design
“Prototyping and infrastructuring in design for social through a cultural lens: insights from postcolonial theory”,
innovation”, CoDesign 2011:3-4, vol.7, 169-183; Christopher A Proceedings of the 13th Participatory Design Conference:
Le Dantec & Carl DiSalvo, ”Infrastructuring and the formation Research Papers - Volume 1, Windhoek 2014.
of publics in participatory design”, Social Studies of Science 75 Elisa Giaccardi & Johan Redström, “Technology and
2013:43(2); Susanne Bødker, Christian Dindler & Ole Sejer More-Than-Human Design”, Design Issues 2020:4 (vol.36)
Iversen, “Tying Knots: Participatory Infrastructuring at Work”, [forthcoming].
CSCW 2017:26, 245-273. 76 Kristina Lindström & Åsa Ståhl, “Becoming response-able
71 “Participatory design is about the direct involvement stakeholders – Participatory design in times of uncertainties”,
of people in the co-design processes of the information PDC ‘16: Proceedings of the 14th Participatory Design
technologies that they use.” Jesper Simonsen & Toni Conference, Aarhus 2016, 41.; Erling Bjarki Björgvinsson,
Robertsson (eds.), Routledge International Handbook of “Open-ended participatory design as prototypical practice”,
Participatory Design, xix. CoDesign 2008:2, vol.4

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

Politics and power entering the graphic design or newspaper printing profession, through design.80
Inspired by action research, as it had taken form in the social sciences during the In a broader societal context, these issues of democracy, technology, design and
1950s and 60s – not least as formulated in the ‘critical pedagogy’ by Paulo Freire in development then can hold different political and participatory power relations
Pedagogy of the Oppressed – an ideal in early participatory design research was that of depending on how wide or narrow our perspective is.
making societal and political change not only through design but also through design While issues of power negotiation and democracy have been present in
research. The researcher should not, or could not, be a neutral observer, but should much of participatory design practice, an ideal of consensus rather than conflict
consider how the own practice would play into societal power relations. In early has been developed. Pointing out that many participatory design projects have
participatory design, taking a political stance was also strongly associated with the been carried out in the realm of political ‘do-goodery’,81 or as a diffuse and general
role of engaging as a design researcher, and with the conflation of the roles of ‘designer’ ambition to design for democracy,82 calls have recently been made for participatory
and ‘researcher’ into one and the same (compared to practice in user-centered design, design to re-connect with the political in design and research, returning to an early
where the roles of designer and researcher typically would be separate). view of the political as conflictual or agonistic.83 Differentiating between politics
In the early Scandinavian participatory design projects, designers/ (structures that enable governing) and the political (contestational conditions
researchers actively sided with unions and workers as opposed to management, of society), an increasing emphasis is placed on agonistic design negotiations
expressly with the emancipatory ambition to change the power structures in the as fundamental for emerging participatory design practices aiming to promote
workplace by giving a voice to those who were weakest in the decision-making political design rather than design for politics.84
processes that affected their everyday lives.77 Questions of power relations and The introduction of concepts of infrastructuring in relation to the formation
empowerment were, then, highly present in participatory design from the very of publics and ‘matters of concern’, has been pointed to as a way for participatory
beginning. This strong emphasis on power relations and issues of democracy is design to re-connect with, revitalise, or reimagine, a political stance in relation to
also linked to an ethos of accountability, both in regard to the field of design and issues of democracy and empowerment from which it originated in the late 20th
“the worlds it creates” and in regard to the role of the designer.”78 century.85 The concept of agonistic democracy is then used to frame design-for-
How power is negotiated is intrinsically linked to ethical considerations of future-use in terms of infrastructuring, as well as design-for-use approaches, these
how roles are defined and ascribed (or described), and how values associated design efforts where contestation rather than consensus are seen to form a basis
with skills and knowledge are perceived and created. Since people are considered for democratic developments and the formation of publics.86 Participatory design
experts at what they do, and of what they experience, they should also have the would in this setting be about bringing forth situations in which a radical pluralism
right to influence how what they do is interpreted and represented in a design and the ability to dispute become significative for community-based designing
situation: personas and scenarios, for example, should be developed by and with that aims to strengthen practices and discourses of design for democracy.87
the people these claim to represent.79
The aims of propelling a democratic development through participatory
80 Gro Bjerknes & Tone Bratteteig, “User Participation and
design have been grounded in the importance placed on mutual learning and Democracy: A Discussion of Scandinavian Research on System
negotiation in the design process. That designers and skilled users in early Development”, Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems,
participatory design projects should not only share easily articulated knowledge 1995, 7 (1), p. 78; Peter Botsman, ”Rethinking the CLASS
but also the tacit knowledge associated with their respective practice was the struggle: Industrial democracy and the politics of production”,
groundwork on which informed collaborative work and relevant negotiations of Economic and Industrial Democracy 1989:1 (vol 10), 132-133.
design decisions could take place. In projects such as UTOPIA, which aimed to 81 Susanne Bødker and Morten Kyng, “Participatory Design
develop computer-based tools for newspaper layout processes, knowledge and that Matters – Facing the Big Issues”, ACM Transactions on
skill were the criteria by which users gained influence in the process of designing Computer-Human Interaction 2018:1, vol. 25, 4:8
graphical print tools for highly skilled use. 82 Carl DiSalvo, Adversarial Design, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012).
83 Bo Westerlund, “The use of the absent and Othering in design
The gradation of different types of users in terms of skill, expertise, or
and critical analysis of PD activities”, PDC ‘16: Proceedings of
whether they are end-users or not, might be considered as ascribing different the 14th Participatory Design Conference, Aarhus 2016, 31.
values and different possibilities for participation. Again, considering the UTOPIA 84 DiSalvo, Carl, Adversarial Design (Cambridge: MIT Press,
project, the aim of designing with ‘skilled workers’ in a graphic design and layout 2012); Alastair Fuad-Luke, “Design(-ing) for radical
context had the aim not only of creating qualitatively well-designed layout tools relationality: ‘Relational Design’ for Confronting Dangerous,
for professional use but also the aim of excluding non-skilled workers from Concurrent, Contingent Realities” in (eds.) Ma Jin & Lou
Yongqi, Emerging Practices: Professions, Values and Approaches
in Design (Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 2014), 42-72.
77 Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design, 6. 85 Warwick John Tie, “The subject supposed to design”, CoDesign
78 Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design, 5. 2017:1 (vol.13), 19.
79 Tori Robertson and Ina Wagner, “Ethics: Engagment, 86 Christopher A Le Dantec and Carl DiSalvo, “Infrastructuring
representation and politics-in-action”, Routledge International and the formation of publics in participatory design”, Social
Handbook of Participatory Design, 65. Studies of Science 2013:43(2), 257.

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Chapter 3 Methodologies and Positioning

Products and practices In a participatory design context, there seem to be tensions between
What is it, then, that would be the ‘design Thing’, outcome or ‘product’ which practices aiming towards tangible and measurable design project outcomes in
participatory design brings about? Participatory design once came about in relation terms of things and situations, and more research-oriented practices that are
to the construction of limited, specific systems for particular uses, and grew to more process-focused and whose outcomes tend to be the publication of research
encompass more large scales systems and frameworks – still, mainly in work-related papers.90 In this context, there are tendencies to see a participatory design
settings. With networked technologies and platforms developed increasingly for result as something veering in a prescriptive direction: Some aspects, themes,
everyday use – whether professional or personal or private – participatory design has practices and outcomes in participatory design are considered more central to
moved into other realms of practice than before, working with issues pertaining to the approach than others, and in consequence, a return to the conceptual and
open and social design, multiple users, and open-ended processes.88 With the shifts political origins should be made in order to (re-)form a participatory design that
in what participatory design focuses, and with the blurring of boundaries between makes a substantial difference in peoples’ lives. This view of also typically includes
user and designer, the “finishing line” of design is also constantly moving. If the an understanding of Participatory Design (then often capitalised) as pertaining
result of a design process previously was a product, refined and worked-through more exclusively to the realm of advanced technological things, processes and
collaboratively between different stakeholders, thoroughly tested and evaluated, systems, where the aims are “better processes for the direct participants” and
and finally released into “use”, things are beginning to work differently. The ‘end- “solutions that are controlled by the future users”.91 This also entails a returning to
users’ are increasingly also carrying out the final design decisions, whether in forms core participatory design foundations in action research, and the conviction that
of personalisation or collaborative open-access formats, or unanticipated uses or design researchers should actively take a political, and even activist, stance and
re-uses.89 Therefore, intentionally ‘designing for design after design’ re-shapes ideas “engage in some of the more controversial areas where researchers could really
of methods and uses, and also redefines how a ‘final product’, ‘design solution’, or help people by taking side with them.”92
‘outcome’ of design might be understood. In an emerging participatory design approach that rather instead emphasises
What is seen as results or outcomes in and of participatory design, ties into process, change, experimentation and deliberation as the fundamentals of
the layered and often simultaneously plural views and aims within participatory politically engaged practice, the focus is not on what participatory design should
design practices there since its beginnings, that still are, in different ways, highly be, but what it could be becoming. The outcomes in this approach take on the
present: engaging people in co-designing meaningful things, supporting mutual probing of forms of knowledge and research contributions that – rather than aiming
learning and shared understanding, empowering people within their present to provide stable answers or solutions – instead attempt to further an opening up
and future situations, striving towards the democratisation of workplaces of questions, proposals and possibilities that “experiment with, dissect, critique,
and society in general, and supporting these participatory processes through enable and multiply the ways issues and publics are being designed together”.93
tangible practices of making and designing. Outcomes in participatory design are The political, rather than politics, thus comes into focus in contexts or aspects
also highly connected to its research traditions and contexts: the building and relating to the democratic aims of early participatory design. Experimentation and
furthering of knowledge in and through design by means of the development of prototyping aim to both propose new tools, methods, theories and contexts of
participatory methods, theories, tools and processes. participation to highlight and consciously negotiate mechanisms of power and
influence in open-ended design situations and processes, projecting possibilities
of doing design differently: “What if there were absolutely no operational selection
criteria of who enters the thing?”94 “When everybody participates but we don’t
87 Carl DiSalvo, Andrew Clement and Volkmar Pipek, have the hope of clear answers from previous experiences to fall back on or
“Communities: Participatory Design for, with, and by solutions to craft, what is possible?”95
communities” in Routledge International Handbook of
Participatory Design, 200; Thomas Binder, Eva Brandt, Pelle
Ehn & Joachim Halse, “Democratic design experiments:
Between parliament and laboratory” CoDesign 2015:3-4,
vol.11.
88 Elisa Giaccardi, “Metadesign as an emergent design culture”,
Leonardo 2005:4 (vol.38), 342-349; A. Telier, Design Things
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 170-181; Monica Lindh 90 Morten Kyng and Ellen Balka qutoted in John Whittle, “How
Karlsson & Johan Redström, “Design Togetherness” in Nordes much participation is enough?”, 121.
2015: Design Ecologies (2015), no 6; Stoffel Kuenen, Aesthetics 91 Bødker & Kyng, “Participatory Design that Matters”, 4:1-4:2.
of being together, diss., (Umeå: Umeå University, 2018); Aditya 92 Bødker & Kyng, “Participatory Design that Matters”, 4:9-4:14.
Pawar and Johan Redström, “Publics, Participation and the 93 Binder et al., “Democratic design experiments”, 161.
Making of Umeå Pantry”, International Journal of Design 94 Binder et al., “Democratic design experiments”, 162.
2016:1 (Vol.10). 95 Lindström & Ståhl, “Becoming response-able stakeholders”, 44.
89 Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertsson (eds.), Routledge 96 Bødker & Kyng, “Participatory Design that Matters”, 4:1-4:31;
International Handbook of Participatory Design, 9. Binder et al., “Democratic design experiments”, 152.

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Origins and futures in design about participatory and user-centered design and could design histories of core
ideas to these approaches open up for other ways of thinking and doing in these
The recent calls made for a return to the origins of participatory design often practices?
propose a revitalisation or revision of the field,96 and for an opening up of new User-centered and participatory design – whether understood as potentiality
interpretations of what participatory design could be.97 What revitalisations or or in more normative ways – basically revolves around how we collaboratively
openings would potentially be brought to the fore by returning to the ‘origins’ of can go about crafting just and sustainable ways of being together through new
participatory design? Depending on which aspects of the perceived beginnings ways of doing design. Contestations, explorations and proposals of who ‘we’ are
of participatory design practices become activated, these will rely on concepts and how ‘we’ come together, what challenges and contexts can be brought to
and ideas that were formative to how and why these ways of designing came the fore, and what that means for the knowledge and tools we need to make, will
about. If activating such ‘original’ ideas in participatory practices will re-activate need to be continuously investigated, prototyped and eventually paradigmatically
and reformulate conceptual spaces that allow for framing design situations and transformed. Whatever design will become, its becoming will relate to, and carry
processes differently, or if this will instead – or also – mean that certain values, traces of, its historicity. How possible and plausible trajectories of design are drawn
power structures, or hierarchies, are perpetuated and re-enacted is difficult to between past and future through an unstable and transitional now, will inform and
predict. Especially if it is not clear how entanglements of past and present work in affect the choices we make, whether we are aware of it or not.
regard to design’s concepts and practices.
Early participatory design – though critical of many social and disciplinary Moving on
power structures – still to a large extent worked within a design paradigm in which Already in this chapter, even before moving towards the examples of design histories
the process of designing had a distinct starting point, fairly clearly defined (new) that are about to follow, it has begun to be noticeable that a repositioning of design’s
roles for designers and users, and an idea of design results being something and design history’s outlooks in relation to each other, does something for what
quite ‘finished’ in terms of product or concept. Much of today’s more recent becomes visible in design’s past as well as what that means for understandings
participatory design work has moved more towards a ‘what if – then how?’ stance: of its present. From the shift in vantage point of looking towards history from a
What if everyone designs? Then how do the roles of ‘researcher’, ‘designer’,’ user’, position of participatory and user-centered designing, some blind spots in design
‘participant’ or ‘stakeholder’ shift or change? What does it mean in terms of historiography have already become evident, as have some conceptual tensions
power relations and ambitions of empowerment to be ‘invited’ to participate, as relating to the historicity of designing. In the following, we will move on to exploring
opposed to ‘come together’ around matters of concern? 98 Or to see participation what prototypes made through combining methodologies from programmatic
as a method for co-designing towards tangible design outcomes that address design research and historical research can bring to design and to design history.
power relations in a specific situation or context, versus as a way to support the Positioning the outlook towards the past from a position of core concepts in
formation of publics in processes of social innovation aiming to address issues of contemporary participatory and user-centered designing, the ambition is to bring
democracy and deliberation on a societal level?99 What if not only people but also about a different way of looking at things. Instead of looking straight ahead, at the
other entities have agency in design processes – then how would participation things that are usually visible from established positions in design, these prototypes
come about and what would it mean?100 How could design be done, and can we attempt to support seeing something different, sort of like trying to look a bit closer
say something about how it should be done? What if designing does not start at something that one maybe only has glimpsed in the corner of one’s eye.
with a brief and end with a finished thing, but is open-ended – then, how would In the following three chapters, three different examples of design histories
practices of design and use come about?101 What is it that we mean, when we talk are prototyped in relation to concepts at the core of a Scandinavian user-centered
and participatory tradition. By applying the concepts of ‘participation’, ‘users’ and
97 Lindström & Ståhl, “Becoming response-able stakeholders”, 41. ‘methods’ as lenses through which to go looking for design histories, the ambition
98 Lars Bo Andersen, Peter Danholt, Kim Halskov, Nicolai is to test if these practice-based perspectives on well-established design historical
Brodersen Hansen, & Peter Lauritsen, “Participation as a contexts can tease out other histories than the usual. Furthermore, the aim is to
matter of concern in participatory design”, CoDesign 2015: 3-4 explore if these histories could provide glimpses of conceptual openings for thinking
(Vol.11), 250-261. differently about design, drawing forth other possible trajectories for designing.
99 Le Dantec & Carl DiSalvo, “Infrastructuring and the formation The programmatic approach of making transitional design histories speaks
of publics in participatory design”, 260. to the potential of doing things differently that is at the core of designing, but that
100 Erling Björgvinsson, Pelle Ehn & Per-Anders Hillgren, “Design
can risk becoming restricted in outlook and practice through the ‘fossilisation’ of
Things and Design Thinking: Contemporary Participatory
Design Challenges”, Design Issues 2012:3, vol. 28, 103; Elisa
certain methods or perspectives. Transitional design histories made from starting
Giaccardi & Johan Redström, “Technology and More-Than- points in concepts perceived as foundational or stable, aim to support change in
Human Design”, Design Issues 2020:4 (vol.36) [forthcoming]. design. Through activating an increased awareness of the historicity of designing,
101 Erling Bjarki Björgvinsson, “Open-ended participatory design as these design histories strive to contribute to the conceptual spaces in which to think
prototypical practice”, CoDesign 2008:2, vol.4, 97; Johan Redström, and act differently in design, including how design actively could re-design itself.
“RE:definitions of use”, Design Studies 2008:29, 410-423

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Transitional
design histories
Participation
The program of making transitional design histories begins with the proposal that The conceptual lens for this exploration was chosen based on its central and
a historical awareness of design methods and concepts is needed within design. foundational capacity for participatory design practices: as a concept, as a
Activating attention to the historicity of design can support shifts towards doing term, and as a name. In making and narrating this historical representation,
design differently, moving towards more just and more sustainable ways of living. the prototype relies on the reader having a certain familiarity with participatory
Transitional design histories aim to work as things to think with, and as stories to design. That understanding would be expected either to relate to experiences
tell other stories with. of participatory design practices, or to being acquainted with contemporary
By positioning design histories in issues that matter for contemporary participatory design research, or with histories of these. Since general histories
designing, these explore ideas and practices that have come to form the conceptual of participatory design are very few, part of the construction of the prototype
foundations of design. These histories would be transitional, made to support fluid consisted of providing a historical narrative as a contextual setting within the
and changing understandings of designing. They would present – make present – prototype itself.
tensions and assumptions embedded in the core concepts that designing builds on, The conceptual lens of ‘participation’ was then first applied to published
making visible the inherent instability in what is often currently taken for granted. material from contexts where the term began to appear in design (DRS conferences
The program of transitional design histories is a tool for exploring what happens in the early 1970s and the UK design methods movement) and to publications
when design histories are made for design rather than of design. With this follows, relating to situations where the concept usually is considered to make its first
that the making of these histories does not ultimately aim to prototype directions for appearances in Scandinavian design (union-driven IT projects of the 1970s). In
providing more solid or definitive histories of participation, users, or methods. While the analytical readings of material relating to Scandinavian participatory design,
making contributions to design historical knowledge, the prototypes presented here further attention was given to ideas appearing explicitly and implicitly in the
are not meant to be stable over time, but to be open to change in respect to design material, e.g. ‘democracy’, ‘mutual learning’, ‘bridging difference’, ‘negotiation’, etc.,
histories’ outlooks, positions, and directions as design evolves. as being connected to the formation of the concept of ‘participation’.
Transitional design histories are directed towards exploring if histories Based on these readings, and the conceptual layerings added to the lens of
can work towards opening up conceptual spaces for thinking and doing design ‘participation’, I turned to focus on a period in time in Sweden when socio-political
differently. These prototypes investigate the design space of transitional design ideas of participatory democracy were strongly voiced, the turn of the century
histories: how could such histories be made, and what would they be able to do? 1900. This coincides temporally with the emergence of Swedish industrial design
In this section of the thesis, I present three prototypes that explore the program discourse – at least as established in previous design historical accounts. Here, the
of transitional design histories. The following prototypes thus present – and are, as conceptual lens of ‘participation’ has been introduced and applied to a temporal
such – initial explorations of the program of transitional design histories. In probing setting (turn of the century 1900) and actor (Ellen Key) well known in Swedish
the frameworks of this program, the main guiding questions are: design history, to test if this would bring other possible design histories into view.
The source material for the analytical readings were selected more broadly
» What becomes visible in design’s conceptual frameworks, when a shift in from Ellen Key’s literary production than is usually the case in Swedish design
positioning brings design history to the outlook of designing? history. From findings in these texts, original archival material related to
» Will histories for design be able to activate different understandings of participatory situations (Tolfterna), located in the National Library of Sweden, was
core design concepts, in terms of the historicity of designing? studied further. In terms of form, the narrative of this prototype does not follow a
strictly chronological trajectory, but experiments with a format of moving ‘back
» What becomes visible as history relevant for design, when perspectives
and forth’ in relation to a perceived linear historical time, aiming to place more
are taken on the past through core concepts in design? Will other
emphasis on how the prototype works, than on the narrative as a coherent story.
historical contexts, actors, and ideas come into view, contributing to
design history?

While the sequence of the three prototypes does not represent an iterative process
towards gradually more finished or complete designs of histories, the findings and
questions that emerged in the process of working with each prototype have been used
to form the next iteration. These considerations are presented briefly here below, as are
outlines of methods and materials used, before moving on to the prototypes themselves.
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Users Methods
This prototype is made with the intent of being similar to a more established format In this third iteration, the prototype sets out to investigate design practices through
of historical representations, working with a chronological format of historical the concept of ‘methods’. The exploration here aims to highlight instances of how
narrative covering the period from 1900 to the 1940s. Still, the intent is to test if methods become invented or incorporated into design practices in relation to
and how an outlook from the perspective of designing could make a difference for changing contexts for and expectations on design, and to probe what might count
the workings of such a history. The conceptual lenses of ‘users’ and ‘use’ chosen as relevant contexts in the search for histories of designing.
here relate to both terms and concepts in user-centered designing. This chapter This prototype continues building on the socio-political contexts relating
also incorporates a contextual account of practices (of user-centered design), and to the formation of design practices and concepts, as presented in the previous
an overview of existing design histories as part of the prototype. One emerging two prototypes. The prototype further probes how methods for supporting
question in relation to this, is if and how such a piecing together of ‘established’ or processes of designing have come about. Picking up on the themes of reforming
‘general’ design histories as contextual components made to contrast to the more and redesigning everyday life through interventions in the domestic environment,
intervention-like parts of the prototyping will diminish the potentially transitional this study further explores the development of methods for studying and changing
workings of such design histories. everyday domestic practices in the 1940s (the Home Research Institute).
The socio-political framing of a Swedish design discourse in relation to issues The format of this prototype aligns with the previous two, in that it
of housing and home reform is taken further in this iteration. Framing these in also includes a quite extensive historical contextual framing, highlighting
light of well-researched aspects of Swedish modernist design theory and practice contemporary as well as past approaches to methods in design. Following this,
of the 1930s (functionalism and the Stockholm exhibition), the readings of the part of the prototype where the concept of ‘methods’ is applied in analysing
original publications applies the concept of ‘use’ to hone in on attempts to achieve historical material follows a fairly sequential and chronological historical
behavioural change through integrating design intent in material things. This is narrative. In terms of materials, the analysis is based both on published journals
set in relation to a socio-political context of reforms of everyday life on individual and reports, and on a substantial collection of archival documents stemming
as well as societal levels, through studying investigations and interventions into from the Home Research Institute, placed in the Swedish National Archives. In
practices of use as well as in practices of designing. this prototype, visual material from publications as well as archival items are
Here, I apply the conceptual lenses of ‘users’ and ‘use’ to archival material introduced, to begin extending the analytical framework to other than written
and publications that I have previously engaged with in other research settings materials.
(dwelling investigations from the 1930s and 1940s). Returning to a, for me, well-
known archival material from a perspective of designing, is done with the aim of
investigating if other things become visible than what was previously noticed. In
terms of archival materials, the items and collections studied here are stored in
several different archives: the Nordiska Museet Archive, the ArkDes Archive, the
Swedish National Archives, and the Centre for Business History. When I first went
searching for these materials, the process of locating them took several years of
searching, entailing substantial amounts of archival detective work supported by
staff working in these different archives.

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Chapter 4 Participation

4. Participation

Since participatory design was formulated in the latter decades of the 20th century,
finding different ways of bringing together designers and non-designers together
in collaborative processes has been central to its methods development as well
as to its ethical foundations. There are abundant examples of explorations into
how to further develop methods, tools and formats for collaborative designing.
So many in fact that even starting to point to a selection of ‘typical’ such projects
or programs in a thesis reference is quite difficult.1 Many of these studies critically
question current practices in relation to which types of situations these can be
expected to support.2 However, in this attention to participatory practices in
design the concept of ‘participation’ itself is rarely called into question – even when
the concept is critically addressed in regard to what it could mean.
As a foundational idea in various approaches to collaborative designing, it is
not contested that participation is important. What is questioned and challenged is
how it should happen, who should be involved, and what participatory designing
can bring to situations as diverse as commercial product design or social and
political activist endeavours. So, while there are many explorations of how and
why participation should or could happen in design, little attention is paid to what
‘participation’ means conceptually to the formation of design practices, or on how
it once came to be established as a core concept in designing.
This study probes the concept of ‘participation’ in design from a historical
point of view, with attention to ideas that over time have played into its emergence
and incorporation into design discourse and practice. ‘Participation’ here thus
serves as both a starting point and as a lens for sketching a design history from
a perspective of designing. This chapter is a prototype, an example, of a what a
transitional design history could be like, in that it aims to contribute to opening
up ways of seeing the historicity of collaborative design practices through probing
the concept of ‘participation’.

Attempting to draw forth historical ideas and contexts that made it possible for
participatory design to become established, specifically in a Nordic setting, the
hope is that a history such as this might give insights into the embedded values
and attitudes that still might be in play when activating participatory approaches,
methods, and tools. What participation is understood as – actively or not – is

1 For example, the papers presented at the biannual Participatory

Design Conferences since 1990 extensively explore collaborative
methods and considerations https://ojs.ruc.dk/index.php/
pdc/issue/archive (accessed 2020-05-29).
2 Liesbeth Huybrechts, Virginia Tassinari, Barbara Roosen, &
Teodora Constantinescu, “Work, labour and action: the role of
participatory design in (re)activating the political dimension
Notebooks with minutes from Tolfterna discussions. Tolfterna of work”, in PDC’18:Proceedings of the 15th Participatory
archive, Kungliga biblioteket (National Library of Sweden). Design Conference. i. (ACM, 2018), 1–11.

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what draws up the possibilities and the limits for how practices of participatory The concept of participation
designing can be made and unmade, and what we can expect these to be able to
do for us. How design is done responds to the situation it is called into but in doing Participation, in design, entails people being active and acknowledged in a joint
so, it relies on understandings and on ways of seeing things that are embedded in collaborative endeavour, in a design process, on equal standing with designers.4
its concepts and methods. Terminology varies over time and in various publications: the terms ‘participation,
If existing practices of designing come to the limits of what these can handle ‘collaboration’, and ‘co-design’ tend to point to ways of designing understood
in emerging situations, it will in the long run not suffice to try to address this as characterised by participatory design practices – which as a definition, is a
only through developing new design methods. Then, what will be necessary is typical example of circular reasoning. However, the ‘participatory practices’
the bringing about of other ways of thinking in design. The concepts that frame referred to in such a statement, entails something more than designers and non-
how we see and understand the world need to be presented – made present – designers working together in a design project or design process.5 The concept of
and destabilised if we are to be able to question the historicity of concepts and ‘participation’ in design, includes ideas and practices that go beyond a general
find ways to do design differently. To speak with Hannah Arendt, we would have understanding of ‘collaboration’ as working together. Some of these fundamental
to unfreeze the frozen thoughts of concepts to find their original embedded ideas include approaching design as a social and collaborative practice of mutual
meanings, and open up for thinking and acting differently.3 learning between designers, users and stakeholders, and enabling non-designers
This prototype of a transitional design history aims to contribute to begin the to have a voice or an active role in the design process through introducing tools,
thawing of one of the core concepts in participatory designing, making it softer, less methods and techniques that support a shared language and shared design actions.
stale, and more pliable, and thus possible to perhaps re-shape or handle in other ways This also builds on understanding the designer’s intent as aimed at acknowledging
than when it comes across as firm and fairly solid. Another aim is to bring design and empowering people as experts in design situations as well as in future use
history closer to central issues in contemporary design and make design histories contexts, and on strengthening emancipatory and democratic practices through
that speak to practices of designing. The other objective with this prototypical design design processes by addressing issues of politics, power, accountability and agency
history is to explore if other stories of design come into view when the historical in design as well as on societal levels.6
outlook and perspective applied is positioned in relation to current designing. A general dictionary definition of ‘participation’ is “the action or state of
In this chapter, I direct attention towards what is already a well-established taking part in something”. A legal definition also includes “association with others
Swedish design historical temporal context, the turn of the century 1900. The approach, in a relationship (as a partnership) or an enterprise usually on a formal basis with
however, to events, publications, organisations, and historical actors is positioned specified rights and obligations”.7 ‘Participation’ in more recent participatory
in relation to designing, from the perspective of the concept of ‘participation’ in design – especially with its transition into other fields of design than strictly
contemporary design practices. The chapter begins with a brief initial overview of computer-related – would lean towards the former definition, while the roots
the concept – and the term – of ‘participation’ as it came into design discourse in the of Scandinavian participatory design can be traced to a definition more veering
1970s. I then move on to an exploration of Swedish turn-of-the-century ideas and towards the latter. However, this ambiguity of meaning between participation
initiatives revolving around design, society and everyday life, by means of looking for as generally referring to people somehow taking an active part in design, and a
ideas and instances of ‘participation’ in socio-political contexts relating identified as formalisation of what constitutes participation in design, has, it seems, been there
relevant to Swedish theories and practices in design and aesthetics. already from the start.
Re-visiting the writings of author, social theorist and design reformist Ellen
Key through the conceptual lens of ‘participation’, examples are given of how
practices of mutual understanding and learning became central in negotiating and
shifting political and social power structures towards an inclusive democracy in
the early 20th century, laying a foundation for the situations in which Scandinavian 4 Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.), Routledge
International Handbook of Participatory Design (London &
participatory design later emerged.
New York: Routledge, 2013) 5.
5 Tuuli Mattelmäki & Froukje Sleeswijk Visser, “Lost in Co-X:
Interpretations of Co-design and Co-Creation” in Proceedings
of IASDR2011 (Delft, 2011); Elizabeth B.-N Sanders & Pieter
Jan Stappers, “Co-creation and the new landscapes of design”,
Co-Design 2008:1 (vol.4), 5-18.
6 Toni Robertson and Jesper Simonsen, “Participatory Design:
An introduction” in (eds.) Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson,
Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design
(London & New York: Routledge, 2013)
7 ‘Participate’ in Merriam-Webster dictionary, https://www.
3 Hannah Arendt, Life of the Mind. One/Thinking. Two/Willing. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/participate, (accessed
[1971/1978] (San Diego, New York, London: Harcourt, 1981), 171. 2020-06-10).

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DRS Design Participation conference 1971

As a term, ‘participation’ seems to have made its way into design discourse with the
design methods movement and the emerging design research of the mid- to late
1960s. At the Design Research Society (DRS) conference in Manchester in 1971,
the theme was “Design Participation”. The concept of ‘participation’ in relation to
design was, on the one hand, presented as something new that would alter ways
of designing, and, on the other, as a concept that by then was already over-used
and at risk of becoming void of actual content. In his opening address, design
historian Reyner Banham referred to the “wonder ingredient ‘participation’” as
having emerged relatively recently, and as having not only become established
but already also contested:

In six short years a concept which had been non-existent had already been
narrowed down to a point where it was almost useless. It had gone from
something which was absolutely spit-new to all those who heard it for the first
time, to a condition where everybody thought they knew what it meant, and
were astonished to be reminded that the word can carry a broader spectrum of DRS Conference proceedings 1971,
meaning than they had had in mind.8 “Design Participation”.

Nigel Cross, who was director of the conference and editor of its proceedings, education in schools would need to be fundamentally re-worked to prepare new
stated something similar in his concluding remark: generations for working collectively and creatively. Until such changes had come
into effect, new procedures and practices should also gradually be introduced in
Finally, I should add that the phrase ‘design participation’, which I thought I current design processes as a whole, in matters of participatory idea generation as
had invented specifically as a title for the conference only nine months earlier, well as in making participatory design decisions. Jungk remarked:
had already become, according to one reviewer soon after the conference, ‘an
inadequate cliché’.9 As a prognostician, I don’t think this change will take place before the end of the
century. We will have to suffer first from the lack of foresight of our fathers and
At the DRS Design Participation conference, the talks and discussions revolved grandfathers. After that, something radically different can come, but it won’t
around what would become of the role of the designer if “user participation” come on its own; it has to be prepared.10
were integrated into designing, with examples given mainly from architecture
and city planning. What would happen, several of the speakers asked, to design The preparation needed to enable a radical societal change, according to the
expertise and professionalism when design decisions were made in conjunction conference speakers, included developing methods for participatory practices in
with people who had little or no knowledge of design at all? How should designers design. These should, in turn, be based on furthering design knowledge not only
handle the increasing emphasis on political and social contexts brought to the among design professionals but among people in general. The development of
fore in instances of participatory designing? And what would this mean for the methods for participation applicable should also be set in relation to initiatives
development of methods and processes in design? aiming to “undo generations of conditioning” that hindered people from coming
In their concluding summaries of the conference, designer John Chris together in participatory designing.11
Jones and journalist and futurist Robert Jungk both highlighted the need for For designers, this meant moving into the socio-political realm and becoming
designers to work with challenging and changing societal infrastructures and more familiar with methodologies and research traditions in the social sciences.
cultures hampering the possibilities for participation between “professionals” This was crucial if designers should better understand “the people” that ought to
and “people”, for society as a whole to change. The time frames for achieving be brought into participatory decision-making in design. Jungk suggested that
design situations in which participatory practices could reasonably be carried out anthropologists and psychologists, therefore, must be involved in the work to “open
in radically new ways were, they pointed out, probably decades away since the people up”. This was work that would take time, and that needed to be carried out on
different levels, as a central aspect to this was learning to see and do things in other

8 Reyner Banham, “Alternative networks for the alternative

culture?” in Nigel Cross (ed.) Design Participation. Proceedings 10 Robert Jungk’s remarks in J. Christopher Jones & Robert
of the Design Research Society’s Conference, Manchester, Jungk, “Closing comments” in Nigel Cross (ed.), Design
September 1971 (London: Academy editions, 1972), 15. Participation, 122.
9 Nigel Cross, “Here comes everyman!”, in Nigel Cross (ed.) 11 Robert Jungk’s remarks in Jones & Jungk, “Closing
Design Participation, 14. comments”, 121.

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ways than before. Since this meant the creation of “a new man” (Jungk) and a “lifting ‘people’ as needed to participate at specific points in a design process for designers to
of art and design into the area of life rather than hardware, into living patterns and reach better solutions, while others, as in the above quote, meant that participatory
activities, rather than utensils” (Jones), one would need to be patient and work with design approaches would fundamentally alter how design is done, and by whom.
relatively long perspectives in order for making change come about. While the questions at the 1971 conference revolved around how to include
While the lack of knowledge amongst ‘the people’ (as opposed to ‘the designers’) non-designers in designing, and in the situations in which design could take
involved in design processes could be seen as problematic – or even “appalling” – in place, the mechanisms bringing design into being were not explicitly questioned.
relation to participation in design, this unfamiliarity with design was also pointed to Design was approached as something initiated by companies, organisations, and
as an advantage. While design experts could be trapped in understandings that were government or municipal structures. These initiators would engage designers,
the “frozen things of yesterday”, ordinary people might “with a lack of knowledge who in turn could – and, some argued, should – engage ‘ordinary people’ as
[…] be able to look at things in a more original, more creative way.”12 This idea of participants in designing.
bringing people with ‘a lack of knowledge’ into the design process quite clearly set But what was the role of the designer supposed to be, in a situation where
the framework for where and how expertise was perceived to reside in designing. non-designers were brought into design? Should designers be increasingly
Designers, in their professional roles, held certain types of expertise based specialised and professional, or should the profession be dismantled in favour
not only on knowledge about and practice in design but also knowledge about of participatory processes? In the discussions, the actual methods and formats
socio-technical frameworks and possibilities that ordinary people did not hold. through which design would be done were not really in focus at this conference.
The eventual contribution that ‘people’ might make to designing, through methods Participatory design was, at least for some of the contributing design researchers,
enabling their participation, was seen as a potential for ideation and creativity rather a means for the designer to extend his (for it was ‘he’, in all of the conference
through bringing a sort of unconditioned and genuine perspective on what could contributions) knowledge about user needs and wishes, rather than a process
be possible.13 One of the speakers, exemplifying with design in a medical setting, in which roles of power were collaboratively contested or negotiated. So while
highlighted that it was not enough to only bring in ‘users’ into design situations ‘participation’ as a concept was discussed, it was on a level somewhat detached
since the contexts being designed for were very complex. If specialists or experts, from actually engaging with participatory modes of design practice.
together with users and designers, were to truly be able to contribute to finding In the Scandinavian context of the early 1970s, the situation was perhaps not
new solutions, this must be done in the form of participatory teamwork, in which inversed but at least quite substantially different. The new ways of collaborative
group processes and collaboration would be essential: designing that emerged there arose both in response to the opening up of new
situations for design, as well as to structural changes on legal and socio-political
It is also clear that in the team design process we have outlined there is a levels. Labour market dynamics and new legislation in combination with
considerable need for participation at all levels in time and form. But to consider institutional and self-organised socio-political movements, challenged traditional
this merely as a reaction between user and designer would be naive to say the domains of power and knowledge in society in general as well as in designing.
least. With major goal-centred activities, participation, including social as well
as individual action, becomes the source of design.14
Union-driven design initiatives
In this context of early methods-focused design research that aimed to address In a Scandinavian context, the formation of participatory design practices took
increasingly complex design situations, issues of participation were quite tightly its starting point with initiatives from trade unions, specifically in relation to
linked to questions of how to find adequate ways of bringing people other than questions of gaining influence in the processes of introducing computer-based
designers into design processes. Standpoints differed in that some saw ‘users’ or technologies and tools in the workplace. The late sixties saw legal reforms in the
Nordic countries aiming towards industrial democracy, specifically in relation
to socio-technical developments. With the formation of social movements
12 Robert Jungk’s remarks in Jones & Jungk, “Closing discussing and taking action on issues of democracy and power, new arenas arose
comments”, 121. for collaboration and negotiation in working life.
13 Alberto Feo. “Operational games applied to socio-technical Seminal projects acknowledged as such in participatory design contexts
problems”, in Cross, Nigel (ed.) Design Participation, 42-43: were, for example, the Norwegian Iron and Metal Workers Union NJMF project
“Our experience suggests that people without the explicit in Norway in the early 1970s, and the later projects in the mid-1970s and early
knowledge and experience of a socio-technical problem can 1980s inspired by this such as the DUE (Demokrati, udvikling og EDB/Democracy,
be helpful in the exploration of such problems. This should development and Electronic Data Processing) in Denmark, the Swedish DEMOS
not be interpreted as if they are ‘the best’ subjects for this kind
(Demokratiska styrningssystem/Democratic systems for steering) and UTOPIA
of exercise, because much better and also more difficult than
(Utbildning, teknik och produkt i arbetskvalitetsperspektiv/Education, technology
using ‘any’ people is using ‘the’ people involved in the real
problem or situation.” and product in work quality perspective), and the nursing project Florence in
14 E. Matchett and K. G. Williams, “Strategic design for Norway. These were all either initiated directly by trade unions or by researchers
international healthcare”, in Nigel Cross (ed.), Design in collaboration with unions, with the express intent to gain both knowledge and
Participation, 105. influence in the introduction of these new tools and technologies.

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Between the years 1971 and 1973, the Norwegian Iron and Metal Workers’ goals were ultimately to establish shared responsibility for production as well as
Union (NJMF) ran a project aiming to incorporate workers’ perspectives on the ownership in industry, and the Swedish approach built on the ambition to avoid
introduction and development of new technology. Kristen Nygaard, who was a social tensions in the form of class conflicts or outright revolution.
computer science researcher engaged in the NJMF project, has described how it
came about with a starting point in union-led discussion groups in the late 1960s, Negotiation, collaboration and ‘the Saltsjöbaden spirit’
revolving around topics related to the consequences of introducing computer There had been many conflicts regarding working conditions and employment
technology in various parts of society. The specific discussion group in this case between workers and employers in Sweden during the first decades of the 20th
was one “within a broad, democratic movement genuinely representing the century. Repeated attempts to introduce legislative measures to subdue these
interests of the workers” in which the members ”came from a wide range of sectors tensions were not successful, and instead, the organisations representing
in the society: Job shops, chemical plants, transportation, white-collar work, employers and those representing trade unions came to an agreement in 1938
hotels and restaurants, the public sector.”15 Out of these joint discussions came the that would govern relations and negotiations without state involvement. This so-
conclusion that there was a lack of knowledge about computer technology ”based called Saltsjöbaden agreement was a labour market treaty stating the forms and
upon the world view of the union members, emphasizing solidarity, industrial protocols regulating collaboration and negotiation between the Swedish Trade
democracy, safe employment, safe working conditions, decent wages etc”. The Union Confederation (LO, Landsorganisationen) and the Swedish Employers’
decision was then made by the Norwegian Iron and Metal Workers’ Union to Organisation (SAF, Svenska arbetsgivareföreningen). Despite being an agreement
initiate a research project aiming to address this, with bringing in Nygaard as a only between two parties, this became the template for subsequent similar
researcher based at the Norwegian Computing Center.16 agreements between other unions and employers on the national as well as the
The aim of the NJMF project was to increase knowledge about the new local level and is still in force in Sweden today.19
technology, in order to be able to take part in influencing how these could be Central to the Saltsjöbaden agreement were formulations stating the conditions
incorporated in working life. Fundamental to the project were the collaborative for worker’s representation in issues regarding workplace influence, including
ways in which workers and researchers together addressed ways of jointly building agreements of employment security, and forms for handling workplace conflicts and
and sharing knowledge as well as methods for doing development work together. strikes. Unions and industry leaders came together around the joint goal of increasing
Besides these, results on a national level also included the 1975 Data Agreement national production as well as improving workers’ satisfaction and motivation in the
between the Norwegian Trade Union Congress and the National Federation of workplace through cooperation, dialogue and negotiation aiming to reach agreements
Employers, “stating the right for the trade unions to be informed and participate directly and without interference from state or government.20 The governing ideas that
in the development and introduction of computer-based system impacting relationships and negotiations between workers and industry should be based on a
upon their working conditions.”17 In these early projects, a strong focus was collaborative intent, aiming to seek compromise through mutual understanding and
placed on developing methods for power negotiations between trade unions and respect, came to be called ‘the Saltsjöbaden spirit’.
company management, targeting on gaining influence in the introduction of new This spirit of deliberation and collaboration profoundly influenced the
technologies in the workplace. conditions on the labour market, and also the broader political and societal
The formal or legal aspects relating to unions’ possibilities to influence arena in how cross-organisational and political discourse and practice took
the introduction of new technologies into the workplace was decisive for the form. ‘The Swedish model’, or the ‘middle way’ as it was labelled by American
role that unions came to play in the emergence of participatory design also in journalist Marquis Childs already in the mid-1930s,21 consisted of a route taken
Sweden. With the Swedish Joint Regulation Act in the late 1970s, the legal right between market-driven capitalism and socio-political aims of egalitarianism
was established for workers and unions to be part of co-determining work that formed a sort of social contract laying the foundation for the Swedish welfare
organisation, including changes to work structures stemming from the design state.22 Decisive for this was that there was a high degree of enrolment in unions,
and introduction of new technologies. The democratisation of working conditions,
in terms of introducing industrial democracy, had been an integral part of the
19 Christer Lundh, Nya perspektiv på Saltsjöbadsavtalet
Swedish workers’ movement since the 1920s and had aims that went beyond the (Stockholm: SNS, 2009). The Saltsjöbad agreement is still in
empowerment of workers’ influence in and on their workplace.18 The legislative force in Sweden today, with the latest major revision made
in 1976 with adaptations made in relation to the change in
15 Kristen Nygaard, “How Many Choices Do We Make? How national legislation.
Many Are Difficult?”, 52-59 in Floyd, C., Züllighoven, H., 20 Kjellberg, “Från industriell demokrati till medbestämmande”, 63-64.
Budde, R., and Keil-Slawik, R., (eds.), Software Development 21 Marquis Childs, Sweden: The Middle Way (New Haven: Yale
and Reality Construction (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Univ. Press, 1936).
16 Nygaard, “How Many Choices Do We Make?”, 52-59. 22 Yvonne Hirdman, Att lägga livet tillrätta: Studier i svensk
17 Nygaard, “How Many Choices Do We Make?”, 52-59. folkhemspolitik, Maktutredningens publikationer (Stockholm:
18 Anders Kjellberg, “Från industriell demokrati till Carlsson, 1989); Sven E.O. Hort, Social policy, welfare
medbestämmande - fackliga utvecklingslinjer 1917-1980”, state, and civil society in Sweden Vol. 1 History, policies, and
Arkiv för studier i arbetarrörelsens historia 1981:21-22, 53-82. institutions 1884-1988, (Lund: Arkiv, 2014).

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by workers, and likewise a high degree of registration in the national industry or Hence, we rejected the harmony view of organizations, according to which
employers’ organisations by companies, enterprises and agencies, which gave conflicts in an organization are regarded as pseudo-conflicts, to be dissolved by
both parties a strong standing in labour market negotiations. good analysis, and consequently we also rejected an understanding of design
Central to the collaborative ideas at the basis of this ‘middle way’, was a as a rational decision-making process based on common goals. Instead our
research was based on a conflict view of industrial organizations in our society.
shared understanding between employers’ organisations and trade unions that
In the interest of emancipation we deliberately made the choice of working
economic growth and industrial development were the keys to the development together with workers and their organizations, supporting the development of
of Sweden as a prospering country. Therefore, coming to agreements through their resources for a change towards democracy at work. We found it necessary
direct negotiations between unions and employers would be a smoother way to to identify with the ‘we-feeling’ of the workers’ collective, rather than with
ensure Swedish financial prosperity than opening these questions for government the overall ‘we-feeling’ that ‘modern management’ dedicates its resources to
legislation or control. creating, in order to gain more productivity out of the work force.26
During the 1960s, focus from the unions had increasingly turned towards
gaining formal rights of actively included in decision-making on a strategic In the emerging design practices that came about in the context of developing
level in the industry, rather than only influencing or having a say in matters of methods for collaboratively envisioning how the new IT-based work tools could be
workplace conditions.23 Towards the end of the 1960s, tensions had again grown designed, the context was one of agonistic negotiation in which the participating
stronger between unions and employers, and the shared collaborative aims were design researchers explicitly “sided” with workers rather than with management.
replaced with increasing conflicts over issues regarding working conditions and The union-initiated Scandinavian participatory design projects of the 1970s and
rights. Demands were raised for national legislation that would govern certain 1980s came about in a legal-political context of changes in work legislation that, by
fundamental employment security rights, as well as forming a legally binding law, gave unions and union members the right to have an active part in decision-
foundation for how labour market negotiations should be handled. making processes regarding changes in work organisation and technologies.
In the early 1970s, legislation was proposed for governing how negotiations With a decades-long practice of workplace negotiations between unions and
and decision-making should be organised between workers and management. employers, a culture of agonistic deliberation had been well established in terms
The ‘Swedish model’ or ‘middle way’ had begun to lose traction, as negotiation of formats, arenas and representation in relation to workplace democracy.27
and mutual agreements were increasingly replaced with government level When the new Swedish legislation was set in motion regarding the new
legislation. The Swedish Employer’s Organisation went so far in the mid-1970s as phenomenon of introducing computerised technologies into the workplace, the
to declare the Saltsjöbaden spirit dead, since the labour market power balance, in question of who should participate in the negotiations of these in regard to working
their perspective, had shifted strongly in favour of the unions.24 conditions and workers’ rights to employment was therefore fairly straightforward.
With the introduction of the Joint Regulation Act of 1976, power relations What was not a given, though, was how these computerised tools should be set up,
between unions and employers in determining workplace conditions changed what specific qualities of work they should support, or how a process for design
substantially. In connection to this, new formats were needed for setting up and decision-making should be set up in which unions, industry leadership and
processes of integrating union representation in decision-making.25 In combination the developers of these new computerised tools could take active part.
with the tradition of collaboration in order to reach agreements, including forms
and procedures for negotiation, this new legislation set the now non-negotiable Collaboration in early Swedish participatory design
framework for which parties could, and should, take part in all decisions regarding As the introduction of computer-based technologies into working life gradually
significant changes in work-place conditions. The agonistic perspective, in which spread, the unions’ focus on issues related to this also increased. During the first
the tensions between workers and employers were fundamental to negotiations of half of the 1970s, the introduction of these new technologies led unions to focus
power and influence were prominent from the beginning in participatory design on co-determination processes, and how participation in these could be ensured
projects such as the UTOPIA project, as noted by Pelle Ehn in his description of this to secure the quality of working life from a perspective of industrial democracy.28
in his dissertation: The Scandinavian IT design projects carried out during this period were
primarily characterised by attempts to secure influence and power on behalf of
the trade unions, in processes highly conditioned by a managerial perspective.
The unions’ standing in these negotiations was not as strong as the employers’,
23 Kjellberg, “Från industriell demokrati till medbestämmande”, 74. and questions were raised about how co-determination could be extended to the
24 Gerhard Schnyder, “Like a phoenix from the ashes?
Reassessing the transformation of the Swedish political
economy since the 1970s”, Journal of European Public Policy 26 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 253.
2012:8 (vol.19), 1126-1145. 27 Carl DiSalvo, Adversarial Design (Cambridge, MA: The MIT
25 In Swedish, MBL: Lagen om medbestämmande, enacted Press, 2012).
in 1976. See Medbestämmandelagen, Serien om arbetsrätt 5 28 Peter Botsman, “Rethinking the CLASS struggle: Industrial
(Stockholm: LO, 1977). Pelle Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of democracy and the politics of production”, Economic and
Computer Artifacts, 256-258. Industrial Democracy 1989:1 (vol 10), 132.

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design of the computerised tools themselves, and not only in the introduction of Democracy and learning together
the tools and their effect on the quality of work performed but on questions of In the early Scandinavian research projects that came to be influential in proposing
working conditions and power in the workplace.29 and prototyping participatory formats in design, ‘participative approaches’ alone
The 1970s IT design projects in Norway, Sweden and Denmark had influenced were not deemed as sufficient to create democratic settings for designing.32
“the introduction of the technology, the training, the work environment, and the Inspired by action research, as it had taken shape in the social sciences during
organization of work only to a certain degree” while “important aspects like the the 1950s and 60s – not least as formulated in the ‘critical pedagogy’ by Paulo
opportunity to further develop skills and increase influence on work organization Freire in Pedagogy of the Oppressed – a strong ideal in early participatory design
were limited by the available technology.”30 It is in light of this context that the research was that of making societal and political change not only through design
‘collective resource approach’ was introduced as a framework for exploring but also through research.33
participatory processes for designing computerised tools, as well as for processes This bringing together of research and design practices in a context of
of strengthening workers’ power and influence in decision-making on a strategic both developing technological tools and simultaneously supporting work-
and managerial level. place democracy was initially labelled ‘the collective research approach’.34 The
Access to knowledge in the realm of technological possibilities and constraints researcher should not, or could not, be a neutral observer but should consider how
was seen as crucial from the unions’ side, which was the main reason for involving the own practice would play into societal power relations. In early participatory
researchers, and backing or initiating research projects within this realm. Equally design, taking a political stance was also strongly associated with the role of
important was the emphasis on finding ways to design and develop tools and engaging as a design researcher, and with the conflation of the roles of ‘designer’
situations that safeguarded workers’ employment security in a context of increasing and ‘researcher’ into one and the same (compared to practice in user-centered
computerisation and automation, which from the employers’ side reasonably design, where the roles of designer and researcher typically would be separate).
should lead to cutting costs through laying off people or hiring low-cost labour to Within the participatory design projects of the 1970s and 1980s, design
replace more costly skilled workers. researchers actively sided with unions and workers as opposed to management,
A focal point of what became labelled as participatory design projects, expressly with the emancipatory ambition to change the power structures in
starting with the 1980s UTOPIA project situated in a Swedish graphic workers’ the workplace by giving a voice to those who held the weakest position in the
context, was to find methods for designing the technology-based tools with decision-making processes that affected their everyday lives.35 Questions of power
the explicit ambition to support, safeguard and develop the skilled workers’ relations and empowerment were, then, highly present in participatory design
competencies and knowledge. The aim of the project, which ran between 1981 and from the very beginning. This strong emphasis on power relations and issues of
1986, was to collectively develop computer-based tools to support skilled work democracy was also linked to an ethos of accountability, both in regard to the field
within text and image processing in newspaper publishing. Engaging the graphical of design and “the worlds it creates” and in regard to the role of the designer.”36 The
workers in the process of developing these new tools, then, required methods to aims of propelling a democratic development through participatory design had
share and build joint knowledge in the process of designing. As described in a been grounded in the importance placed on mutual learning and understanding
publication within the UTOPIA project: in the design process:

A major aspect in this first phase of the project was the mutual learning This way it was thought that the workers and the research group could learn
process in which the active participants: graphic workers, computer and social from each other while together building up a new understanding essential for
researchers, established a common ‘knowledge platform’ for the future work.31 democratization of working life. The understanding acquired in the investigation
groups should elucidate and widen the possibilities for action.37

32 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 366: “formal

democratic and participative procedures for designing
computer artifacts for democracy at work are not sufficient.
The design process must also be organized in a way that make
it (sic) possible for ordinary users to utilize their practical skill
in the design work, and having fun doing this.”
29 Botsman, “Rethinking the CLASS struggle”, 132-133 33 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 9; Paolo
30 Susanne Bødker, Pelle Ehn, Staffan Romberger & Dan Sjögren Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Herder & Herder, 1970).
(eds.), The UTOPIA Project: An Alternative in Text and Images. 34 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 272f.
Graffitti: Informationsblad från UTOPIA-projektet nr. 7 (Aarhus 35 Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design, 6.
& Stockholm, 1985), 2. 36 Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design, 5.
31 Bødker et al., The UTOPIA Project/Graffitti, 2. 37 Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, 283.

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In early participatory design projects, there was an ambition that designers If the trade unions involve themselves in research and development projects,
and skilled users should not only share easily articulated knowledge but also and if these projects are successful, they may turn into important and inspiring
the types of tacit knowledge associated with their respective practice. Making demonstration examples which show the possibilities for influencing the
knowledge accessible, or relateable, through different methods for prototyping and technological development, and which expand the technological possibilities.
Thus attention will be drawn to the political nature of existing technology, and
discussing together was seen as the groundwork on which informed collaborative
technological research and development may turn into a political issue, and thus
work and relevant negotiations of design decisions could take place. This entailed a topic for the unions.40
creating a design space for participatory collaboration, through developing methods
such as mock-ups and design games that allowed sharing and building knowledge In the context of transitioning to working with computerised technologies in
through doing, at the same time as creating a space from which to have influence different areas of industry and the public sector, a new way arose for design to
in a democratic setting. come about. In retrospect, the various union initiatives to influence this transition
In the UTOPIA project, knowledge and skill were the criteria by which users comes across as driving not only design activities but also for new situations that
gained influence in the process of designing graphical print tools for highly skilled made possible and called for new ways of doing design. At the time, though, the
users working with the layout and graphical production of newspaper printing. The question is if what was being done was considered to be design at all?
gradation of different types of users, in terms of skill, expertise, or whether they are
end-users or not, might be considered as ascribing different values and different
In the UTOPIA project, the rationale for inclusion or exclusion in design participation
possibilities for participation. Again, considering the UTOPIA project, designing
was tied to skill and knowledge. The participatory design methods developed aimed
with ‘skilled workers’ had the aim of not only creating qualitatively well-designed
at bringing in skilled graphical workers as experts in the development of computerized
tools for professional use but also of excluding non-skilled workers from entering
tools, strengthening their position in regard to the future use of these profession-based
the graphic design or newspaper printing profession.38
systems in which a certain knowledge and know-how would be required.
The ideas and practices aiming towards establishing support for workplace
This, as participatory design researchers Tone Bratteteig and Gro Bjerknes
democracy through design, then, became a question of negotiating power and
pointed out already in the mid-nineties, fell back on a sort of knowledge-guarding
influence for those already included in an established work situation while excluding
or gate-keeping tradition firmly embedded in a crafts culture, such as in the guild
others that could potentially have been included. The future contexts in which these
system, where making and manifesting difference between roles and professions
computerised tools for graphic work should be used were envisioned as situations
based on skills and knowledge was central.41 Specific experiences of ways of working,
where new forms of collaborative work would take place. Various professions would
based on knowledge of doing graphical work in relation to the demonstration of
engage in work processes based on their respective expertise, and not compete
specific types of know-how, became the decisive demarcations for inclusion or
for work on a job market in which computers diminished work possibilities. As a
exclusion in regard to the design process as well as to intended design outcomes.
journalist from the Danish newspaper Østlaendingen stated in a debate on the quality
The context of ‘democracy’ was tightly connected to a framework of ‘knowing’
of work and product at the UTOPIA project’s conference in May 1984:
and ‘learning’ in relation to ‘collaborative designing’, articulated more or less
The fact that we wish to cooperate obviously means that we wish to continue explicitly and more or less narrowly to a specific situation, or widely to include
being journalists and graphic workers. I certainly do not wish to become a an overarching societal perspective. In a broader societal context, these issues of
graphic worker or anything similar. (…) The new technology has created a democracy, technology, design and development could then hold diverse political
borderland for us. We meet there, and our meeting in the borderland requires and participatory power relations, depending on how wide or narrow the outlook.
cooperation, new working practices, new knowledge, new insight, and, to some
extent, a new division of labour (…) Training must count more than technology, Coming back to the attempt to discern from where these entangled ideas of learning
and for some it will be necessary to do something as central and old-fashioned and collaboration in relation to democracy might originate in a Scandinavian design
as improving their general knowledge of the society in which we live and work.39 context, let us turn to the early decades of the 20th century. It was only during the first
two decades of the century that Swedish legislation was passed which allowed men
Participation, in terms of deliberation aiming to strengthen unions on both a local and women of all (or, most) social standings to take part in enacting democratic
and a national level, was also seen as a positive outcome of the UTOPIA project. participation in the form of voting for parliament. The processes towards universal
This was believed to lead to increased union-level cohesion, in joining forces suffrage, in Sweden, were closely linked to initiatives aiming to empower or
towards employers in the work-related political and technological developments: foster, depending on perspective, people into full citizenship.42 Issues of learning
and participation were central to these processes, and enmeshed in this context
were also ideas of the centrality of a material environmental reform as part of the
38 Gro Bjerknes & Tone Bratteteig, “User Participation and transformation necessary to create a new society.
Democracy: A Discussion of Scandinavian Research on
System Development”, Scandinavian Journal of Information 40 Bødker et al., The UTOPIA Project/Graffitti, 43.
Systems, 1995, 7 (1). 41 Bjerknes & Bratteteig, “User Participation and Democracy”, 78.
39 Bødker, et al., The UTOPIA Project/Graffitti, 29. 42 Lena Eskilsson, “En arena för möten mellan människor

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Let us, therefore, take a closer look at an example drawn from a ‘canonical’ With the public talks, Key established herself as an advocate for social
figure in Swedish turn-of-the-century design history, Ellen Key, who was active in and political change, and her views were even more widely spread through an
advocating the democratisation of society through design reform. In Swedish design increasing number of publications. After the turn of the century, she left her
history, Ellen Key’s influence is usually described in terms of her engagement in teaching career and focused entirely on writing and on giving public talks. Ellen
‘everyday aesthetics’, as taking a normative approach to teaching people, especially Key demanded access to education as well as to social and political arenas for
women, the principles of good taste in interior decoration.43 Her publication Beauty women and workers, arguing for universal, and especially women’s, suffrage.
in the home 44 has been extensively studied and commented in this respect, with a Legal and political rights for women and workers were needed, as well as changes
strong emphasis on her moral and aesthetical judgements of specific objects and in the relationships between men, women and children, in order to change the
environments. Here, we will shift the perspectives on this design historically fairly dynamics of society as well as those of family life and promote both individual
well-described figure, and apply lenses that enable a search for ideas and situations development and the evolution of the human race. 47
of participatory practices, such as the coming together with aims of mutual learning Her later work focused actively on issues of war and peace, envisioning a
connects to ideas of supporting the development of democratic processes. globally connected world in which a league of nations would work together in
ensuring mutual understanding and peaceful cooperation between peoples. By
the turn of the century, Ellen Key was a well established radical thinker and public
Ellen Key: Designing a different everyday life speaker, both in Sweden and abroad. Her publications were translated into several
languages, and she regularly toured Western Europe, holding public lectures.48
During the 1880s and 1890s, Ellen Key worked in Stockholm as an elementary Drawing her pedagogical, philosophical and societal ideas upon the work
school teacher. Prior to that, she had also functioned as a political secretary to of Goethe, Rousseau and Montaigne and on more contemporary cultural and
her father, Emil Key, who was a member of the Swedish parliament since the late political theory – such as the social evolutionism of Herbert Spencer – Key engaged
1860s. From 1878, Ellen Key taught in a mixed school open for boys and girls – in the socio-political debates of the day in the spirit of the Enlightenment ideals.
which was until then quite unusual – that she herself had co-founded with her Learning and knowledge were seen as the foundations for an active and socially
friend Anna Whitlock. There, Key developed an integrated practice and theory engaged citizenship, which in turn was the key to establishing an egalitarian,
of pedagogics, that later came to influence the founding of both the Montessori democratic society. She was one of the leading advocates for pedagogical reforms
and Steiner/Waldorf schools and pedagogies.45 During these decades, Key also within the school system as well as for an educational practice aiming towards
arranged and held open lectures in literature, history and geography at the newly emancipating the adult population as a whole through access to knowledge as
founded Worker’s institute in Stockholm (Stockholms arbetareinstitut), which well as to a better material standard of living.
was an educational enterprise that was free and openly accessible for the general In the years just before the turn of the century 1900, Ellen Key published and
public interested in furthering their knowledge in the arts and science.46 Key was lectured widely on the topic of the importance of a new aesthetic of the everyday as
an inspiring speaker, and her lectures drew vast numbers, amounting to some ten a key factor for societal reform. She, as many of her contemporaries, had reflected
thousand people per year. intensely over how life should and could be lived in the times of profound change
and transformation that industrialisation had brought about. For Key, this meant
that out-dated norms and roles for women, men and children should be actively
challenged, and new ways of living together – in families, as well as in society as a
och idéer: kvinnliga medborgarskolan på Fogelstad” in whole – needed to be adapted to other world views and understandings. Society
Erland Mårald & Christer Nordlund (eds.), Topos: essäer itself was in a state of change, and many were the voices that called for changes
om tänkvärda platser och platsbundna tankar (Stockholm: also in how life was lived: Class structures, gender norms, education, marriage,
Carlsson, 2006), 167-182. sexuality, childhood and religion were issues of discussion, debate and conflict
43 Brunnström, Svensk industridesign, 75; Zandra Ahl &
around the turn of the century 1900. And as people increasingly moved from
Emma Olsson, Svensk smak: myter om den moderna formen
(Stockholm: Ordfront, 2001); Linda Rampell, Designatlas : en
resa genom designteori 1845-2002 (Stockholm: Gabor Palotai,
2003). 47 Ellen Key, Barnets århundrade (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1900);
44 Ellen Key, “Beauty in the Home” [1897], in Lucy Creagh, Ellen Key, The Century of the Child (New York: Putnam, 1909).
Helena Kåberg & Barbara Miller Lane (eds.), Modern Swedish Not all of Ellen Key’s publications are translated into English.
Design: Three Founding Texts (The Museum of Modern Art: When I quote Key from a Swedish publication, the English
New York, 2008). translation is mine, and I provide the Swedish original text
45 Ronny Ambjörnsson, Ellen Key: En europeisk intellektuell in the footnote. When I quote Key from a published English
(Stockholm: Bonnier, 2012). translation, I do not provide the parallel Swedish formulation.
46 Sigfrid Leander, Folkbildningens födelse: Anton Nyström och And, by the way: her surname is pronounced “Kay”.
Stockholms arbetareinstitut 1880-1980 (Stockholm: Nordiska 48 Ronny Ambjörnsson, “Ellen Key and the concept of Bildung”,
museet, 1980). Confero 2014:1 (vol.2), 133-160.

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rural areas to cities and industrialised towns, rented new types of dwellings and
furnished them with industrially mass-produced goods rather than home-made
or hand-made things, the material conditions of everyday life were changing as
rapidly as the social norms and the ways of living.
Key’s writings – many translated and spread widely internationally – revolved
around pedagogics, socio-political questions, women’s rights, and peace issues.49
Much of her work highlighted the importance of education and learning, for children
and adults alike, as the foundation for a citizenship comprising men and women of
all social classes. People needed to learn about politics, science, philosophy as well
as, art, literature, architecture, music, and ‘everyday beauty’ – or what later became
called ‘design’. In the fields of the arts, Ellen Key often made a point of connecting
contemporary expressions and developments of content – as in topics or themes – to
the broader context of societal transformation.
Just as forms, materials and aesthetics in these various areas were questioned
and explored by practitioners in terms of new literary formats, new approaches to
the figurative arts, other ways of dancing, etc., the design of everyday objects and
environments needed to be actively considered. In a project of constant learning,
Key advocated the perspective that truly everyone – including workers, women,
children – and not only people of means and money should have access to situations
of learning as well as access to beauty and culture in their everyday lives.50
This is where Ellen Key brought in ideas of design into the Swedish debate on
societal development. She lay forth a proposal, inspired by the arts and crafts ideas
of William Morris and John Ruskin, for how design of and for everyday life must be a
crucial component in both handling and transcending the impact of industrialisation
to create a new society, founded on liberal and democratic principles.51
In her work, Key often integrated themes of how aesthetics, taste, ethics
and the role of the home in society played crucial roles for human and societal
development. Everyday experiences, daily practices and personal choices were
highlighted as linked to broader societal and political issues. More specifically, the
home and the family were pointed to as central units in the process of transforming
practically all aspects of society. Far from being trivial matters, questions of possible

49 To give but some examples of the contemporary English

translations, many of which were translated by Mamah Bouton
Borthwick and promoted in the US by her and her partner
Frank Lloyd Wright: Ellen Key, The Century of the Child (New
York & London, 1909); Ellen Key, The Morality of Woman and
Other Essays, (Chicago, 1911); Ellen Key, Love and Ethics (New
York, 1911); Ellen Key, The Woman Movement.: Transl. by
Mamah Bouton Borthwick. With an introd. by Havelock Ellis
(New York, 1912); Ellen Key, War, Peace, and the Future: A
Consideration of Nationalism and Internationalism, and of the
Relation of Women to War. Transl. by Hildegard Norberg, (New
York & London, 1916).
50 Ellen Key, “Skönhet i hemmen”[1897], in Skönhet
Ellen Key in 1899. Unknown photographer / Nordiska museet för alla [1913] (Stockholm: Rekolid, 1996); Ellen Key,
(NMA.0033051) Folkbildningsarbetet. Särskildt med hänsyn till skönhetssinnets
odling: en återblick och några framtidsönskningar (Uppsala:
Appelberg, 1906).
51 Ellen Key, ”Skönhet”, in Tankebilder I (1898), 3.rd edition
(Albert Bonniers förlag: Stockholm, 1922).

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everyday individual actions – and especially perhaps those traditionally connected

to women’s expertise or abilities, such as managing a home and raising children –
were not only issues of individual development but were framed as drivers of radical
social change that would benefit all people.

Power and political participation

The turn of the century 1900 was a socially turbulent period, in which Sweden was
a country initiating a transition from an agrarian to an industrialised society. After
years of famine due to failed crops, and in reaction to legislation that did not support
religious freedom, large numbers of people had chosen to emigrate – many to the
United States. Approximately 1,5 million people left Sweden in search of a better
life between the mid-19th century and the 1930s. Within Sweden, living conditions
were harsh for many, and both work and housing were difficult to find, in the
countryside as well as in urban areas. “The social question”, which was extensively
debated politically and by philanthropical and other organisations, was formulated
as a combination of various societal problem areas including poverty, poor housing
conditions, health issues and alcohol abuse, perceived erosion of moral norms, lack
of education, and tensions between different social classes.52
Providing better living conditions – not least materially – became one of the
key areas in focus for organisations and political initiatives with different aims, from
halting emigration and promoting traditional forms of social stability to enacting
socio-material change towards parliamentary democracy and modernising
Sweden.53 The questions of how material change could enable transitioning into
a modern, industrialised, country, without risking social stability and avoiding
conflict or even revolution became a uniting element. However, at the core of this
also lay fundamental disagreements on which issues should be part of a political
solution, and who could and should have the right to participate in influencing
political and societal processes.
At this point, large groups of Swedes, based on their class or gender, were
excluded from participation in electing parliamentary representatives to the
bicameral Swedish Riksdag. Only City and County Councillors – men and women Ellen Key speaking at a suffrage rally arranged by Föreningen
of a certain social standing and with high financial status – could vote for the First Kvinnans Politiska Rösträtt (FKPR) in June 1915. Calla Helena
Chamber according to a proportional voting system granting persons with land Sundbeck / Grenna Museum– Andréexpeditionen Polarcenter
and fortune more influence. At the same time, the Second Chamber members were
appointed in direct elections by ‘universal’ male suffrage. In 1909, any man over 24
who paid taxes, had fulfilled military conscription duty and had not been supported
by pauper aid, was legally given the right to vote for the Second Chamber, while
women were not at all awarded this right until 1919.
It was not until 1921 that the first general election in Sweden was held, where
men and women held equal voting rights to the Second Chamber, and it took
yet another twelve years to eradicate the landholding and financial restrictions
governing eligibility and proportional votes to the First Chamber. So, at the turn of
the century 1900, large groups of the population in Sweden were neither represented
nor included in the democratic system.
52 Per Wisselgren, The Social Scientific Gaze. The Social Question
and the Rise of Academic Social Science in Sweden (Farnham &
Burlington: Ashgate, 2015).
53 Anna Lindkvist, Jorden åt folket: Nationalföreningen mot
emigrationen 1907-1925, diss. (Umeå, 2007).

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The call for new parliamentary forms for representation and influence on an Ultimately, a person with the highest degree of bildning will reach a state where a
egalitarian and majority foundation was heard from many organisations, political holistic overview brings together knowledge, learning, and aesthetic appreciation,
parties, and individual debaters. Counter-voices were fierce, and one of the more in a genuine interest for the world and a “sympathetic understanding” of other
substantial arguments against implementing a parliamentary majority principle people.57 In a future, where the access to learning and beauty would allow for all
and extending the right to vote, and thus to legislative as well as societal influence, people to achieve this, Key envisioned a societal transformation taking shape,
to both workers and women was that the level of education and knowledge in these which in turn would “build up a higher humanity”.58
groups was far too low to trust them with such power and responsibility. Issues of
how to support both formal education and non-school-based situations for learning Folkbildning
thus became a central issue to negotiations of how socio-political transformation. The concept of folkbildning was formulated in Scandinavia at the turn of the
century 1900 and largely sprung from within the temperance movement, religious
‘Bildning’ and democracy revivalist movements, and within the worker’s movement. Within these movements,
Since 1842, legislation in Sweden gave the right for most Swedes to attend six years people would gather in reading groups to share knowledge and learning in order
of folkskola (Folk school) free of cost but education beyond this was still a matter to challenge societal, religious and political norms. Starting with initiatives in
for a privileged few, in gender-separated schools, with different curricula for males Denmark to establish ‘folk high schools’ on the countryside, folkbildning also has a
and females. Many working-class children and rural manual labourers did not foundation in the concept of bildning and the aim to provide access to learning to
even finish the six years of folkskola since they were required to help out with work people (folk) in general, and not only to a select few.59 This spread to the other Nordic
at home or taking on salaried work to help support their families. Many ended countries, and in Sweden became a matter propagated not only by individuals but
their schooling without even basic skills in reading and writing. This was held forth also widely upheld by non-governmental organisations.
as an argument for not extending universal suffrage to masses of people who were The concept is difficult to translate to English, composed as it is of the words
perceived as unable to orientate themselves in societal matters of importance. for ‘people’ and the word ‘bildning’. Folkbildning is sometimes roughly translated
Those who instead advocated the right to claim democratic political influence for as ‘adult education’ or ‘popular education’, but the concept carries a wider
all, specifically including women and workers, strongly emphasised that reforms meaning than that.60 Within folkbildning, people participate freely and voluntarily
and support were needed to make education accessible for people. in situations of learning together with others, in an egalitarian setting where joint
The view that all people could make relevant and essential contributions discussion and reflection form the basis for learning together.
to society, if only they had the means to formulate themselves and to gain The aim of folkbildning is on the one hand to support individuals in a life-long
access to both knowledge and arenas for voicing their views led to initiatives to learning trajectory, and on the other hand to support ‘the people’ as a collective in
provide arenas outside of the organised educational system to, through access to strengthening democratic practices through shared knowledge in forms of public
knowledge, empower men and women as citizens.54 In this respect, the concept lectures, public libraries, reading rooms and reading groups, evening courses and
of a comprehensive and holistic knowledge encompassing learning as well as other types of activities. In Sweden, the activities aiming towards folkbildning,
personal experience became formational for the initiating activities of adult and the arenas and material spaces in which these have emerged, have often
education, or ‘folkbildning’. been emphasized as of importance for the shaping and consolidation of both
Central to Ellen Key’s thinking, are ideas based on the Humboldtian concept parliamentary and societal democracy.
of Bildung, in Swedish bildning. Bildning is a concept that includes both education Ellen Key was one of Sweden’s most avid promoters of folkbildning. In her vision,
and learning. It is not exclusively something fact- or knowledge-based but folkbildning included integrated learning in literature, philosophy and science as
includes subjective experience and formation. The learning processes aiming well as in art and aesthetics. Ultimately, Key states, the initiatives aimed at furthering
towards attaining bildning comprise many aspects of a person’s experience and knowledge, learning, taste and other aspects included in the concept of folkbildning
is a continuous and life-long process.55 That people of all societal standings have must serve the broader ambition of bringing about a new society, where material and
a disposition towards bildning – and that some do not – was stressed by Key, in aesthetic considerations must be integrated and inseparable components.
particular with reference to workers:
56 Ellen Key, Bildning: Några synpunkter. Studentföreningen
the natural disposition towards bildning in men and women of the working Verdandis småskrifter 67 (Bonniers: Stockholm, 1919), 16-17.
class is occasionally so strong that they – despite large gaps in their knowledge 57 Key, Bildning, 24
– have fought their way to a much larger genuine culture, than many so-called 58 Key, Bildning, 32.
learned (bildade) which stand blind in front of the times’ greatest issues and 59 Ove Korsgaard, Kampen om lyset: Dansk voksenoplysning
uncomprehending in front of its’ masterpieces in literature and art.56 gennem 500 år (København: Gyldendal, 1997).
60 The Swedish Council for Adult Education, Folkbildningsrådet,
54 Eskilsson, “En arena för möten mellan människor och idéer”, still today suggests that the concept be used in Swedish, since
167-182. its meaning is difficult to convey in translation. https://www.
55 Sven-Eric Liedman “A lesson for life”, Studies in Philosophy folkbildningsradet.se/om-folkbildningsradet/Oversattningar/
and Ecuation 2002:21, 328. English-translations/ (accessed 2019-03-19).

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In this socio-political process, universal suffrage as well as access to education and open lecture series. These were all primarily aimed towards workers, and some
were crucial. Without learning and knowledge, people could not become active and specifically towards women (workers), and thus were not places where diverse
responsible citizens. But attaining formal rights was not the only goal. In a process social groups would encounter each other and exchange views and experiences.
of societal transformation, Key meant, aesthetic qualities were wholly embedded
in questions of infrastructure, legality, power and influence and thus had to be Tolfterna: Bridging differences
explicitly addressed: With the aim of creating places where people from different social backgrounds
could meet, Ellen Key together with a group of other women in 1892 established
This is the deep societal meaning of beauty, that it teaches us to demand the
an association called Tolfternas samkväm för kvinnor från olika yrkesområden
same fine perfection of man’s societal organisations, that already are owned by
the mountain’s hard crystal and the snow’s fast-melting flake – as well as the
(‘The Twelfths’ social gathering for women from different professional areas’), or
grand symphony or the cathedral. Only when this is the case, will the power of just “Tolfterna” for short.63
perfection to create happiness – as in the value of happiness in beauty when In Tolfterna, twelve groups of women identified as having a good degree
morality is accomplished – become fully obvious.61 of bildning (in other words, middle- or upper-class women) each were given
the responsibility for arranging two or three events a year, such as lectures or
Key’s interconnected ideas of societal, aesthetic and pedagogical change built on musical evenings, to which women organised in workers’ associations were
the premise that spreading and sharing knowledge would serve as a foundation for invited. The main aim of Tolfterna was to provide an arena for working-class
establishing a democratic societal order. In the process of creating this, folkbildning and middle-class women to meet and talk in a social setting that could increase
would serve as a means to bridge differences between social classes. To achieve a mutual understanding, and possibly allow for the socialist and liberal women’s
bridging of the class gap, initiatives towards bildning in the realm of learning and movements to come together and collaborate more closely.
aesthetics must aim towards change in the very core and being of people: Another fundamental aim was to provide a setting that would give working-
class women access to knowledge and learning, thus laying a foundation for the
It is first and last a higher bildning in terms of being in itself, that the awakening of bildning needed in order to fully participate as citizens in society once the suffrage
the sense of beauty should aim towards: a more beautiful will to serve, a quicker had been gained.64 This built on an understanding of democracy as a shared
sensitivity to others’ pleasure and discomfort, warmer words for each other.62 endeavour, in which an active search for and discussion based on knowledge of
different types is a prerequisite for participation that is not only a system of rules
For Key, it was in being together and sharing experiences that a true mutual under- and legislation but a process in which all citizens play an active part.65
standing of differences and similarities could take place between people. The Linking knowledge, learning, and taking part in a democratic process in
understanding between different social classes that such engagements could bring the context of folkbildning aimed towards overcoming class differences and
about could form the basis for establishing a different type of society. However, in fostering participatory citizenship bears strong similarities to approaches in later
Sweden at the turn of the century 1900, the places in which people from different participatory design practices of the 1970s and 1980s. Another similarity is the
social spheres could meet were utterly few. In order to provide places where people focus on supporting actions that provide people in a non-privileged position to
together could access knowledge and learning, new arenas were established with have or gain a voice through accessing a language tied to a particular cultural,
the aim of supporting folkbildning. Examples included the setting up of the Worker’s social or professional sphere. In the words of historian Christina Florin, becoming
Institute in the 1880s, initiatives to establish public reading rooms and libraries, a citizen is to participate in a project of recognition, in which having a language, a
voice and a recognised identity is fundamental for participation in society.66
61 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 92-93. “Detta är skönhetens
This gaining of a language was, in Tolfterna, closely tied to knowledge of and
djupa samhällsbetydelse, att den lär oss kräva samma sköna
fullkomligheter av människans samhälleliga organisationer, exposure to learned or literary texts. Invited authors or academics would hold a
som redan bergets hårda kristall och snöns snabbsmälta flinga short, maximum 20-minute, lecture summarising a novel or a topic, after which
– likaväl som den stora symfonien eller katedralen – äga. När
detta blir fallet, då först blir fullkomlighetens lyckodanande 64 Johanna Ringarp & Karin Carlsson, “Tolfterna – ett
makt – liksom skönhetslyckans sedlighetsskapade värde – fullt bildningsprojekt inför kvinnornas fullständiga
uppenbar.” medborgarskap?” in Peter Brubech, Ketil Knutsen & Jens
62 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 47. “Det är först och sist en högre Aage Poulsen (eds.) Historie – didaktik, dannelse og bevisthed.
bildning i fråga om själva väsendet, som skönhetssinnets Rapporter til det 29. Nordiske Historikermøde, Bind 1. (Aalborg,
väckelse borde åsyfta: en vackrare tjänstvillighet, en snabbare 2017), 9-39.
känslighet för andras behag och obehag, vänligare blickar, 65 Sven-Eric Liedman, “Democracy, knowledge and
varmare ord för varandra.” imagination”, Studies in Philosophy and Education 2002:21,
63 Amalia Fahlstedt and Elna Tenow were the co-founders 353-359.
together with Key. Lisbeth Håkansson Petré, Tisdagar med 66 Christina Florin & Lars Kvarnström, Kvinnor på gränsen till
Tolfterna: Nätverkande kvinnor i sekelskiftets Stockholm medborgarskap: Genus, politik och offentlighet 1800-1950
(Stockholm: Stockholmia, 2019). (Stockholm: Atlas, 2001).

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sometimes games and musical performances would take place. The idea was to repeatedly pointed to that the working-class women often seemed shy, or were
encourage conversation between working-class women and the middle-class reluctant to fully participate. As one of the Tolfterna ‘invitors’ noted, the more often
women, which would lead to “mutual exchange of different areas of experience the women gathered, and the more familiarity grew with each other and with the
promoting mutual understanding”.67 venue for the meetings, the easier the “mutual approaching” of each other.71
However, in these sessions, it was often noted that the working-class women Several of the entries in the minutes bear witness to the underlying tensions
were reluctant to talk or contribute to the conversation – and that it was difficult to between middle- or upper-class women and the women workers that in discussions
find topics for the gatherings that were not “political” and potentially generating would sometimes become explicit. In a discussion on the topic of collective kitchens,
conflict.68 Finding an adequate balance between an interesting program for the it was noted that this was something that engaged the working-class women so
evenings, and mechanisms that sparked active conversation, was not always easy: much, that the evening became more of a heated debate than a casual discussion.
Due to this, it was advised that future topics should be chosen with greater caution to
Because, making both joint conversations happen, and individual ones between avoid “the repressed feeling of resentment over the extensive class difference, that is
invitors and the invited, is the wish towards which the endeavors should go, a so commonly spread among the working class, that easily flares up and is expressed
goal, which the far too rich programmes often counter-act.69 in bitter statements.”72

So while the ambition was to create arenas bridging class barriers in the aim for
In the notebooks from the Tolfterna, several rules for the arranging groups of women
shared experiences, mutual understanding, and discussion of social issues, the
are added over time, aiming to disarm any potential issues of conflict through
participation in Tolfterna was highly conditioned by power structures manifest
subduing some of the all-too-obvious differences between the participating women.
in language as well as materially and through the format of the gatherings. The
Thus, the upper- and middle-class women were reminded not to wear too ostensive
arranging women were called “the invitors” (inbjudare) and the working-class
clothing, and to address each other as well as the working-class women with the
women “the invited” (inbjudna). Despite the aim of being a shared participatory
pronoun Ni (‘You’) rather than with the more formal address of title and surname.
conversation, already the ownership manifest by the knowledge-base needed to be
These measures were meant to create an atmosphere that emphasised
an “invitor” created a situation of inequality.
similarities and closeness, rather than differences and distance, as the basis on
The explicit goal for the Tolfterna gatherings was to create a situation where
which to build joint knowledge about each other’s’ situation. However, in the
all participants actively took part in conversation and debate. In a comment to the
minutes from the meetings, the comments mainly regard how the working-class
minutes following the sixth gathering, in 1892, Ellen Key notices that both invited
women come to understand more about the middle-class women’s conditions,
and invitees agree that the purpose of the events was “mutual exchange of different
rather than the other way around. The revelation that the workers are more envious
areas of experience with the aim to further mutual understanding; it is so to speak
of the “spiritual pleasures, that are so much more easily accessible” to the middle
‘in the air’ that these gatherings between women from different areas of work is
class, than their finer clothing or better food is noted in a quote, as is the statement
demanded of the times”.70 However, the minutes from the Tolfterna gatherings
from a women saying that the gatherings lead to a new view on many things: “…in
67 Ellen Key quoted in Ringarp & Carlsson, “Tolfterna one’s solitude, one imagines so much about the so-called upper class, but when we
– ett bildningsprojekt inför kvinnornas fullständiga meet like this, one can see that one has been mistaken in many preconceptions.”73
medborgarskap”, 25. ”…ömsesidigt utbyte af olika
erfarenhetsområden till främjande af ömsesidig förstående” 71 Natalia Frölander, meeting minutes of the Tolfterna meeting
68 Ringarp & Carlsson, “Tolfterna – ett bildningsprojekt inför 7 March 1893. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas samkväm
kvinnornas fullständiga medborgarskap”, 24-25. för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, Protokollböcker
69 Ellen Key, comment to the meeting minutes of the Tolfterna 1892-1964. Första protokollsboken. 1. Samkväm för kvinnor
meeting 16 October 1895. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas från skilda yrkesområden, 1892-1893.
samkväm för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, 72 Natalia Frölander, meeting minutes of the Tolfterna meeting 28
Protokollböcker 1892-1964. Första protokollsboken. 1. Samkväm November 1893. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas samkväm
för kvinnor från skilda yrkesomåden, 1892-1893. “…ömsesidigt för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, Protokollböcker
utbyte af olika erfarenhetsområden till främjande af ömsesidigt 1892-1964. Första protokollsboken. 1. Samkväm för kvinnor
förstående; det ”ligger i luften” s.a.s., att dessa samkväm mellan från skilda yrkesområden, 1892-1893, 67. “…om man ej
kvinnor af olika arbetsområden äro ett tidens kraf.” med försigtighet väljer ämne och noga begränsar detta, de
70 Ellen Key, comment to the meeting minutes of the Tolfterna undertryckta känslor af harm öfver den stora klasskillnaden,
meeting 13 December 1892. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: som äro så allmänt utbredda bland arbetsklassen, lätt flamma
Tolfternas samkväm för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. upp och taga sig uttryck i bittra uttalanden.”
J10:3, Protokollböcker 1892-1964. Tredje protokollsboken 73 Amalia Fahlstedt, meeting minutes of the Tolfterna meeting 3
hösten 1895, 1895-1896, 9. “Ty att få till stånd dels October 1893. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas samkväm
gemensamma samtal, dels enskilda sådana mellan inbjudare för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, Protokollböcker
och inbjuda, är det önskemål åt hvilket sträfvan bör gå, ett 1892-1964. Första protokollsboken. 1. Samkväm för kvinnor
mål, som af de allt för rika programmen ofta motverkar. ” från skilda yrkesområden, 1892-1893, 67. “… man får en ny syn

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So while the project of the Tolfterna had both an emancipatory and “somewhat prepare themselves to find topics of conversation. And here over all the
participatory aim, the formats of the situation and the knowledge and bildning invitees’ active participation this evening, which the entertainment aims towards.”77
promoted were conditioned by the privileged position of the middle-class women.74 Gaining a voice, and gaining access to the arenas of societal influence was,
Ellen Key, in the minutes to the meetings, noted that the conversations between for the working-class women, a process of learning the language and forms of
the women from different social backgrounds would be difficult, mainly due to the argumentation already established in a middle-class setting. For middle-class
incapacity for some of the middle-class women to “go beyond their own ether and women, the challenge consisted of acknowledging one’s own privilege, in
in a natural way be able to socialise with any and all sorts of people.”75 terms of material and cultural power, and trying to find ways of interacting with
Despite the attempts to create an inclusive and open environment, that would women who did not share neither the same frames of reference nor the same
support the sharing of experiences, the difficulties that often arose in finding ways to ways of socialising. The situations created in Tolfterna seemed, on surface level,
ensure that all participants were equally engaged in the conversations come across to be about specific topics – but the substantial content and ambition of these
in the notes and reflections on the gatherings. As one of the Tolfterna members, and gatherings was to create a place where women would gain new perspectives
‘invitors’, Nanna Frölander reflected on after a gathering: through reciprocally learning about each other’s lives and experiences, to come
together in the joint struggle for political power.
On the other hand, it was, as usual, difficult to enable conversations in smaller
groups and above all to see everyone talk. It is often hard to find common Learning together: Study circles
touchpoints: the members of the Tolfterna are hesitant to engage in the
The focus on learning together, on mutual understanding, and on caring for
questions that are most pressing for the workers, and these do not feel, as would
be natural, much for that which interests the former. Would perhaps not this
each other, was central to Key’s ideas about what constitutes a good society.
difficulty lessen, if the members of the Tolfterna among the workers and their Participation in building an egalitarian society must, therefore, start with the
own questions and interests prepared beforehand by thinking about something, understanding of one’s own situation, abilities and possibilities in relation to
that could be well suited as a topic of conversation?76 others’. For people to be able to begin learning to know themselves, with the aim
to understand and contribute to the shared project of societal well-being, school
As the gatherings arranged by the Tolfterna continued, the frameworks surrounding pedagogy must change as well as how knowledge was brought to the masses of
them continued to be tweaked to try to find ways to foster more collective engagement adults who had not had the opportunity to go to school. In Key’s view, the ability to
and conversation. The suggestion proposed by Frölander, above, became added learn lies with the individual, who through reading and active reflection must take
as a general rule for the meetings, stating that a specific responsibility lay on the responsibility for the own learning process. Input and impetus for learning can
members of the Tolfterna, as organisers and leaders, to ensure that the conversations come in different ways, and the main ambition within the folkbildning movement
be energised through not only considering the contents of the program but also to was to provide new arenas, situations and methods where this could take place.
Folkbildning was envisioned as a collective project, where the emphasis
på så mycket; man inbillar sig i sin ensamhet så mycket om was on people’s active participation in learning together with others rather
d.s.k. öfverklassen, men när man råkas så här, får man se att than being taught or educated.78 However, in order for this to take place, people
man har tagit miste i många fördomar”
74 Johanna Ringarp & Anne Berg, “Borgerlig feminism eller det som vanligt svårt att få till stånd samtal mellan smärre
klassolidaritet? Tolfternas bildningssamkväm vid förra grupper och framför allt att få se alla språka. Det är ofta svårt
sekelskiftet”, in Kenneth Abrahamsson, Lisbeth Eriksson, att finna beröringspunkter: tolftmedlemmarna tveka att
Mats Myrstener, Lena Svensson & Tore Persson, Folkbildning inlåta sig på de frågor som äro brännande för arbeterskorna,
& forskning: Årsbok 2019 (Stockholm: Förening för och dessa känna, som naturligt är, ej mycket till dem som
folkbildningsforskning, 2019), 17-26 intressera de förra. Skulle månne ej denna svårighet minskas
75 Ellen Key, comment to the meeting minutes of the Tolfterna om tolftmedlemmarna bland arbeterskornas och sina egna
meeting 69, 14 April 1896. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas frågor och intressen på förhand tänkte öfver något, som kunde
samkväm för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, lämpa sig till samtalsämne?”
Protokollböcker 1892-1964. Tredje protokollsboken hösten 77 Rules for the Tolfterna gatherings. Kungliga biblioteket. J10:
1895, 1895-1896, 32. “Mycken urskiljning bör fästas vid dem, Tolfternas samkväm för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden.
som väljas till tolftemedlemmar, ty ett stort fattigdomsbevis J10:3, Protokollböcker 1892-1964. Tredje protokollsboken
för den s.k. bildade kvinnan är hennes stora oförmåga att gå hösten 1895 (1895-96). “XII. Samtalets tillgodoseende bör
utom sin egen eter och att på ett naturligt sätt kunna umgås hållas energiskt i sikte genom ett lämpligt och ej allt för
med hvad slags menniskor det vara må.” rikhaltigt program, samt genom att gärna såväl tolftledare
76 Natalia Frölander, meeting minutes of the Tolfterna meeting 9 som tolftmedlemmar en smula förbereda sig till att finna
October 1894. Kungliga biblioteket. J10: Tolfternas samkväm samtalsämnen. Och här öfver huvud taget de inbjudnas aktiva
för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden. J10:3, Protokollböcker deltagande i afton: underhållningen syftar till.”
1892-1964. Första protokollsboken. 1. Samkväm för kvinnor 78 Samuel Edqvist, “Det pragmatiska folkbildningbegreppet”,
från skilda yrkesområden, 1892-1893, 57. “Däremot var in Kerstin Rydbäck & Henrik Nordvall (eds.) Perspektiv på

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needed access to literature, and to the arts – and also often to basic education
or introductions to areas of knowledge. Instating accessible places for learning,
open to all, brought about not only folk high schools but also lecture associations,
libraries, exhibitions and from the early 20th century through the establishment
of adult education associations (studieförbund). The temperance movement ran
many of these, as did several political organisations – initially mainly the workers’,
women’s and liberal movements.
The aim was that these initiatives should provide the main infrastructures
for learning to take place. This also called for people to actively engage in taking
action, speaking, and collaborating in other ways than usual. The folkbildning idea
was envisioned to actively connect to people’s everyday experiences, with the aim
was to expand the understanding and analysis of current realities:

The movement must be led by the people’s true needs and aimed at the current
reality more than on past times, foreign lands and subjects alien to people at
the moment.79

Learning must, therefore, be grounded in everyday activities and experiences. This

was at the basis of Ellen Key’s pedagogy, and an idea shared by the many organisations
and persons promoting new arenas for learning around the turn of the century 1900.
The system of ‘folk high schools’ initiated in Denmark by the temperance
and religious revivalist movements had, according to Key, been influential in
promoting bildning but too weak in their foundation in knowledge. In Sweden, on
the other hand, the situation was the opposite: The folk high schools were much
too focused on imparting knowledge, and lent too little attention to the broader
aspects of bildning.80
The founding of folk high schools had as its aim to provide both education
and learning for people who did not have the opportunity or means to attend other
forms of (higher) education. The underlying purpose of these schools was to “stand
free on the broad foundation of full democracy, uniting youth from the industries
and the cities as well as from the countryside.”81 However, the work to achieve
folkbildning was not limited to schools and lectures. Other phenomena listed by
Key as necessary for this work, were open libraries, musical performances and folk
music competitions (spelmanstävlingar), sports associations, and art exhibitions.
Nevertheless, the perhaps most central form of learning support was the study circle.
This was a new format, introduced and used above all in the temperance and
revivalist movements for studying religious literature as well as readings in more
secular and social issues. One of the circle members, or an invited speaker, would
hold an introductory talk on a particular theme, followed by a joint discussion
Feminist theorist and writer Elin Wägner in 1914 next to
folkbildning. Fyra forskares tankar om folkligt bildningsarbete, the binders containing petition lists for women’s suffrage.
Mimer: Nationellt program för folkbildningsforskning Photographer unknown / Stadsmuseet i Stockholm (D 767)
(Linköping: Linköping University, 2015) 17.
79 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 48. “Rörelsen måste bli ledd av
folkets äkta behov och inriktad på nutidsverkligheten mer än
på forntiden, på främmande land och på för folket tillsvidare
främmande ämnen”.
80 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 59.
81 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 60. “…att folkhögskolan skall stå fri
på den fulla demokratiens breda grundval, samlande ungdom
från industrien och städerna såväl som från landsbygden.”

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on the selected topic. Key describes the study circle as a result of “many failed
attempts” to find formats suitable for learning together, mainly within the
temperance movement.82
Already in the mid-19th century, so-called ‘circles for bildning’ (bildningscirklar)
had been formed with aims to empower workers, while at the same time averting
eventual revolutionary tendencies. Through self-reflection and learning together
with others, the circles were a response to changing relations in society, where mutual
understanding would foster a sense of responsible citizenship among the working
class.83 When study circles later, around the turn of the century, were introduced,
these picked up on the format established in the bildningscirkel. Ellen Key, however,
emphasised that the difference between the previous educational attempts and
the format provided through study circles, is that the latter aims towards “joy in
knowledge” (kunskapsglädje) rather than “school learning” (skolvetande).
Only through self-reflection in light of personal relations – between people, and
between people and their “spiritual leaders” in science, art and poetry – can a true
interest in and joy of learning be sparked. Therefore, fostering egalitarian relations
that would allow people to understand each other was crucial to the folkbildning
ideal promoted by Key. When Ellen Key described the study circle, she explained its
format as well as its aims for those who had not encountered it previously:

The study circle of course has neither ‘lessons’ nor ‘meetings’: it has social gatherings,
where the members in intimate conversation exchange their thoughts on what the
great thinkers and poets have provided them, on what goes on and is done in society,
etc. The comings and goings of one’s neighbor are here left aside, the self-confident
shouting in agitation and discussion is here reduced to its correct proportions, as
the issue here is not to be right but to achieve clarity. Interests are broadened and
deepened, the tone of intercourse is altered, not only in the circle, but also in daily
social activity, which yields more exchange than before.84

In a note quoting a 1912 newspaper article, Ellen Key suggested that study
circles, when possible, should be located in the home of one of the participants.85
So doing, the study circle could be a complement to lectures and educational Reading circle at the Olsson family, Marielund. Year unknown.
activities held in more public venues. This would make it easier for larger numbers Oscar Färdig / Bohusläns museum. (UMFA54429:4021)
of people to find opportunities to discuss together, without having to find public
arenas for this, and the circles would more easily be combined with activities
82 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 125.
83 Frans Lundgren, Den isolerade medborgaren: Liberalt styre
och uppkomsten av det sociala vid 1800-talets mitt, diss.
(Hedemora: Gidlunds, 2003), 193–243.
84 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 125–126. “Studiecirkeln har
naturligtvis varken ’lektioner’ eller ’möten’: den har
samkväm, där medlemmarna i förtroliga samtal utbyta sina
tankar om vad de stora diktarna och tänkarna givit dem,
om vad som händer och uträttas i samhället o.s.v. Nästans
görande och låtande får här vara i fred, det självsäkra
agitations- och diskussionsskränet reduceras här till sina
rätta proportioner, då det gäller inte att få rätt utan få klarhet.
Intressena vidgas och fördjupas, umgängestonen lägges om,
inte bara i cirkeln utan i det dagliga umgänget, som lämnar
större utbyte än förr.”
85 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 63-64.

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including music, reading together, and playing games. This could also provide a All members of a society need to both practice and access the arts. Thus, the
way to increase the already growing number of study circles arranged. differences in availability to these for people from different social strata needed to
Central to Ellen Key’s ideas about learning was that it is born out of genuine be considered and catered for. The democratic ambitions in making art and beauty
curiosity and a personal connection to the situation or the subject. In this respect, the accessible in everyday life, for Key meant that all people must be granted the
study circle was “the most appropriate form” to work with bildning for adult women opportunity to “rise and develop, so that everything – the largest as well as the smallest,
and men in an organised manner, since it was based on each person’s motivation to the building for centuries as well as the glass for this day – becomes an expression for
contribute to furthering knowledge individually as well as collectively.86 the sense of beauty in those who consume as well as in those who bring forth.”90
In arguing for the need for study circles to promote awareness in social issues, In her discussion on how art could be popularised in order to reach everyone and
that ultimately might lead to the creation of a new societal order, Key quoted not only a privileged few, Key referred to initiatives by English ‘artists’ William Morris and
several persons central to the Swedish social-democratic political sphere. In the Walter Crane who, “permeated by an eagerness to social renewal and responsibility”
work leading towards a radically different society, where class structures would be have tried to make their craft production cheap and available for “the little people”.91 In
upheaved, there has to be a mutual will from both “labourers” and “academics” to Key’s view, this project had not succeeded in making the arts-and-crafts aesthetic or idea
understand and trust each other. If not, and if the “new social order would happen popular, since the great masses did not embrace the art or items produced:
through the temporary rawness, ignorance or half-bildning temporary victory”,
this would be the most destructive reaction the world had hitherto seen.87 Radical This mass still probably prefers the ‘cute’ girls and well-dressed children on the
change was imperative, but not through outright revolution. colour prints, before one of Crane’s woodcuts; their fake, ugly furniture and
What was needed was a new order realised through mutual understanding ornaments before the simple, genuine and stylish beauty in the wallpapers,
between manual labourers and “academically learned”, which in turn must be textiles and home utensils, that have emerged under the influence of the new
English arts direction.92
based on knowledge and bildning. Key pointed to accessibility to better material
conditions in parallel to education and development in everyday aesthetics as
Since the project was to make beauty a part of everyone’s everyday life, there was
central aspects in the mutual learning and understanding that must be fostered
no point, Key meant, in trying to adapt or adjust a certain aesthetic to a certain class
to avoid potentially destructive paths:
of people. The goal was instead to foster a new collective sensitivity to art, music,
And therefore there is no other side of the sense of beauty, of which the
architecture and everyday items that was ultimately based on an understanding of
awakening would be more indispensable than the sense of societal beauty, the how beauty and learning are intertwined, in the work of creating a society founded
sense that carries with it an eye for the beautiful, the valuable, in each age, in on mutual support and solidarity.
each area’s particularity and thus awakens the will to mutual collaboration Here, the key to realisation lay in work within the realm of providing access to
instead of mutual opposition.88 knowledge and learning. For, as Key stated, “[i]t is not only so, that the uneducated
do not have the possibility to appreciate the genuine in art. They often do not even
Beauty, bildning and everyday life have the ability to understand what it means.”93 Learning, knowledge and social
Ellen Key, influenced by German philosophy and aesthetics, adhered to the idea
följer modets växlingar och nöjer sig med gottköpsgrannlåt,
that the ‘national spirit’ (folksjäl) was the source or basis of creative practice and
när det starka och stilfulla handarbetet ännu förädlar och
appreciation. This spirit was manifest and expressed in different artistic practices förskönar bondehemmet”.
– music, literature, arts, crafts – and is renewed through collaborative work. In 90 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 114. “Det betyder, att alla skola
rural areas, the traditional practices would remain stronger and slower in regard höjas och utvecklas, så att allt – det största som det minsta,
to change, and constitute real and proper styles. In the cities, on the other hand, byggnaden för århundraden som glaset för dagen – blir ett
the fashion would change quickly and people often “satisfied with candy store uttryck för skönhetssinnet hos de förbrukande lika väl som
trinkets, while the strong and stylish handcrafts still ennobles and beautifies the hos de frambringande.”
farmer’s home.”89 So, in bringing arts-based appreciation and understanding to 91 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 113. “Man brukar – på tal om
broader groups of people, different strategies and pedagogics must be applied. konstens popularisering – framhålla, huru de engelska
konstnärerna, en William Morris, en Walter Crane, varit
genomträngda av social nydaningsiver och ansvarskänsla, och
86 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 125. huru de därför strävat att göra sin vackra konstslöjd billig och
87 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 75. tillgänglig även för småfolket.”
88 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 99. “Och därför är det icke någon 92 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 113. “Denna massa föredrar nog
sida av skönhetssinnet, vars väckelse vore mer oumbärlig alltjämt de ’söta’ flickorna och välklädda småbarnen på
än sinnet för samhällsskönhet, det sinne, som har med färgtycken framför ett av Crane’s träsnitt; sina oäkta, fula
sig blick för det vackra, det värdefulla i varje ålders, varje möbler och prydnader framför den enkla, gedigna och stilfulla
arbetsområdes egenart och sålunda väcker viljan till skönheten i de tapeter, tyger och husgeråd, som uppstått
ömsesidig samverkan i stället för ömsesidigt bekämpande.” under inflytande av den nya engelska konstinriktningen.”
89 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 113. “…medan stadsbon snabbt 93 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 114. “Det är icke blott så, att de

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awareness, therefore, needed to come together in order for people to gain an comparable in urgency to stilling physical hunger.98 Through bringing beauty
understanding how these are intrinsically linked: “It takes culture to learn in this into everyday life also for the poorer people, one could both counter the allure of
way to discern the true value from the worthless, the greater values from the lesser.”94 drunkenness, and contribute to creating a home environment that would be more
The reason for the arts-and-crafts movement’s failure in creating societal beneficial to families’ well-being both physically and socially.
change through combining socialism and aesthetic reform was, according to At the beginning of the 20th century, state initiatives aiming to improve not
Key, due to the insistence on promoting crafts while rejecting the potential of only the quality of dwellings but also the home environment in general was seen
industrial production. This had continued to reinforce the existing inaccessibility as an essential counter-measure against mass emigration. To propose reforms
to reasonably priced goods of useful and beautiful everyday things for many. aiming at changing the living conditions of workers and farmhands therefore
Ellen Key instead saw industrial mass manufacture as a means to further fit into the socio-political agenda on a national level, and made possible the
increase the spreading of a more appropriate type of goods to wider groups of inclusion of beauty and the design of everyday things – and everyday life – into
people – if only a conscious attempt were made to unite beauty, purpose and this discourse. Besides being the main obstacle to the workers’ “self-education and
quality of production. The late 19th-century view that industry and beauty were development of the sense of beauty”, the poor and cramped housing conditions
unreconcilable was contradicted: “Every day now brings new testimony to the was one of the areas in which class differences remained very materially present.
possibility of uniting the beautiful with the purposeful.”95 While some industrial In diet as well as in clothing, the differences between richer and poorer were
products, such as trains, still “retain their original ugliness”, Key referred to perceived to be diminishing, but the standard of the dwelling for the working class
attempts to integrate design in the transportation industry: “…an automobile was still described to be “in a state of bankruptcy”.99
factory already has requested an artist to seek to give the new collective means for Key saw the connection between material manifestation and a person’s inner
transport a form that pleases the sense of beauty.”96 state – in terms of development, learning, ethics and bildning – as reciprocal. The
The introduction of industrially based technologies in the production of “inner relationships are highly affected by the outer”, and a person surrounded
everyday goods was, for Key, the decisive factor in the potential reform of not by or dressed in, taste and harmony would both act and genuinely become
only material things but of social and societal life as a whole. There is a reciprocal more dignified and refined.100 It was from this perspective of connectedness
relationship between the material and the spiritual or intellectual, which is why and reciprocity that design for Key became a crucial element in the re-forming
questions of form and beauty were crucial to address in a context of bildning of society into something completely different. Designing for new means of
and empowerment. True liberation and transformation of society would only production, in combination with changing values, norms, and social structures
take place when there had been a reform also of the material world through could make other ways of living accessible for everyone.
designing beautiful and useful things that would be industrially produced and Increased knowledge and sensibility in regard to beauty, and refinement in
made available: taste, would lead to improvements in several areas. Not only would “raw ugly acts”
become impossible if art were to ennoble people: the level of morality would also
Only when there is nothing ugly available for sale, when beautiful things are as be heightened. Additionally, the Swedish economy would be strengthened, people
inexpensive as ugly ones are now, can beauty for everyone be fully realized.97 would be able to work harder, and the items produced in industry and crafts would
hold a level of refinement that would increase the value of its production.101
The good life Things were seen as carriers of an ability to convey both beauty and ethics
In Ellen Key’s thinking, aesthetic reform must go hand in hand with any attempts and should serve as an impetus for developing a higher moral standing on
to change the social and political situation in Sweden, in order to achieve a individual level, causing an ennoblement of actions as well as of thinking. This,
truly good life for everyone. Satisfying people’s hunger for a life in beauty was Key meant, was something that persons with a certain level of knowledge and
bildning in beauty were already aware of but that people living in a “state of
aesthetic wildness” – here, she refers to her critics amongst idealist philosophers
obildade ej ha möjligheter att uppskatta det änkla inom
and socialists – were as unaware as heathens are of the word of God.102 Creating a
konsten. De ha ofta ej ens förmåga att förstå, vad den betyder.”
truly egalitarian society where “a sense of community between all members of the
94 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 117–118. “Men det fordrar kultur
för att lära sig sålunda urskilja det verkliga värdet från det 98 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 122. “They, who so speak, forget
värdelösa, de större värdena från de mindre.” that it even in the class that still is constricted to live in need
95 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 86. and unsightlyness, there are many whose soul’s longing for
96 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 86. “…en automobilfabrik redan beauty is as consuming as the bodily hunger.”/ “De, som så
anmodat en konstnär att söka ge det nya samfärdsmedlet en orda, glömma att det även inom den klass, som ännu nödgas
skönhetssinnet tilltalande gestalt”. leva i nöd och oskönhet, finnes många, hos vilka själens
97 Key, “Beauty in the Home”, 35. Swedish original quote from skönhetslängtan är lika sugande som den kroppsliga hungern.”
Ellen Key, “Skönhet i hemmen”, in Skönhet för alla (1899), 99 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 123.
5: “Först då intet fult finnes att få köpa; då det vackra är 100 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 123.
lika billigt som det fula nu är, kan skönhet för alla bli en full 101 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 126.
värklighet.” 102 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 127.

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people” would have to be founded in a common understanding of spiritual values, Whether or not modernity was preferable to tradition, or crafts to industry,
where access to and understanding of art and beauty were crucial.103 was not the primary issue. Rather, Key posed the questions of what type of
Aesthetics and ethics were, for Ellen Key, inseparable and intertwined in modernity one would wish to have, and which types of practices – aesthetic as well
all aspects of everyday life. The new times were defined by changing needs and as ethical and social – should be made possible through doing things differently.
practices, which in turn should be reflected in new ways of making and using Crafts were not for Key inherently better than industrial production since the
things relating to these new needs: modes of production and their outcomes in material form could fulfil different
needs, both during the process of production and in everyday use. “Our times”,
The aim of the sense of beauty is and remains to be the ability, through beautiful she stated, “have of course brought many new needs and many new means to
usefulness, to satisfy the needs that in all times are alike as well as the needs that satisfy them.”106 This was something that Key came back to in several of the texts
in every time are new.104 in which she addresses aesthetic, social and material practices in the home.107
That the aim was to achieve a radical change of society as a whole through new
Attention to the ways that all material aspects of everyday environments support- aesthetic practices and material changes in everyday life is perhaps most clearly
ed and influenced a person’s learning and overall abilities for reflection and ap- formulated by Key in the essay “Skönhet” (Beauty), first published in 1898, the
preciation would constitute and further bildning, and thus the abilities to form same year as “Beauty in the home”:
the personal opinions and views necessary for an informed contribution to the
collective good. And when one has succeeded in this endeavour [creating beautiful and useful
Questions of the material production and consumption of everything from designs of public places and environments], will it not perhaps be the case, that
household objects to city planning, therefore, must be considered in terms of reform the sense of beauty shall present itself powerful enough to force man to reform
work needed to create a new social order as well as a fundamentally democratic the current society itself? [---] No one shall then, for themselves or for others, be
society. For Ellen Key, the changes in contemporary life and lifestyles were central able to endure the torment of an ugly legislation, of lethargic working conditions,
for bringing about a new society. Among the reforms needed to create this, were of ugly social customs. The need for harmony between our surroundings and our
the design and production of goods, the use and decoration of homes, the social living conditions shall then be so demanding, as to that the laws of society finally
must be reshaped to follow the laws of beauty. 108
interaction between people, the forms for living and being together, the rights for
children to be taken seriously, and a change in the roles men and women play in
The intended readers of “Beauty in the home” were primarily women, which is quite
society. These were all interconnected, and must organically work together in order
evident throughout the text as it directly addresses women as home-makers and
for change to come about.
carriers of both aesthetical and ethical qualities and capabilities. The main task in
The foundation for change rested in access to knowledge, that would allow
creating an environment that integrated usefulness and beauty lay on women. It was
people of all social standings to question current orders, and to be able to choose
other ways of being than those seen as ‘traditional’ or seemingly ‘natural’. Only when
all people had the ability and the possibility to realise new ways of living, materially 106 Key, “Beauty in the home”, 39.
107 For example in the last essay in Skönhet för alla, when
as well as ideally, could these choices could be made collaboratively – whether in
describing how habits and celebrations must be both
consensus or disagreement. Questions of how everyday things should be designed,
safeguard and changed in relation to the changing times:
manufactured, used, and appreciated were situated in a much broader and more “That some old customs must come to be abandoned,
intricate context encompassing ideas of the potential for everyone to be able to is associated with new views of life, changed means of
make a good life for themselves: morally, aesthetically, and practically. production, more lively communications and other traits
For Ellen Key, the overarching question was not that of which objects are of the time”. Ellen Key, ”Festvanor”, in Skönhet i hemmen
more beautiful than others, which furniture to buy, or which taste is better than (1913) (faksimil, Rekolid, 1996), 43. ”Att en del gamla seder
another. The most important issue at hand was that of which type of society måste komma att övergivas, sammanhänger med nya
one would wish to build, and which practices – social and material – should be livsåskådningar, ändrade produktionsförhållanden, livligare
instrumental in creating the changes needed to draw up the trajectory that would samfärdsel och andra tidens drag.”
108 Ellen Key, “Skönhet”, in Tankebilder I (1898), 3rd edition
lead into a preferable future.105
(Albert Bonniers förlag: Stockholm, 1922), 154. “Och när man
lyckats i denna sträfvan, månne då icke skönhetskänslan
103 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 129. skall visa sig mäktig nog att tvinga människan att
104 Key, Folkbildningsarbetet, 172. “Skönhetssinnets mål är ombilda själfva det nuvarande samhället? [---] Ingen
och förblir att genom vacker ändamålsenlighet kunna skall då för sig eller andra kunna uthärda plågan af en
tillfredsställa dels de i hvarje tid lika med dels äfven de för ful lagstiftning, af förslöande arbetsvillkor och osköna
hvarje tid nya behofven.” samhällsseder. Behofvet af harmoni mellan vår omgifning
105 Claudia Lindén, “Förord av Claudia Lindén: Ellen Keys och våra lefnadsförhållanden skall då varda så befallande,
feministiska estetik”, i Ellen Key, Skönhet för alla (Ellen att samhällslagarna slutligen måste omdanas efter
Keyinstitutet: Ödeshög, 2006), 9. skönhetslagarna.”

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not only the case that women as part of their nature had – and could further train – a fail to make them more agreeable and often nobler; and the woman herself is
specific aesthetic sensitivity different to that of men: it was also every woman’s duty made happier through that joy of creativity always accompanying the practice
to continually strive for beauty. This, Key meant, was something that most women of an art.110
had not yet understood, as they would approach beauty more as a “pleasurable
pursuit” than an essential practical and educational task. Through defining the home – and the realm of material aesthetics in relation to
Women needed to understand the power they held when it came to providing individual and social development – as an area of women’s expertise, the space for
a home environment that could not only be nurturing and developing for children, women to have a voice in a socio-political setting was also created. This was based
but that would also bring about other forms of relationships between women and on an idea of gender-based complementarity, where women’s contributions to
men at home as well as in society. Women were to be empowered as agents of society would be based on their “collective motherliness” (samhällsmoderlighet).
socio-aesthetic change in virtue of their specific aptitude for aesthetic judgement, On an individual level, women carried the responsibility and ability to create a
home-making and motherhood in private as well as in public life. Hence, for Key, home environment in which the family could thrive and develop. On a societal
women became the designers of everyday life and everyday practices. level, women were needed to participate in issues of legislation and organisation
What was crucial – and what the whole essay “Beauty in the home” worked aiming towards the common good in matters associated with the areas considered
with – was to in practice show how considering usefulness and beauty in every of specific female expertise.
detail were intrinsically linked to a greater purpose of the home, and ultimately
also to making a change in society. This holistic view was necessary to have to be Bringing women together as a group in order to claim a presence in the socio-
able to make the right judgements, choices and designs, and women, in general, political arena, based on specifically identified aspects of female expertise,
would need more training in this: therefore became an issue of collective and mutual learning. In order to fully
be able to participate in society, women would need to help each other to gain
Most women do not yet understand how to treat a room – or an outfit – as a language and learning, and to operate the necessary tools to be able to take place
whole, where nothing should exist that is beautiful only by itself, but where at the table. The arenas identified, and put into play, around the turn of the century
colours and shapes should work well together; where the main thing should be 1900 were – for women – the home and the shared experiences women could
emphasized and all secondary things, however beautiful, be subordinate; where relate to in regard to their roles in it irrespective of social standing.
all separate entities ought to work together harmoniously; where one should
Full engagement in the budding Swedish democratic processes needed
understand how to achieve an effect, one time by filling a void, another time by
to be preceded by practicing and preparing for participation. The ambition to
not filling it.109
bridge differences – of class, education, economy – and create new situations for
learning together, led to the establishment of new ways of coming together and
The approach towards understanding an assembled whole, such as a home, as
finding common ground. The attempts to create situations for facilitating a broad
something that went far beyond its parts in relation to use, ethics and aesthetics, also
bildning, that included aspects of ethics and aesthetics as well as of learning, led to
applied to the individual in relation to others and to society. With the starting point
adopting formats such as study circles and shared responsibilities for engagement
of personal taste and an understanding of the own needs, Ellen Key situated the
in building knowledge together in various societal contexts.
creation of a home environment distinctly within the realm of experience and utility
The importance of an active and reflective approach to the material
but with the goal of ultimately transforming both society and people as social beings.
aspects of everyday life as crucial for societal change, expressed by Key in her
In all planning, purchasing, making, moving, painting, composing, and using,
texts, became highly influential in different circles already during Key’s lifetime.
the individual things in a home would come together into a holistic environment,
Amongst Scandinavian artists and architects who strove to promote “a new style”
which constituted a thing in itself in a way different than only a constellation of its
as well as new ways of approaching creative practices, the ideas on how material
parts. As such, the home was something more than a house, an apartment or a room.
choices could shape everyday practices in the home as well as form a foundation
It was also something more than just a compilation of objects that serve different
for societal change were picked up and expanded on.
purposes. In the idea of the home was embedded not only its materiality, but also the
Ellen Key’s writings thus became seminal for the formation of both design
experience of being in it and the potentiality of what it would allow its’ inhabitants to
discourse and design practice in Sweden during the 20th century. Later design
become if the harmony between the useful and the beautiful was achieved:
theorists, such as Gregor Paulsson, explicitly point to Ellen Key’s ideas of design
By striving for beauty at the same time as observing the need for utility, the and everyday life as an impetus for their own thinking.111 Influenced by, and also in
woman not only satisfies a legitimate desire in her own nature but also exerts some opposition to, the English arts- and crafts ideas brought forth by John Ruskin
a profound influence on the other members in the home of which she is the
soul. The children’s senses are educated and refined through the beautiful 110 Key, “Beauty in the Home”, 37.
impressions they receive; the adults experience a peace and a joy that cannot 111 Gregor Paulsson, “Min väg till konstvetenskapen”, in Uppsala
universitets konsthistoriska institution femtio år (Uppsala,
1968), 20. See also Gunnela Ivanov, Vackrare vardagsvara –
design för alla? Gregor Paulsson och Svenska slöjdföreningen
109 Key, “Beauty in the home”, 38. 1915-1925, diss. (Umeå, 2004), 75-110.

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and William Morris, Ellen Key thus introduced ideas that came to play a significant time, design was about what types of futures could be made through envisioning
role in laying the foundation for two themes of relevance to the formation of the and enacting change on different societal levels: material, ideal, legal and social.
discourse around and the program for a user-centered design that emerged as The period in which industrial design came about – the late 19th and early
specifically “Swedish” or “Scandinavian”. 20th centuries – was also a period in which Western political ideologies took form,
and traditional socio-political power structures were contested. With claims and
contestations of the extension of parliamentary democracy to encompass (almost)
Participation, designing, history everyone – women and working-class men – followed that issues were raised of
who could, and should, have a say not only decision making on societal level but
This chapter has revolved around a situation central to contemporary participatory also of how design could be of fundamental importance to making these changes.
design processes: that of people coming together in situations of mutual learning as Through design, access to decent housing and useful things, to education
a starting point for proposing change through collaborative designing. By following and arts, would be granted not to a privileged few but to everyone. However, the
some of the fundamental ideas embedded in the formats and approaches in play concept of ‘participation’ is in some sense rooted in a situation of privilege, where
in these situations, the perspective of ‘participation’ has been applied to contexts those holding power or resources for some reason open up the possibility for
in turn-of-the-century 1900s Sweden. The purpose here has been to explore what a others to share or take part – to participate.
design history of a core concept such as this might be like, and what it might do for
addressing or opening up certain issues in designing today. Rather than following, In many participatory design projects, situated in contexts of design research, the
or searching for, a specific terminology or method, I have attempted to draw forth researcher and the partners with which she collaborates in the project, would have
ways of thinking around design, everyday life and society that can be seen as having a strong influence on who would be defined as potential users and stakeholders,
formed a foundation for ideas about ‘participation’ in relation to design. and consequently considered for inclusion in the process. Similarly, since much of
The emergence of participatory design practices in the 1970s and 1980s participatory design is set up as research-related projects, decisions on inclusion in
context of work-place democracy was conditioned by the ways that early 20th- or exclusion from the process are also influenced by funding schemes, stakeholder
century ideas of egalitarianism and democracy were intertwined with issues of affiliations, and other structural and financial bases. That many papers and articles
learning and bridging differences as central to making change, not least through refer to ‘participants’ as being ‘invited’ by designers to take part in situations and
design and the material re-formation of the everyday. Another shift in perspective processes, suggests that someone already holds power over the design domain,
has been made in regard to the design-related ideas of author, social debater and and decides to open up the possibility of allowing others to step into a process or
design theorist Ellen Key. She has since long been established in the ‘canon’ of situation that has already in some way been established or defined.
Swedish design history as an ‘arbiter of taste’, perceived as providing normative As in the turn-of-the-century example of the Tolfterna gatherings, the ambition
judgements of what makes a thing qualify as ‘good design’. might well be to establish a situation where collaboration or conversation can
The purpose of choosing to revisit Ellen Key’s writings from a different take place in a non-hierarchical and egalitarian setting. However, when some
perspective, was to explore if this could also make visible other design histories than are called ‘invitors’ and some ‘invited’, or when some are labelled ‘designers’ and
the usual. Ideas of ‘good design’, as promoted and argued by Ellen Key, have been others ‘participants’, the situation – and indeed the concept itself – carries with it
quite extensively studied – and also critiqued – in Swedish design history, focusing a fundamental inequality in the very initiation of the collaboration expected to
on these as expressions of normative aesthetics and culturally oppressive home take place. In participatory designing, an ambition is often to empower people
design reform. Through picking up on concepts foundational to participatory design, and to enable people to have a voice and a say in design processes that will affect
such as creating situations where mutual learning forms a basis for collaborative their situation. This was already in the early 20th century also an explicit aim in the
designing with an intent of supporting democratic decision-making, situations folkbildning initiatives that targeted groups of people until then devoid of power or
and ideas of collective learning in relation to initiatives towards design reforms, is influence – legally and/or socially – over their situation.
understood as a part of a programmatic approach aiming towards the formation of Developing methods and establishing a foundation for this empowerment
a democratic and egalitarian society. was a project that encompassed issues of providing access to situations of learning,
It might also be the case, that it was precisely these entanglements of socio- through constructing physical meeting places and of setting up social arenas where
political transformation with matters of how to design – materially and ideally conversations could take place between groups of people who would otherwise not
– everyday life that formed the conditions for participatory design to emerge in meet each other.
the latter decades of the 20th century. From this also follows, that some of the Scandinavian participatory design of the 1970s and 1980s came about in a context
conceptual and practical issues sometimes difficult to deal with in participatory of national legislation that formally required employers and employees to negotiate
design, could stem from the historical situations in which these concepts once conditions and consequences when making major changes in the workplace. The
emerged and took shape. development of new methods and situations for collaborative designing was, then,
In Ellen Key’s approach to design in the context of industrialisation, the not so much an initiative from within design but a response to other socio-political
questions of which things to make and how to provide access to these for everyone, forces that – eventually – led to changes in design practices.
were never only about form, aesthetics or matters of taste. For Key and others at that

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Ideas of the importance of collective action as well as of mutual and shared

learning were central to the design practices that were advocated in the 1970s and
1980s. Much as the folkbildning movements had prototyped different ways of setting
up learning situations that were open, reflective and inclusive, the prototyping of
different formats for shared understanding and learning as a basis for design-driven
transformation, both of specific situations and societal structures became central to
participatory design practices.
The format of the study circle, which emerged as a suggestion of a more
democratic and open format for collective learning in the early 20th century, had by
the 1970s and 1980s become a well established format for learning in the context
of folkbildning. Within different folkbildning organisations, many of which were
run by worker’s organisations and unions, the study circle was an integrated way
of disseminating and gaining knowledge. In the UTOPIA project, it was explicitly
emphasised that one of the participating researchers had experience of running
study circles on new technology together with unions.112 The study circle thus travels
into participatory design through inclusion of idea and format in design situations.
However, here we can also highlight aspects of historical ‘baggage’ that might
be of importance to contemporary design practice, in regard to methods and
approaches in participatory design. If we take the ambition in participatory design
practice to, as part of the design process, set up situations where every voice should
be equally heard and influential in the design process, the formats for doing this
will continue to be conditioned by the historicity of the concept of ‘participation’.
This does, of course, not have to be at all problematic, if the design situation is one
where participatory design processes and methods are in tune with the challenge
addressed. Whereas if the concept of ‘participation’ is in play when design is called
upon in instances where relationships and complexities go beyond what the
concept can allow us to think and do.
The things we use to think with influence the things we do, and the things we
make – whether the thing is a material object, a process, or a concept. Approaching
the concept of participation from with the aim of making a design history, has as
much to do – perhaps more – with exploring what history emerges as what it does
for our present-day ways of understanding. Through history, and through what
comes into view through this perspective, things we perhaps usually do not actively
consider in design practices today come into view as well. A design history such as
the one presented here, will not in any way attempt to resolve this, but can possibly
provide a shift in perspective that makes visible something which would otherwise
have remained unseen or taken for granted.

112 When writing about the persons engaged in the UTOPIA

project, it is mentioned that “the engineer Maja-Lisa
Perby, […] had some experience from study circles on new
technology together with trade unions.” Ehn, Work-Oriented
Design of Computer Artifacts, 10.

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 Use

5. Use

Daily protocol of activities and floor plan sketch from the 1937
study for The Family that Outgrew its Home. Brita Åkerman’s
Archive, Umeå University Library.

In the following, I prototype a design history from the perspective of ‘use’ and ‘users’,
intending to explore a core concept in the practices of user-centered design. This is,
on the one hand, an exploration into the historicity of these concepts in designing
and, on the other, a proposal of what a design history of contexts and ideas formative
for the emergence of Scandinavian user-centered design might look like.
This transitional design history prototype takes off from an overview of how
user-centered design practices are generally described as having come about.
Situating the inquiry into user-centered design histories in a Swedish design
context, I also give a brief overview of the historical period and theme that the
prototypical intervention later in this chapter relates to. I, therefore, sketch a
historical background to the formulation of the “housing question” in Sweden
in the early 20th century, and the introduction of modernist ideas that directly
influenced the national Swedish housing program as part of the broader ambitions
of socio-political reforms aiming to turn Sweden into a Folkhem, a ‘people’s home’.

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This is a well known and extensively researched historical period in Swedish and accountability but also in terms of non-human agency in designing.4 Design has,
Scandinavian design history. It is in relation to these existing narratives that I over time, come to deal with ever more complex and increasingly less tangible
then prototype a different reading of texts and archival materials from contexts of things and materials. Whether in handling the realms of the digital, the areas
domestic reform and housing design. of experience or service design, or targeting political or social empowerment
The material studied in this chapter consists of investigations into ‘dwelling processes, questions of value, situation, context and scale also affect how ‘use’ or
habits’, made by the design promotional organisation Svenska slöjdföreningen (SSF), ‘users’ in design could be understood.5
the National Association of Swedish Architects (SAR) and other actors engaging in
issues of reforming everyday life , interior decoration, building standards and design
Design for users
practices. The aim is, on the one hand, to explore if other aspects than those already
Working with user-centered design can encompass many different things, in terms
well known in Swedish design history will emerge when applying a conceptual lens
of what the concept of ‘users’ is taken to mean in the design process. In some cases,
of ‘use’ to revisit this historical context. And on the other hand – which is the primary
a ‘user’ is more or less the same thing as a ‘consumer’ and has often become the
aim – the ambition is to investigate the historicity of the concept of ‘use’ in user-
preferred synonym for this in descriptions of how a company or consultancy works
centered design practice.
in relation to the people who are their intended target group. Users, then, are the
people who will purchase, live with, and handle a product or service provided
for them. A design framework that applies user-centered methods could span
Users in designing: A brief background everything from doing market research polls that probe people’s preferences in
consumption, to questionnaires, interviews and observations aiming to understand
As research and practices in user-centered and participatory design have evolved, more of people’s everyday situations and behaviours. People might be invited to
one of its core concepts seems to have become increasingly difficult to handle: take part in different stages of the design process, in user tests of prototypes or
that of the ‘user’.1 Despite, or perhaps because of, its centrality to many methods concepts, or to take part in focus groups or workshops, often dedicated to getting
and orientations in design, who or what a ‘user’ is in regard to roles and agency in user feedback on usability, ergonomics or product appeal.
designing is not always very straightforward.2 As design moves into situations that In the type of user-centered design that strongly emphasises usability,
are not clearly defined as to when designing starts and ends, the ‘use’ designed ways of defining ‘use’ rely quite substantially on intentionality, direction, and
for is perhaps neither easily attributed to a single context, a stable technology, or adaptation to functional demands, whether from a cognitive or ergonomic point of
readily defined type of profession or group of people. Who the ‘user’ might be, view. In pointing to the history of where and how user-centered design took shape,
what ‘use’ will entail, and how it might change over time is, therefore, becoming references tend to lead to 1940s methods applied in human factors research, and
increasingly hard to say.3 the adaptation of for example military aircraft to the needs and abilities of fighter
In participatory user-centered design, conceptual difficulties also emerge pilots.6 The human factors approach in design incorporated both physical and
when collaboration in designing take on formats that blur the boundaries cognitive ergonomics into industrial design processes and came to have a strong
between ‘designers’ and ‘users’ – not only in terms of roles, power, expertise and emphasis on developing methods for the design of professional tools in product
design, as well as in what later became interaction design.
1 Sarah Ahmed, What’s the Use? On the Uses of Use (Durham Design practices based on extensive user involvement grew strong in
& London: Duke University Press, 2019), 21-67; Theodora
Scandinavia in the late 1960s and onwards, with emphasis on ergonomic
Vardouli, “User Design: Constructions of the ‘user’ in the
history of design research”, Design Research Society 50th
and inclusive design. Users are in this ‘classic’ Scandinavian user-centered
Anniversary Conference, Brighton 2016. design defined in relation to a particular type of action, quite precisely tied to a
2 Johan Redström, “RE: Definitions of use”, Design Studies
2008:4 (vol.29), 410-423; Johan Redström, “Towards user 4 Lenneke Kuijer & Elisa Giaccardi, “Co-performance:
design? On the shift from object to user as the subject of Conceptualizing the Role of Artificial Agency in the Design
design”, Design Studies. 2006:2 (vol.27), 123–139. of Everyday Life”, Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on
3 Pelle Ehn, Elisabet M. Nilsson & Richard Topgaard (eds.) human factors in computing systems. (ACM, 2018), 1–13; Johan
Making futures: Marginal notes on innovation, design, and Redström & Heather Wiltse, Changing Things: The Future of
democracy (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2014); Kristina Objects in a Digital World (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).
Lindström & Åsa Ståhl, Patchworking publics-in-the-making: 5 Stoffel Kuenen, Aesthetics of Being Together, diss., (Umeå:
Design, media and public engagement, diss. (Malmö: Malmö Umeå University, 2018).
University, 2014); Tuuli Mattelmäki, Eva Brandt & Kirsikka 6 Marcia E. Holmes, Performing proficiency: Applied
Vaajakallio, “On designing open-ended interpretations for experimental psychology and the human engineering of air
collaborative design exploration” CoDesign: Special Issue: defense, 1940-1965, diss. (The University of Chicago, 2014);
Design and Emotion, 2011:2 (vol.7), 79–93; Elisabeth Shove, Theodora Vardouli, “User Design: Constructions of the ‘user’
Matthew Watson, Martin Hand, & Jack Ingram, The Design of in the history of design research”, Design Research Society 50th
Everyday Life (New York: Berg, 2007), 123. Anniversary Conference, Brighton 2016.

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specific context and situation. The future use of the thing being designed is then Design with users
anticipated, developed and tested in different ways together with people currently Turning to participatory design, where the core idea is that designers and us-
engaged in similar situations or types of activities. ers should come together collaboratively in the design process, the concepts of
Roles are often quite well defined, where designers hold expertise in and use and the relations between designers and users become more multifaceted.
responsibility for the process of designing for the people described as ‘users’. While Central to participatory design is the ambition that design should happen with
these users can be more or less involved in the design process, through everything people rather than for people.11 The people called ‘designers’ should, therefore,
from user testing to collaborative workshops, the processes in which design comes work together with ‘users’, or ‘participants’, in a design process where both parties
about are owned and run by designers.7 Users are subjects of study and providers are involved in making design decisions and influencing the process as well as
of information – through surveys, ethnographic studies or user tests – and can also its outcomes. ‘Participants’ as a term usually includes the people taking part in
be invited to participate in more collaborative or participatory situations during designing, based on their being defined as holding different roles, such as ‘users’,
the process of developing the design, in their capacity of holding a particular ‘experts’, or ‘stakeholders’.
experiential expertise in relation to intended future use. As participatory design increasingly moved into new areas of professional
From the 1990s and onwards, as concepts of usability and ideas of practices, users would also be categorised in different types – such as primary or
designing for rational use moved towards addressing issues of the situated and secondary users, end-users, expert users and so on. Categorisation would depend
often less-than-rational way people perceive, adopt and use things, aspects of on various aspects or contexts such as how directly or indirectly users would work
‘user experience’ were increasingly integrated into designing.8 In terms of user- with a designed thing; how professionally skilled or unskilled they were, or how
centered design, this meant that methods and approaches in design would not likely it was that they would be able to participate with equal voice or standing
only focus on ease of operating and handling something, but also on the personal, in a design process (regarding, for example, health, sickness, age and cognition).
psychological, emotional and aesthetic experiences of people’s engaging with When participatory methods for designing began to be developed, in the
things.9 In such situations, what the intended ‘use’ or ‘users’ of design would context of introducing computers into working life, these rested on concepts of users
be is not necessarily simple to define. As concepts, they can nonetheless seem and usability in relation to systems or software being designed. ‘Users’ were people
reasonably straightforward to work with. in a professional situation, operating a ‘tool’ or item that should support a specific
In user-centered design, the roles of designers and users are conceptually action in relation to the user’s skill sets. In an expanded view on the process and
defined in relation to each other: the designer designs for the user, who in turn will outcomes of design, ideas of ‘use’ also extended to spheres and processes beyond
be the one engaging with the final result provided by the designer, and in different the direct operational use of the designed thing.12
ways providing input into the designer’s process. However, as issues of how to In the early Scandinavian participatory projects, the ‘use’ that unions would
handle aspects of what use and usability entail in design have been brought to have in power relations and democratic decision-making at the workplace was
the fore, the attention to ethical implications of user-centered design in terms of emphasised, in regard to the knowledge and shifts in positions created through
roles and responsibilities has also intensified.10 The contexts and logics that form design processes. The difference between ‘designers’ and ‘users’ remained upheld
design also to a high degree shape who (or what) is to be considered as a ‘user’ in relation to expertise and process. Many of the collaborative methods developed
in designing, and what that means for the relationships and dynamics between aimed at overcoming or bridging differences between the roles of ‘designers’ and
‘users’ and ‘designers’. ‘users’ in regard to expertise, experience, presence, and decision making in the
design process. At the same time, upholding or reinforcing difference was seen
as important in regard to other ‘stakeholders’ such as work-place management,

7 Donald A. Norman, The Design of Everyday Things (MIT Press:

London, 1998). 11 “Participatory design is about the direct involvement
8 Thomas Mitchell Redefining Designing: From Form to of people in the co-design processes of the information
Experience (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993), 131. technologies that they use.” Jesper Simonsen & Toni
9 Kees Overbeeke, Tom Djajadiningrat, Caroline Hummels, Robertsson (eds.), Routledge International Handbook of
Stephan Wensveen & Joep Frens, “Let’s make things engaging” Participatory Design, xix.
in Mark A Blythe et al., Funology: From Usability to Enjoyment 12 Lucy Suchman, “Working Relations of Technology Production
(Dordrecht: Springer Science + Business Media, 2005), 7-17. and Use”, Computer Supported Cooperative Work 1994:1,
10 Turkka Keinonen, Designers, Users and Justice (Bloomsbury: (vol.2), 21–39; Liam J. Bannon, “From Human Factors to
London & New York, 2017); Michael J. Salvo, “Ethics Human Actors: The Role of Psychology and Human-Computer
of Engagement: User-Centered Design and Rhetorical Interaction Studies in System Design” in J. Greenbaum &
Methodology”, Technical Communication Quarterly 2001:10 Morten Kyng (eds.), Design at Work: Cooperative Design of
(vol 3), 273-290; Donald A. Norman, The Design of Everyday Computer Systems (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Things (New York: Doubleday, 1990). 1991), 25-44.

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unskilled labourers, or colleagues from other professions than those of the people turn into users are in focus and where the explicit aim is to work with the
intended expert users.13 results of this process, i.e. how use and user should turn out. We, as designers, turn
people into users through our designs, by presenting a thing to be used.”18
Design of users User-centered design brings about proposals of future situations but also
Over time, developments of design practices building on user-centered and par- implicit or explicit expectations or prescriptions of impacts, limitations or changes
ticipatory approaches have brought about new ways of thinking and designing in on and in people’s behaviours. Certain pre-scripted ways of use, as proposed in
relation to the non-designers involved in co-design processes. This is reflected in ‘classical’ user-centered design but often also in participatory processes, will lead to
the attention to the terminology concerning ‘users’: effects that change current as well as future situations for people. Such changes are
frequently highlighted in terms of design improvement, experience, and efficiency.
Many people have become uneasy about terms like user, consumer, and client, It is seldom expressly articulated how people would be expected to change
which pin people down in narrow and restrictive roles. At this moment, we refer in regard to the proposed future use, or in regard to a context broader than the
to them as participants and partners, or just people, to express the multiple roles projected framework of the immediate use-situation. Likewise, it is neither easy
and perspectives that are needed.14 to predict, nor to prescribe, which potential other consequences the future use
of a design thing might open up for. But to propose a way forward in designing,
The term ‘user’ is often replaced by ‘stakeholder’ or ‘participant’ to distinguish ‘peo- some intended directions need to be regarded, and others disregarded in order to
ple’ in general from ‘people’ involved in or affected by a design situation or context.15 make design decisions. This includes trying to make some ways to handle, react, or
While a ‘participant’ points to someone taking part in the process of designing, the relate to something more likely to happen than others, through prescribing certain
other terms are more complicated to handle: how can we define what it is to be a uses and limiting others. Some futures are thus made more probable, or plausible,
‘user’ of or a ‘stakeholder’ in an as of yet non-existent future something? than others.
Shifts in what design and designing is about have not only called for How to negotiate design processes, whether considering initial formulation of
developing methods to understand how people go about using or experiencing a matter of concern or a problem to be addressed, which current and future contexts
things. These have also brought about shifts in understandings of the subject to consider, whom to include in designing, and how open an outcome could be, are
matter of design, from focusing on giving form to material things towards shaping all questions in which the concepts of ‘use’ and ‘users’ need to be brought to the fore.
users and their experiences. As pointed to by Johan Redström, a ‘user’ envisioned In the following, the conceptual perspective of ‘use’ is turned towards a Swedish
in the process of designing can only ever be as much a potentiality in the design 20th-century context of design reform aimed towards the domestic sphere.
process as the thing designed. 16
If design is about projecting and proposing possible futures, the actual thing,
its use, and its user, cannot already exist until these have become materialised or Homes and housing in 20th century Sweden
actionable in the world. This leads to designing in which not only a final ‘thing’,
but increasingly also its user, becomes created through design.17 As such, a person Picking up on these current considerations and challenges in user-centered and
cannot actually exist as a ‘user’ until entering into a relation to a designed thing, participatory design, the time has come to turn to the part of this prototype that
which in turn presupposes an interacting with an actual object or situation of some explores what a design history seen through the concept of ‘use’ could be. Turn-
sort. The type of user created in this understanding of designing is not a real person ing to the design historically well-established sphere of domesticity and design
or group, but an idea or an ideal future intended user. User-centered design then histories related to the home,19 and looking at initiatives and mediations aiming
becomes user design “in the sense that it is design where the process through which towards home reform in Sweden through the conceptual lenses of ‘use’ and ‘users’,
the aim is to highlight possible histories of designing in relation to ideas of use.
13 Gro Bjerknes & Tone Bratteteig, “User Participation and
In the following, a brief background is sketched of the context of the ‘housing
Democracy: A Discussion of Scandinavian Research on System problem’ as it was formulated in Sweden in the 1930s. Then, a closer study of a series
Development”, Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems, of ‘dwelling investigations’ conducted in the late 1930s and early 1940s are analysed
1995, 7 (1), 78; Peter Botsman, “Rethinking the CLASS struggle:
Industrial democracy and the politics of production”, Economic 18 Redström, “Towards user design?, 129.
and Industrial Democracy 1989:1 (vol 10), 132-133. 19 For example Grace Lees-Maffei, Design at Home: Domestic
14 Liz Sanders & Pieter Jan Stappers, “From Designing to Co- Advice Books in Britain and the USA since 1945 (London:
Designing to Collective Dreaming: Three Slices in Time”, Routledge, 2014); Penny Sparke, Designing the Modern Interior:
Interactions Nov.-Dec. 2014, 30. From the Victorians to Today (Oxford: Berg, 2009); Judy
15 Jodi Forlizzi. “Moving beyond user-centered design” Attfield, Bringing Modernity Home: Writings on Popular Design
Interactions 2018:5 (vol.25), 22-23. and Material Culture (Manchester: Manchester University
16 Johan Redström, “Towards user design? On the shift from object Press, 2007); Grace Lees-Maffei, Modern living? Domestic
to user as the subject of design”, Design Studies 2006:27, 127. advice literature and design discourse in post-war Britain, diss.
17 Redström, “Towards user design?, 129. (Portsmouth: University of Portsmouth, 2005).

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as examples of a turn towards ideas of incorporating user perspectives in design

processes aiming to reform housing design as well as the design of everyday things.
Applying a lens of ‘use’ to historical material from this period, and looking for early
formulations of ideas of user-centered design brings to light aspects of design in
relation to use that have not yet been prominent in Scandinavian design history.
This is an attempt to prototype a design history that could contribute to
calling out the historicity of core concepts in contemporary designing. Rather than
providing an account of a trajectory that led to formulations of user-centered and
participatory design, this is one example – there could, and should, be many more
– of how to draw forth histories that could help us see things differently.
This type of history is more about raising questions than providing answers in
relation to designing. Which possible futures could be plausible to move towards
through re-articulations and conceptual re-configurations of how, for what or
whom, and why design is done? The questions here relate to historically embedded
meanings and values in design’s concepts and to articulations of ideas and practices
that could be relevant to consider in regard to designing. Attention to the historical
contexts in which different concepts emerged could contribute to making moves
that support the reframing of what to address as problematic, and what as possibility,
when moving further in dealing with concepts of use and users in design.

‘The housing question’

During the years around the turn of the century 1900, Sweden was a nation on
the verge of industrialisation. The shift from an agricultural to an industrial and
urban way of life had only just begun. Of the five million people living in Sweden,
only a fifth lived in cities. With the expansion of Swedish industry, urbanisation
and the growth of cities and towns, a steady movement from the countryside to
‘Bostadskök’: a one-room apartment with stove, in Sundsvall cities began to take place. Many of the people who made their living in the Swedish
ca. 1900. Peter Wide / Sundsvalls museum (SuM-foto017383). countryside were very poor and had little or no possibility to own land, a home or
earn a salary. Vast numbers of people moved to the growing Swedish towns and
cities – or across the Atlantic, emigrating to America – in search of a better life.20
The flow of people to the more urban areas of Sweden led to difficult housing
situations for many. Whether in the countryside or the cities, the systemic changes
associated with industrialisation led to markedly worse living conditions than had
been the case earlier. The dire situation, especially for working-class families, was
perhaps most noticeable in the cities.
In the first decades of the 20th century, Sweden had one of the lowest standards
of housing in Europe. In cities and towns, around a third of the inhabitants lived

20 Starting in the 1860s, after several years of droughts and

famines, emigration from Sweden to America began and
increased progressively during the late 19th century. By the
early years of the 20th century, more than a million Swedes
had emigrated. Many left for the main reason of sustaining
themselves and their family, looking to find a better outcome
than was possible in Sweden. For others, the main reasons
for leaving their home country were the promises of political,
religious and social openness that the new world offered.
Anna Lindkvist, Jorden åt folket: Nationalföreningen mot
emigrationen 1907-1925. Skrifter från institutionen för
historiska studier 19 (Umeå University, Umeå: 2007), 40.

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five or more persons in small one- or two-room apartments. A general shortage For the workers’ movement and the politically organised Social Democrats, the
of dwellings in Swedish towns and cities had led to families living in cramped and housing question was essential to address from an egalitarian perspective. Having
overcrowded small apartments or bostadskök, a one-room apartment with a wood access to adequate housing of a decent standard at a reasonable cost was part of the
stove in one corner of the room. Since the demand for dwellings was higher than political claims made from the workers’ movement. From more conservative political
what was available, rents were often high and standards low. positions, the urgency to find solutions to the housing problems had more to do with
The shortage of dwellings, in combination with a need to reduce the monthly providing material conditions that would appease any revolutionary tendencies.
cost often also resulted in already overcrowded working-class families sub-letting Other associations and movements, such as the Temperance Movement,
a room or a sleeping place to tenants. These cramped living conditions, with low the worker’s movement, and anti-emigration initiatives, also highlighted different
sanitary and material standards, were pointed to as the root of many other evils such societal problems in their respective areas that could be directly or indirectly caused
as the spread of disease and moral decline. Philanthropic organisations made efforts by the poor housing conditions in Sweden. This contributed to establishing the
to both provide low-cost housing for the poor, and to raise the issue of housing to a ‘housing question’ as one of the most crucial social problems to address. Since the
national political level. Philanthropic initiatives leading to privately funded housing situation in the overcrowded homes was seen as a potential breeding ground not
projects aimed at relief for the poor, and also brought about surveys aiming to map only for disease and related social problems – drunkenness, abuse, the disintegration
the housing situation during the first decades of the 20th century.21 of families – but also for societal unrest, questions of how to build decent, modern,
During this period, a plethora of social problems and phenomena were low-cost housing became a matter of national socio-political concern.
formulated as ‘questions’ (frågor) by organisations and politicians. Around the turn Universal suffrage extended to all Swedish citizens in two steps, allowing male
of the century 1900, the ‘housing question’ became highlighted in public debate as a workers the right to vote in 1909 and women in 1921, gradually shifting the political
cause for the many other societal problems labelled as ‘the social question’.22 Under weight towards the Social Democratic party gaining increasing numbers of votes.
the overarching umbrella term of the ‘social question, a variety of interconnected The Social Democrats formed a government from 1920 to 1976, broken off only by a
problems were identified: poverty, alcohol abuse, the perceived dissolution of conservative government 1928-32, and broad coalitions during World War II. After
families, and poor housing conditions. Other issues formulated over the first the elections of 1932, the Social Democratic Party formed government, with the
decades of the 20th century were the ‘women’s question’ regarding the political and overall aim to implement national schemes for building, so that the problems of the
social rights and influence of women; and the ‘population question’ focusing on very low housing standards in Sweden would be addressed.
the issue of the diminishing number of Swedes. The massive emigration of Swedes Until the early 1930s, there had not existed a state policy or even a designated
during the late 19th and early 20th century in combination with a steady decline in political arena for handling housing issues in Sweden. Providing housing was
births was defined as a significant threat to the future of Sweden as a nation.23 A traditionally seen as a demand-and-supply question for the private market, or
common area of intervention was identified in all of these issues: the pressing need the local municipal governments, to solve.24 It was only with the formation of the
to provide better housing and home conditions for families. 1930s Social Democratic government that a cohesive state housing policy began to
Solving social problems through providing better housing was seen as a key be established. This, in turn, was influenced by the international modernist ideas
in addressing everything from men’s alcohol abuse – since better home conditions and design principles for city planning and architecture.
would make them more inclined to enjoy the comforts of family life instead of
spending time in public drinking houses – to women’s rights, in that a different The People’s Home
home life would make it possible for women to engage in society in other ways The solution to the ‘housing problem’ was not only perceived to be the production
than before. Therefore, a broad political and societal consensus formed around of better housing but for creating better conditions for homes – ideally as well as
the ‘housing issue’ as well as around issues of domestic reform, since the two were materially.25 In the late 1920s, the Social Democrats had proclaimed the intention
regarded as interconnected. Resolving issues of how to materially provide adequate to turn Sweden into a Folkhem, literally a People’s Home, in which all citizens were
housing as well as reasonably priced everyday things for the home thus became to have equal rights and equal possibilities. If society were to be turned in to a good
a matter of concern which brought together different perspectives and positions. home for everyone, it had to be reorganised in a more democratic and modern
way. Per Albin Hansson, the Social Democrat prime minister from 1932 to 1946,
phrased it thus in his seminal Folkhem speech in 1928:

21 Kerstin Thörn, En bostad för hemmet: Idéhistoriska studier i

bostadsfrågan, Idéhistoriska skrifter 20, diss. (Umeå, 1997).
22 Daniel Movilla Vega & Dan Hallemar, 99 years of the housing
question in Sweden (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2017); Per
Wisselgren, Samhällets kartläggare: Lorénska stiftelsen, den 24 Eva Eriksson, Den moderna staden tar form: Arkitektur och
sociala frågan och samhällsvetenskapens formering 1830-1920, debatt 1910-1935 (Stockholm: Ordfront, 2001).
diss. (Umeå, 2000). 25 Mikael Hård, “The good apartment: The social (democratic)
23 Alva Myrdal & Gunnar Myrdal, Kris i befolkningsfrågan construction of Swedish homes”, Home Cultures 2010:2 (vol.7),
(Stockholm: Bonnier, 1934). 117-134.

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The foundations of a home are community and compassion. The good home political agenda. In this way, the housing question became connected to the quest
knows no privileged or neglected, no favourites and no stepchildren. There, the for home reform, in the ideal sense as well as in a real and material way.
one does not look down upon the other; there, no one tries to benefit at some-
one else’s expense, the strong does not suppress or plunder the weak. In the
good home, equality, caring, cooperation, and helpfulness prevail. Applied on Functionalism and the home
the larger home of people and citizens, this would mean the tearing down of The Svenska slöjdföreningen (SSF, the Swedish Society for Arts and Design) had
all social and economic barriers that now separate citizens in privileged and been founded in 1845, to protect and safeguard Swedish crafts.29 By the early 20th
neglected, in rulers and dependants, in rich and poor, propertied and impover- century, with inspiration from the German Werkbund, the society had turned
ished, plunderers and plundered.26 to promote more radical ideas of design reform in connection to industrial
production.30 The SSF arranged many exhibitions from the turn of the century
In Sweden, as in other Nordic countries, the home and its everyday objects have and during the first decades of the 1900s, to educate and inform general public
held a very central and symbolic place as carriers of meaning in public discourse and producers of industrial goods alike in matters of ‘good design’, and ‘make
in the formation of welfare states based on principles of industrial democracy, propaganda’ for a better way of living and furnishing the home.31 The perhaps
intrinsically interlinking ‘the big life’ and the ‘little life’.27 The centrality given to most influential exhibition arranged by the SSF during the 20th century was the
the housing question in the socio-political agenda was a substantial contributing Stockholm exhibition of 1930. This exhibition introduced modernism broadly
factor for establishing the home as one of the most important arenas for social and in Sweden, and also became central to the later formulation of the Swedish
material reform during the 20th century. Family relations, raising children, how the government housing policy for decades to come.32
housework was managed and how to design and arrange the furniture all became In the 1930s, Sweden still had one of Europe’s lowest standards of housing.
part of the socio-political agenda to turn Sweden into a Folkhem. Specifically, With inspiration from continental design ideas, and impetus from the Le Corbusier
many reform efforts concerned the domestic interior and aimed at promoting exhibit of the Pavillon de l’Ésprit Nouveau at the 1925 Paris exhibition, the
a new and modern way of furnishing and decorating the home, spread through Stockholm exhibition of 1930 proposed designing based on standardisation and
advice literature, educational efforts and legislation – similar to initiatives in other function-based mass-production of dwellings and furnishings as the way to solve
Western countries.28 the ‘housing question’.33
The domestic interior became an arena where the vision of the ideal society
should be mirrored in the ideal home. This focus on domestic reform brought The proposals for building new types of housing at the Stockholm exhibition were
attention to the issues traditionally connected with the home – housework, heavily influenced by European modernism. The approach to designing should
homemaking, child-rearing and leisure time – and incorporated these into the begin in a thing’s intended function instead of in issues of form and aesthetics.
As architect Uno Åhrén, member of the organising committee of the Stockholm
26 Per Albin Hansson, ”Folkhemmet, medborgarhemmet”, in Per exhibition, exclaimed when explaining what it meant for a thing’s form to be an
Albin Hansson, Från Fram till Folkhemmet: Per Albin Hansson expression of its function, as well as a new aesthetic expression:
som tidningsman och talare (Solna: Metodica, 1982), 227.
’”Hemmets grundval är gemensamheten och samkänslan.
Det goda hemmet känner icke till några privilegierade eller 29 Gunilla Frick, Svenska slöjdföreningen och konstindustrin före
tillbakasatta, inga kelgrisar och inga styvbarn. Där ser icke den 1905, Nordiska museets handlingar 91, diss. (Uppsala, 1978).
ena ner på den andre, där försöker ingen skaffa sig fördel på 30 Gunnela Ivanov, Vackrare vardagsvara – design för alla? Gregor
andras bekostnad, den starke trycker icke ner och plundrar den Paulsson och Svenska slöjdföreningen 1915-1925, diss. (Umeå,
svage. I det goda hemmet råder likhet, omtanke, samarbete, 2004).
hjälpsamhet. Tillämpat på det stora folk- och medborgarhemmet 31 As a genre, exhibitions featuring ideal homes were used as
skulle detta betyda nedbrytandet av alla sociala och ekonomiska a mediating forum for home reform and modern design in
skrankor, som nu skilja medborgarna i priviligierade och many Western countries. See for example Deborah S.Ryan,
tillbakasatta, i härskande och beroende, i rika och fattiga, Daily Mail – Ideal Home Exhibition: The Ideal Home Through
besuttne och utarmade, plundrare och utplundrade.” the 20th Century (London: Hazar, 1997); Fredie Floré, Lessen
27 Pekka Korvenmaa, Finnish design: A concise history (Helsinki, in modern wonen: Bronnenboek over woontentoonstellingen in
2009), 83-120; Kjetil Fallan, Designing modern Norway: A België 1945-1958 (Gent: WZW, 2004).
history of design discourse (New York: Routledge, 2016). 32 Eva Rudberg, The Stockholm exhibition 1930: Modernism’s
28 Grace Lees-Maffei, Design at Home: Domestic Advice Books breaktrough in Swedish architecture (Stockholm: Stockholmia,
in Britain and the USA since 1945 (London: Routledge, 1999); Per I. Gedin, När Sverige blev modernt: Gregor
2014); Judy Attfield, Utility Reassessed: The Role of Ethics in Paulsson, vackrare vardagsvara, funktionalismen och
the Practice of Design (Manchester: Manchester University Stockholmsutställningen 1930 (Stockholm: Bonniers, 2018).
Press, 1999); Penny Sparke, Anne Massey, Trevor Keeble & 33 Uno Åhrén, ”Brytningar”, in Gregor Paulsson (ed.), Svenska
Brenda Martin (eds.), Designing the Modern Interior: From The slöjdföreningens årsbok 1925. Moderna strömningar inom
Victorians To Today (London: Berg, 2009). Europas konstindustri (Stockholm, 1925), 7-36.

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That is the meaningful element in the modern sense of form. It finds sufficient joy
precisely in its capacity of form as made to work. Appearance rather stands as the
mere external aspect of work itself, the rational technology, the sensible economy.34

In Sweden, the program for reforming the material environment along the lines of
modernism came to be called ‘functionalism’, due to the strong emphasis on function
and usability as a basis for designing everything from teacups to city plans. Gregor
Paulsson, chair of the 1930 Stockholm exhibition, stated in the exhibition catalogue that
the societal revolutions caused by industrialisation and developments in technology
craved a new foundation for designing homes – materially as well as culturally:

We are living through one of the most violent changes in the societal structure
that has ever occurred, namely its industrialisation, which from the individual’s
perspective means an easier and speedier transfer of goods. [---] As certain as it
is wrong to try to salvage the industrial society by fleeing to the old, to nature or
whatever the saying, it is equally certain that the new homes in the new world
must be created on this world’s terms.35

The dwellings presented at the Stockholm exhibition championed the idea of

differentiating between the basic functions of the home, and manifesting these
explicitly in the floor plans by labelling rooms on the basis of their function,
specifically identifying the ‘bedroom’ and the ‘living room’. Sleeping, cooking,
keeping clean, and socialising, were defined as the essential functions the home
should support – however small, and for whichever social category of people.
The ideal functionalist dwelling was small and cost-efficient, with large
windows to let the daylight in, a balcony for getting fresh air. Cooking would take
place in a small but efficient laboratory-style kitchen. Hygiene should be handled
in the bathroom with running hot and cold water, and for leisure, there should be
The 1930 Stockholm exhibition: Exhibition Hall 36, Rental a living room for the whole family to gather in. There should preferably be separate
apartments, by architects Gunnar Sundbärg and Uno Åhrén. bedrooms for adults and children, with separate and proper beds for each
Credits: Gustaf W:son Cronquist / ArkDes (ARKM.1990-106-123) member of the family. Different exhibitors at the Stockholm exhibition furnished
homes based on these principles, presenting the home as a comfortable place for
the family’s everyday work and leisure, not a representatively furnished place to
manifest one’s status or for receiving and entertaining guests.
For the Stockholm exhibition visitors, meeting the whitewashed functionalist
exteriors and minimalist interiors with tubular steel furniture, modernist colour
schemes and geometric form language became a watershed moment. While some
were enthusiastic, others meant that the exhibition promoted an ideology and
response to everyday dilemmas that removed any individuality or expressions of
comfort from design. Functionalism was much debated both during and after the
exhibition, as a style and as an idea.

34 Åhrén, ”Brytningar”, 9. ”Det är det betydelsefulla draget i

modern formkänsla. Den har sin tillräckliga glädje i formen
just såsom arbetande. Utseendet framstår snarare som den
blotta yttre aspekten av själva arbetet, den rationella tekniken,
den förnuftiga ekonomin.”
35 Gregor Paulsson ”Konstindustrien och den nya tiden” in
Huvudkatalog. Stockholmsutställningen 1930. (Stockholm,
1930), 36-37.

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The debate on functionalism caused a big conflict in the SSF between kind and there will be more, if only we manage to overcome our prejudice against
“traditionalists” and “functionalists”.36 In response to the critique, the committee behind making use of it. [---]If we furnish our home with the things we really need, the
the 1930 exhibition jointly wrote and published the book acceptera in 1931, which selection will be an expression of the life in the home as we live it. In this way
explained and argued the principles of functionalism in relation to the big societal the personal home evolves naturally and authentically – just as much if each item
is also one in a series of humble, impersonal manufactured pieces of furniture.39
picture as well as to the everyday issues of consumption and interior decoration.37 To
reach a substantial reform towards a democratic society in which people would fully
The authors of acceptera laid forth arguments that aimed to convince people of
embrace modern and active citizenship, life in the home needed to change. In the 1931
the need for changed practices and preferences in the material as well as the
functionalist publication acceptera, this was stated as the problem of different aspects
behavioural aspects of everyday life. For this change through design to take place
of life and society not changing quickly enough in relation to each other:
the material environment must come about in accordance with the new ways of
With only slight exaggeration one could say that we live, living that should be supported. Changes were needed in how houses were built,
or have lived until recently with what sorts of things were made, but also in people’s understanding of why these
nineteenth-century upbringing material changes were crucial as material infrastructures for modern life.
eighteenth-century domestic life
sixteenth-century religious life. Promoting the acceptance of ‘good design’ required educating people, and
Work and amusements develop most quickly, then come exemplary exhibitions and information would be needed to bring about the shift
upbringing and social issues, followed by domestic that could lead to people appreciating and choosing the ‘right’ everyday goods
adaptations to the new circumstances, and finally religion. for their homes. Following the main principles of modernism, ‘good taste’ as
in the appreciation and acquisition of modern design, was seen as an outcome
The home, therefore, could not continue to be furnished and used as it was in of a rational function-and need-based way of understanding that the beauty of
rural Sweden but must be adapted to the modern-day.38 As living conditions and modern objects and furniture lay in the correlation between what function a thing
everyday life changed, the environments and things needed to support work and should serve, and how the thing was designed and made.
leisure also must change. The authors of acceptera proclaimed, all the radical In acceptera, this was proposed as an entirely new way of approaching the
changes brought on by modern life would bring about a completely new type of material aspects of human life; a change that in itself was radical, but that the vital
family. The responsibilities for child-rearing and housework would be shared in thing to understand was that this was a change of principle rather than a change
new ways, and women could, therefore, also engage in salaried work outside the of style or form:
home. With the shifting relations within the family, everyday work and leisure
would – and should – play out in other ways than earlier. People, therefore, needed If we consider this more closely we will become even more certain that we
to acquire the things that were suited to their own needs, their financial means, should not view modern building-art as a passing fancy. As we pointed out
and to the times they lived in. One should start with what one had, and piece by earlier, its prime characteristic lies in its will to form its materials into an
piece construct an everyday environment in the home based on needs, functions, appropriate tool for our lives. If it is to be able to adhere to this principle, its
and personal preferences. This led the authors of acceptera to promote that indus- manifestations should not therefore change more frequently or more rapidly
trially produced standardised single piece furniture should be used together with than the way in which we live. And, after all, this changes slowly in the more
heirlooms, instead of buying whole sets and suites of furniture and things copying important elements. In addition, modern building-art intends to visibly express
the function of things. This too gives us no reason to conclude that the process
historical styles.Every choice of furniture or object should be based on fitness to
will be rapid. It is unlikely that our way of seeing and experiencing the expression
function, individual preference, and personal financial limits: of function will change significantly in a short period of time.

If we can afford it, let us give preference to good handicrafts and really outstanding
Finally, we must not overlook the fact that a change in attitude and ways of
applied art and acquire furniture and household items that also meet our
thinking has taken place in principle, not merely in our taste for forms. Without
requirements in terms of individual form. If we do not have the money – and
forcing the comparison, we could say that in aesthetic terms we are now
this applies to most of us – the let us choose from cheap but nevertheless good
undergoing the same revolution in our very ways of thinking as science did when
and well-designed standardised furniture. A great deal is already available of this
it liberated itself from its dependence on religion.40

36 Allan Pred, Recognizing European Modernities: A Montage of Following this functionalist line of thinking, the understanding of modern
the Present (London: Routledge, 1995). production, everyday life, and society would form the interconnected basis for a
37 Gunnar Asplund, Wolter Gahn, Sven Markelius, Gregor new relationship between form and functionality that would permeate all aspects
Paulsson, Eskil Sundahl & Uno Åhrén, acceptera (1931), in
of life as soon as enough people had understood the logical necessity of this.
Lucy Creagh, Helena Kåberg & Barbara Lane Miller (eds.),
Modern Swedish Design: Three Founding Texts (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 2008). 39 Asplund et al., acceptera, 242.
38 Asplund et al., acceptera, 164. 40 Asplund et al., acceptera, 286.

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The assumption in the functionalist manifesto acceptera was that this shift was All over the world one social group after another is liberating itself from
imminent and that it was only a matter of time before a standardised production dependence on such factors as economic individualism, free competition,
of dwellings and everyday objects would have transformed the last remnants of a pointless exploitation – factors that characterised society in the nineteenth
pre-industrial taste into a taste for modern life. century. They are all striving for – if one may venture to group them under a couple
of slogans – improved organisation and enhancements of working methods and
The emergence of modern taste would encompass the totality of life, leading
the quality of the products of their work. As natural consequences there ensue
people to appreciate new ways of organising their home and family life as well as changes in individuals themselves and the social and cultural structure of society.
working conditions. This would include leaving old aesthetics and outdated social The twentieth century will certainly not permit the nineteenth century’s display
norms of the past behind in the transition to a new way of life. Then, people would of such pointless waste of people, time, and raw materials, nor its restriction of
make the appropriate choices when deciding what to buy for their homes – provided culture to a few individuals.
that there were both adequate dwellings and suitable everyday things available and
that people actually could afford them. When the Stockholm exhibition opened in Art organised in a new way will form part of this new society. [---] The new use
1930, the focus on educating and informing people to make different choices, in of art, as it is perceived by the younger generations, has every chance of being
regard to needs and use of everyday environments and things, had already been a able to serve to cement society. There should, however, be no doubt now about
part of Swedish socio-cultural initiatives for at least a couple of decades. the desire of art to undertake tasks that are at least considerably more important
for society than hitherto.43

Changing things
For these changes to take place, designers must contribute to the industrial man-
Many Swedish artists, architects and intellectuals had since the late 19th century –
ufacture of everyday objects, and people would need to learn which things to pur-
inspired by international aesthetic movements and theorists – argued that people
chase. This dual ambition was expressly formulated in the statutes of the Svenska
needed better living conditions both materially and aesthetically to create a good
slöjdföreningen and later came to be of significance for the Swedish emergence
society. Therefore, how to build better housing as well as how to go about finding
of industrial design. Central to this, was the idea of bringing together qualities of
ways to push industry towards producing other types of everyday things had be-
usefulness with qualities of beauty in everyday things, and to promote a respon-
come matters of public discussion.
sible and active approach to consumption in which people would consider these
Design theorist and pedagogical reformist Ellen Key had advocated a
aspects in all decisions to buy, and use, things. For designers, the task was to un-
utility-based home decoration aesthetic of simplicity, influenced by the Arts and
derstand what were the basic needs that people had, to address these in terms of
Crafts movement and liberalism in combination with social evolutionism. An
designing functional and beautiful things.
understanding of real needs and good taste would allow everyone to live a life
During the 20th century, utility and usefulness were increasingly incorporated
permeated with beauty.41 In Sweden, the leading organisation that since the turn
into the requirements for what designers should attend to in the process of designing.
of the century 1900 had been actively engaged in trying to “elevate the people’s
In a modernist, or functionalist, understanding of design’s ability to bring about
taste” and work towards promoting the industrial production of well-designed
a better life, two main obstacles must be overcome: A change in the production
things, was Svenska slöjdföreningen (SSF).
of industrial goods, where design expertise is brought in early in the production
From the mid-1910s and onwards, the SSF actively engaged in initiatives to
process, and a shift in people’s preferences to promote actively choosing to purchase
improve the housing situation in Sweden through actions aimed at influencing
modern designed things.
legislation as well as the material production of consumer goods. In the early
Therein lay the implicit idea – sometimes also explicitly formulated – that
decades of 20th century Sweden, this was expressed as an official view of Svenska
once a systematic production of well-designed things had come about, and
slöjdföreningen in the seminal publication Vackrare vardagsvara (Better things
people had learned the basics of making informed choices of well-designed
for everyday life), in which author Gregor Paulsson built on the ideas of Ellen Key,
goods, there would be no more demand for ‘bad’ or ‘ugly’ goods. Thus, a better life
merged with inspiration from the German Werkbund.42 Design – or ‘art’, as it was
supported by well-designed material environments and things would be realised
called in the publication – was expressly called upon to merge with industry in
on an individual as well as on a societal level. However, for this to happen, active
supporting the development of a new social cohesion and a radically different
educational efforts directed towards producers as well as towards consumers were
way of life:
imperative. These ideas were expressed already at the turn of the century by Ellen
Key, who envisioned a future society where the consumption of well-designed
41 Ellen Key, Skönhet för alla: Fyra uppsatser (Stockholm:
Bonniers, 1899).
42 Gregor Paulsson, Better things for everyday life [1919], in Lucy
Creagh, Helena Kåberg & Barbara Lane Miller (eds.), Modern
Swedish Design: Three Founding Texts (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 2008). Cf Gunnela Ivanov, Vackrare
vardagsvara: Design för alla? Gregor Paulsson och Svenska
slöjdföreningen 1915-1925, diss., (Umeå, 2004). 43 Paulsson, Better things for everyday life (1919),121-122.

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everyday goods would be not only possible for all, but part of the very foundations a ‘functional’ thing is considered to become a guiding question for the process
of an egalitarian society.44 of designing. Given that the persons promoting a functionalist design practice
From the turn of the century 1900 onwards, the promotion of a rational and also identified a situation of change as the context for designing, the concept of
conscious consumption began to be viewed as a strategy for shifting towards a ‘functionality’ in relation to needs and uses was also changing.
democratic and modern society, in a break with not only old modes of production The designer’s task would be to ensure that a sensibility to the unknown or the
but also with old ways of living.45 Buying the right things – machine-made and new would guide the process of ensuring that something would fulfil its function
designed with attention to usefulness – was associated with exercising one’s power in the best possible way. The design of things should not be guided by traditional
as a consumer, as well as manifesting adherence to modern social ideas. Through ways of supporting everyday practices, nor by established understandings of
conscious consumer choices of well-designed everyday things, change towards a ‘beauty’. The designer’s task was to make intended future use manifest in the thing
modern life could be brought about on individual as well as societal levels.46 designed, through envisioning the future situation in which the thing would be
put to use: firstly, to be produced industrially, and secondly to be adopted into
Modernist design practice was informed by the idea that function must not someone’s everyday environment.
only be equally important as form in design but that designing must begin The design intent, and the definition of functions in relation to materials
with questions or perspectives related to function rather than aesthetics. In the chosen and form given, here, lies with the designer. To achieve changes towards
rhetoric of modernist design theorists and latter-day design historians’ accounts preferred states of societal and individual forms of living, became a matter of
of this, a strong emphasis was placed on rational approaches to form through rational planning as well as one of speculative envisioning. If only designers were
the distinctions made between ornament and function, craft and industry, able to translate basic needs into material solutions where the things’ functions
style and form. The ambition was to find a rational basis for form. That entailed answered to these needs, design would be able to radically transform society.
understanding the basic functions or purposes of an object, and the consequences
of this for the choice of form, material and means of production: Building better homes
That design could bring about substantial change if based on rational principles of
The obvious task for everyday things is to be of service. Our aim when we produce design for mass-production of housing, was a standpoint adopted in an attempt to
them must be that they will not merely serve adequately but irreproachably. address the housing situation in Sweden. Private, cooperative and state-initiated
We must also recognise that the better something serves, the less fuss it makes.
building intensified in the 1930s, in many cases based on the modernist ideas of
Everyday things should be utilitarian, unpretentious, calm, and appealing.47
creating minimal but highly functional, modern housing. The cooperative building
organisation HSB, for example, adopted the modernist ideals of function-based
Designing, in this understanding, is about the creation of objects that aim to serve
planning and standardisation to provide housing for its members and worked in
in a double sense: on the one hand, the object must serve its inherent purpose,
parallel with producing home furnishings following the same ideals.48
and on the other, it must be in service to a person, in terms of fulfilling its essen-
Several different types of new solutions were tried out in floor plans. Minimal
tial functions in relation to the person’s basic needs. This implies someone using
kitchens with a separate dining space, a larger hallway which could double as a
the object with a particular intent, expecting the object to meet certain demands
sitting room, and – perhaps one of the most significant changes – indoor plumbing
placed on its inherent abilities to support achieving what was intended.
with both bathroom and toilets, all followed the proposed minimum standards
Though the concept of ‘use’ is implied, it is not articulated as such other than
suggested at the 1930 Stockholm exhibition.
as an inherent quality that supports a person in doing or achieving something.
The most pressing issue was that of homes being overcrowded, which had
Despite the main focus placed on the thing, and the intrinsic qualities or
been noted and addressed through initiatives aimed at providing better dwellings
properties it is perceived to hold including ‘fitness to purpose’, the idea of ‘use’ is
that would allow more space per person. The question if valuable floor space
highly present here. In the strong emphasis on function not only as an inherent
should be used for bathrooms was contested, and in many cases challenged, by
quality in a thing but as a starting point for designing things, what a ‘function’ or
those who advocated that working-class families would be better served by larger
rooms rather than bathrooms – since they could bathe in public bathhouses, and
44 Ellen Key, “Beauty in the Home” [1897], in Lucy Creagh, were used to outdoor toilets. Which technical features and standards a minimum
Helena Kåberg & Barbara Miller Lane (eds.), Modern Swedish dwelling should hold in relation to the design of the floor plan was also debated
Design: Three Founding Texts (The Museum of Modern Art: – as were the questions of which functions should be provided and designed for
New York, 2008). collectively versus individually. The building cooperation HSB set a standard
45 Peder Aléx, Den rationella konsumenten: KF som that later came to be adopted more widely in formulations of national building
folkuppfostrare 1899-1939 diss. (Umeå, 1994) norms: bathrooms in all apartments, central heating, collective laundry spaces,
46 Peder Aléx, Konsumera rätt - ett svenskt ideal: Behov,
and centralised waste handling, to name a few.
hushållning och konsumtion (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2003);
Paula von Wachenfeldt & Klas Nyberg, Det svenska begäret:
Sekler av lyxkonsumtion (Stockholm: Carlssons, 2015). 48 Kerstin Thörn, En bostad för hemmet: Idéhistoriska studier i
47 Asplund et al., acceptera, 256. bostadsfrågan, Idéhistoriska skrifter 20, diss. (Umeå, 1997).

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The 1930s saw a variety of design proposals of different types of dwellings America were viewed as an imminent threat to the future of the country.50 In the
ranging from standardised minimum dwellings for families, to collective houses sociologically influenced book Kris i befolkningsfrågan (Crisis in the population
for families or single-family households, sometimes with integrated daycare, question) in 1934, the authors Gunnar and Alva Myrdal pointed to the home as
restaurant and washing services in the apartment building. The housing aimed the most critical arena for socio-political interventions. They proposed initiatives
for single-person households was based on two main ideas: One, to provide aiming to promote the birth of more children and better-equipped homes in
individual and independent housing for everyone who needed it. But this initiative which these would be brought up.51 Equally important would be to bring about
was also pointed towards getting rid of the practice of families’ renting out rooms changes in family relations and social conditions, allowing both parents to work
or sleeping space to lodgers – especially to single men. Since this was considered outside the home. At the same time, state-funded daycare would cater for the
potentially harmful for the private life of the family as well as an unnecessary necessary pedagogical and psychological development of the children.52
addition to the number of inhabitants in already cramped households, different If women and men were to be able to participate on equal terms in society –
varieties of one-person dwellings would also be needed. in work life, as well as in relation to each other in social life – it was fundamental
But these initiatives were also aimed at single women, employed in that legislation and politics changed the overall conditions for this, but also that
salaried positions, to provide independent housing to free them from having changes in norms and behaviours came about on individual level. Besides the
to live as lodgers for either economic or social reasons. Since it was considered attention already raised towards material and economic reforms, there should be
inappropriate for single women to live alone, the collective houses were also a focus on actively changing people’s way of living. Again, the home was identified
an attempt to break with social gender norms through new ways of living. So, in as the arena for many of the proposed solutions to societal problems.
the attempts to solve the issue of overcrowded homes and housing shortages, The situation for young people in Sweden, with poor housing and difficulties
different ways of measuring and evaluating person-to-room ratios were tested to to find work, was identified as the main reason for declining birth rates. Many
try to find suitable ways of constructing dwellings that could provide a minimum refrained both from marriage and from having children. In cases where couples
reasonable living standard that people could afford. The design of these dwellings both held jobs, having children was also often postponed due to financial reasons:
also fundamentally challenged normative ideas about gender, family, and social Both incomes were needed, and having a child meant that one of the two (the
class, which opened up for other ways of arranging everyday life in the home. woman) would need to stop working since child-care was not available.
Picking up on these issues, the state department of social issues initiated a
commission, the Bostadssociala utredningen (the State Commission on housing),
Understanding everyday life to investigate how to improve housing conditions in order to increase population
growth.53 The commission presented a proposal already in 1935 to not only subsidise
By the late 1930s, several initiatives converged in an attempt to bring about the building of more dwellings but also to grant government loans to young couples
changes in the material conditions for everyday life. These included government that would allow them funding for furnishing their first home. The explicit aim of the
loans to young couples setting up homes, the building of different types of loans was to provide a substantial sum of money that could be used for purchasing
dwellings, production of new types of everyday goods and furniture, as well as the necessary things to set up home. The considerable cost of acquiring all of the
exhibitions and publications to advocate for modern and fitness-to-function- furniture and items needed had been identified as one of the reasons for people not
based ways of furnishing the home.49 The question now was: Had the availability getting married and thus not contributing to bringing children to the world.
and accessibility to new dwellings and things brought about any changes in
people’s ways of living their lives in the homes?
Politically, as well as from an industrial market perspective, the material
50 Ann-Katrin Hatje, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden: Debatten
conditions for the individual Swede needed to be stable if the transition from
om familjepolitik och nativitetsökning under 1930- och
a poor, agricultural nation to a thriving industrial democracy were to be made. 1940-talen, diss. (Stockholm, 1974)
Making sure that people saw the possibility for a better life in Sweden, instead 51 Alva & Gunnar Myrdal Kris i befolkningsfrågan (Stockholm,
of emigrating, would secure a workforce large enough for industry to develop, 1934); Allan Carlsson, The roles of Alva and Gunnar Myrdal
which in turn was the foundation for the financial change that would enable the in the development of a social democratic response to Europe’s
transformation of society. “population crisis”, 1929-1938, diss. (Ann Arbor, 1978).
In the mid-1930s, the housing question became associated with ‘the 52 Ann-Katrin Hatje, Från treklang till triangeldrama:
population question’. This referred to the diminishing birth rates that in com- barnträdgården som ett kvinnligt samhällsprojekt under
bination with the past decades of substantial emigration of Swedes to North 1880-1940-talen (Lund: Historiska media, 1999).
53 The commission worked between 1933 and 1947, and
most proposals made were also carried out. SOU 1935:2
Betänkande med förslag rörande lån och årliga bidrag av
49 Maria Göransdotter, ”Möbleringsfrågan: Om statsmedel för främjande av bostadsförsörjning för mindre
synen på heminredning i 1930- och 1940-talens bemedlade barnrika familjer jämte därtill hörande utredningar.
bostadsvaneundersökningar”, Historisk tidskrift 1999:3, 444-474; Bostadssociala utredningen (Stockholm, 1935).

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Cover of Brita Åkerman’s Familjen

som växte ur sitt hem (The Family
that Outgrew its Home), 1941.

The Family that Outgrew its Home

In 1937, an investigation into everyday life in Swedish homes came to trigger a
sequence of ‘dwelling investigations’ over many years to come. Brita Åkerman –
whose husband Alf Johansson was an economist and part of the State Commission
on Housing as well as a manager in the department of social services – planned and
conducted a sociological study of families’ everyday life in modern HSB apartments.
To investigate if social issues and problems for families had been addressed in
relevant ways in relation to how their apartments were planned, new sociological
One of the 214 families participating in the study. methods were applied in the study. A total of 214 families, living in both older and
Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem, 6. newer apartments were interviewed and asked to describe how life in the home was
led, what they appreciated with the apartment and what they would like to change.
During the late 1930s and early 1940s, efforts were made to systematically The furnishing was documented both by drawing placements of furniture on a
investigate and understand how people actually used their homes. The State floor plan and, in some of the homes, by taking photographs.54 In 1941, the study was
Commission on housing had shown that more than a third of the Swedish population published as Familjen som växte ur sitt hem (The Family that Outgrew its Home).55
lived in cramped and overcrowded circumstances, with more than two persons per The study was a thorough analysis of family life in relation to the dwelling, its
room, in the mid-1930s. The aim with initiating the building of new housing, was furnishings, and the daily work conducted there. A strong emphasis in the book
primarily to increase both the number of available and reasonably priced dwellings was on women’s working conditions in the home, tracking and mapping all the
and to provide a wider variety of both larger and smaller apartments to fit different types of work carried out, where, when, and under what circumstances it was
types of households. To achieve an adequate number of new dwellings by the year done. Brita Åkerman herself was active in different organisations advocating a
1960, which became the aim of the new national housing scheme, the production professionalisation of women’s work in the home, and later became one of the
of housing needed to be standardised and rationalised. founders of Hemmens Forskningsinstitut – which will be discussed more in-depth
The functionalist ideas adopted into state politics in the 1930s heavily stressed in the following chapter.
rationalisation and standardisation. Research into engineering and technology was, For the process of establishing women’s expertise concerning domestic work
therefore, promoted and funded to achieve functional solutions. The government as a social and political issue, The Family that Outgrew its Home became highly
housing policy was based on the idea that the new, rational and standardised influential. But the publication was also seminal in regard to its methodology for
dwellings should be founded on the actual needs of the average Swede. Thus, a vast studying the impact dwelling design and furnishing had on people’s everyday
array of inquiries into the standards of housing and the practices of everyday life was life. In vivid detail, Åkerman described the challenges families handled to make
initiated to lay an objective and scientific foundation for the planning of adequate place for all aspects of daily life in the small and overpopulated apartments: how
housing that would support a rational and modern way of life.
54 Floor plans and protocols. Brita Åkermans samling.
Ämnesordnade handlingar. Vol.7. Handlingar ang. boken
Familjen som växte ur sitt hem. Undersökningsprotokoll.
55 Brita Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem (Stockholm, 1941).

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and where family members ate and slept, where the children were allowed to be
and to play, where clothes were stored and how housework was carried out. The
interviewed women often expressed frustration over the minuscule kitchens in the
modern apartments, and the lack of space to cook and bake.
Another aspect of Åkerman’s study, which brought new methods and new
insights alike, was the direct inclusion of ‘ordinary people’s’ – and specifically
women’s – opinions in the final publication of the investigation. Besides quoting
the observations of the interviewers, Åkerman brought forth the opinions,
experiences, and comments of the persons participating in the study. While the
direct quotes from the participants could, of course, have been chosen to support
the findings of the team making the investigation, they nonetheless provided
insights into the everyday life of Swedish families. With incorporating these
quotes, the voices of the inhabitants of apartments, the users of furniture and
homes, were given a central place in the publication.
The alternating quotes from people sharing their everyday experiences and
the interviewers’ comments, together with photographs of both women, men and
children in their everyday environments, gave glimpses into what life could be like
in the small, often overcrowded, homes. Brita Åkerman concluded that planners,
architects and furniture designers must actively listen to the expertise of people in
general, and of housewives in particular, to design dwellings and things that would
make home life and housework easier and more efficient. The ideas that families
moving into apartments planned according to functionalist principles would be
able to lead lives more adapted to the modern times – including furnishing their
homes in accordance with their needs now that industrially produced things were
available – was demonstrated to not be the case.
Åkerman noted that no matter if they lived in older or newer apartments,
people would continue to live as they had been used to, and to buy the same sorts
of furniture and things that had been the norm so far. This was usually suites of
furniture consisting of a set number of 6-8 pieces, in a historical or contemporary
cohesive style, and placed in the home according to conventional practices. In
these parlour-furnished rooms, the children were not allowed to play, and the
parents rarely used the room daily either. Families living in larger apartments
would often double the parlour furnishing in more than one room, and hardly
anyone had a regular bed for sleeping but used different variations of sofa beds or
stow-away mattresses:

As naturally as the families submit to that the walls around them have their given
measurements and given placements, they submit equally naturally and without
any discussion to a given set of furniture and a given placement of these. One
generation after another of newlyweds who set up home follow the same norm
Day-time and night-time furnishing in a room, that is the living room and dining for what a home should look like.56
place for a family of 6 and a sleeping place for 2 daughters, 13 and 15 years, and 2
sons of 16 and 17 years. Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem, 31.

56 Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem, 19. “Lika självklart

som familjerna fogar sig i att väggarna omkring dem har
sina givna mått och sin givna placering, lika självklart och
diskussionslös infogar de sig i en given uppsättning möbler
och en given placering av dessa. Den ena årskullen av nygifta
efter den andra följer vid sin bosättning samma norm för hur
ett hem ska se ut.”

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People would buy furniture when they were married and moved into their first slöjdföreningen and all based on the questions raised and methods developed by Brita
home together, committing to monthly down-payments of the very expensive piec- Åkerman. The aims of the different dwelling habit surveys were not only to describe
es for years to come. In Åkerman’s study, these consumption habits were seen as how but also to find out why different practices came about in the home.
detrimental to people’s ability to change furniture as the living conditions changed, A ‘dwelling habit’ was understood as the way people actually used their homes
since they were stuck with the furniture payment scheme, and couldn’t afford to and how everyday practices played out in relation to the intended functions of both
buy new things. But this was also difficult from the perspective of the use of the floor plan and furnishings. In all of these three dwelling habit investigations, the
home, especially for children. The ‘over-furnished’ parlours and small kitchens left motives for the studies differed. Still, the intent of what to study was similar: the
children without spaces that were theirs in the home, and Åkerman – echoing the design of both dwellings and furniture must take into account how people really live
message in the Myrdal’s publication Crisis in the population issue – connected the in and use them, to better design the objects and environments that allow people
low birth rates to the traditional norms that guided the general ways of furnishing to match their home environment to their real everyday needs. Therefore, design
homes. People needed to learn how to use their homes in more flexible ways, suited should not only incorporate attention to people’s actual practices and wishes.
to other possible ways of life, instead of conforming to established norms and habits: Designers must also consider how to go about shaping people’s way of using both
apartments and things through design, and through explicit explanation and
In hundreds of small instances, we have been able to study this peaceful – and a education aiming to form preferred behaviours.
bit monotonous – family life, where the children are guided forth from diapers,
over the sandbox and the homework, to communion, and the first employment.
The SAR and SSF dwelling investigation
And the question is: is there not something missing? Does not this existence
entail an inadequate use of resources, that would be available for people if they
In 1938, the SSF received a joint invitation together with the Association of Swedish
only took charge of their powers? Is it not a pity that husband and wife become Architects (SAR) to participate in a housing exhibition in Helsinki, Finland, the
so settled, would they not be able to continue playing a little also after the time of following year. The Swedish contribution to the exhibition was asked to target
youthful erotic stimulation has passed? Wouldn’t there be a need for a little more the housing situation for families with many children. This became the starting
imagination and carelessness, a little less shiny furniture surfaces, and frankly, a point for a more substantial joint SAR and SSF investigation that would not only
bit more messy curtains?”57 provide material for the exhibition but also form a basis for developing norms and
standards for future Swedish dwelling design.
With a more carefree attitude towards the upkeep of the home, there would be more Inspired by Åkerman’s study, the SAR and SSF investigation set out to explore
time for husband and wife to explore possibilities to continue developing themselves, the relationship between dwelling and furnishing in regard to actual use. The plan
and also spend more time with each other, and with their children. In this context, was to make an even more systematic analysis of the functions of the dwelling
Åkerman also stated that designers would need to be more active in “exploding the old in relation to how it was used. The project initially consisted of three interlinked
system of furniture and create a new one, that is more flexible, simple and stimulating studies: “a theoretical inquiry into plans, a special investigation and practical tests
for the imagination” by designing things that people actually needed and could use regarding housework and child care, investigation of current dwelling habits”.59 The
in a decent way, rather than design what the one thinks that people need.58 The gap Swedish association for furniture retailers was brought into the project to conduct
between design intent and people’s actual ways of living pointed to other foundations, a fourth study, mapping types of furniture for sale in Sweden in combination with
that took into account the actual use of things and homes, needed for the planning interviews with retailers about their experiences of sales and customer contacts.
of modern housing, as well as for the design of furniture and other everyday objects. This aimed to provide knowledge that would lead to producing “the right furniture
Even before its official publication, the investigation conducted by Brita Åkerman for the right dwellings.”60 There was, however, no time to do all this before the
met a great deal of interest. In the first three years of the 1940s, three subsequent Helsinki exhibition, so the actual work in the project began first in 1940.61
studies into people’s ‘dwelling habits’ were carried out, all with connections to Svenska
59 Möbelmarknaden. SAR:s och SSF:s bostadsutredning, (Stockholm,
57 Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem, 237. “I hundratals 1941), 5. “…en teoretisk planutredning, specialutredning och
smådrag har vi kunnat studera detta fridsamma – och en smula praktiska prov rörande hushållsarbete och barnavård, undersökning
enformiga – familjeliv, där barnen lotsas fram från blöjorna av rådande bostadsvanor.”
över sandhögen och läxboken till konfirmationen och den 60 Möbelmarknaden. SAR:s och SSF:s bostadsutredning, (Stockholm,
första platsen. Och frågan ställer sig: är det inte något som 1941), 6. “…de rätta möblerna för de rätta bostäderna.”
saknas? Innebär inte denna tillvaro ett bristfälligt utnyttjande 61 For the Helsinki exhibition, the SAR and SSF focused on presenting
av resurser, som skulle finnas tillgängliga för människorna, om the housing issues and plans for the investigation. The exhibition
de spände sina krafter? Är det inte synd att man och hustru was only open three days, during the autumn of 1939: it was shut
blir så stadiga, skulle de inte kunna fortsätta att leka litet också down prematurely due to the outbreak of the war. Centrum för
sedan ungdomserotikens stimulans är förbi? Skulle det inte Näringslivshistoria; Föreningen Svensk Form; F1:96 Registraturen 1938-
behövs lite mera fantasi och sorglöshet, litet mindre blanka 1970; Vol. 598a Möbelinventering i samband med Statens bosättningslån
möbelytor och, rent ut sagt, lite slarvigare gardiner.” 1939-1940 “Redogörelse för deltagandet i Bostadsutställningen 39 i
58 Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur sitt hem, 20. Helsingfors och Program för fortsatt utredning”

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In the autumn of 1942, the SAR and SSF initiated a survey of dwelling habits.
This was led by Gotthard Johansson who was a member of the SSF board, and
as editor and art critic actively engaged in promoting functionalism since the
early 1930s. Interior architect and furniture designer Lena Larsson was hired
to make visits to one hundred families in apartments in Stockholm, built after
1935, in which she documented the dwelling habits in relation to floor plans
and furnishings.62 Larsson would interview the inhabitants about how they used
the different rooms and the furnishings, and make detailed descriptions of the
interiors, schemes of furniture placement, and finally, the whole apartment was
photographed by her husband Mårten Larsson.63 The outspoken ambition was
to establish, through these interviews, a “collaboration between professionals
and the public” so that the families would be able to influence future housing
production through their “wishes, comments and own experiences”.64
The analysis of the material was presented in journal articles, and also at the
SSF 100-year jubilee exhibition held in Gothenburg in 1945. The final publication
of the dwelling habit survey, however, was not made until 1964 due to lack of Cover of Jöran Curman’s Industriens
funding and changes in staff at the SSF.65 Results of the full SAR & SSF study later arbetarebostäder, 1944.
led to the establishment of Swedish building norms and standards for housing,
including kitchen and storage standards. Additionally, the findings in the dwelling
habit survey were later to be decisive in bringing together a variety of popular The Industries’ housing investigation
movements, political parties, and other organisations in establishing education In the same period as the SAR and SSF investigation was conducted, a research
aiming to promote different ways of furnishing and using the home, under the unit funded jointly by Swedish private industries, Industriens utredningsinstitut,
coordination of the SSF.66 decided to initiate a housing investigation of their own, also with inspiration from
Åkerman’s work.67 In smaller cities and rural areas without any municipal or state-
funded housing, it was the responsibility of employers to provide adequate housing
62 Letter: “Vill Ni hjälpa oss skaffa bättre bostäder?” Nordiska for their employees. Around half of the Swedish industrial workers lived in smaller
museets arkiv. Lena Larssons arkiv. F3 Handlingar
cities or communities, where one single employer provided both work and housing.
rörande Svenska slöjdföreningen 1933-1944; Vol. 6
As Swedish industry expanded rapidly in the 1930s and 1940s, the housing
Bostadsvaneundersökningar. Arbetsmaterial 1942.
63 Arkitekturmuseets arkiv. SAR & SSF bostadsutredning. Vo.l situation had become a complicated issue to address also for industry, since
63 100 fam i 100 läg: Familjer och lägenheter; Vol. 79 100 fam i construction was costly, demand for housing high, and workers’ wages low. In
100 läg.; and 100 fam i 100 läg, Enkät 1-50 and Enkät 51-100. this context, an extensive investigation into conditions specific to the production
64 Lena Larsson “På visit hos 100 familjer”, Form 1945:1, 12-16 of low-cost, high-standard, workers’ housing was needed. Part of this entailed a
65 Gotthard Johansson (ed.), Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer. dwelling habit investigation aiming to understand if industrial workers’ needs and
Svenska Arkitekters Riksförbunds och Svenska Slöjdföreningens practices differed compared to those of city dwellers.
Bostadsutredning. Dwelling Habits and Housing Norms. The Therefore, four dwelling habit surveys were carried out by architect Jöran
Housing Investigation of the National Association of Swedish Curman. He had worked at the cooperative building organisation HSB and
Architects and The Swedish Society of Industrial Design
served as secretary in the State Commission on Housing and was, therefore, well
(Stockholm: Kooperativa förbundets bokförlag, 1964), 11.
acquainted with Brita Åkerman’s investigation, and followed her methodology.
The inclusion of English summaries in each chapter of the
publication, as well as having an English translation of the The surveys Curman made among 263 families, living in different parts of
title of the book on its title page suggests that the aim of Sweden were also analysed in comparison to the dwelling habit investigations
the publication was to contribute with methodologies and made by Åkerman as well as those made by SAR and SSF. Curman’s study also
findings in housing research to not only a Swedish, but als to included interviews and questionnaires accompanied by photo documentation
an international research context. When quoting the book, of furnishing as well as detailed descriptions of placement and types of furniture.
I sometimes use the original English text, and sometimes The study aimed at finding rational ways of providing enough adequate
translate the Swedish text (which often gives more detail). housing for workers, so that their living situation would have positive effects
When I have translated text myself, I include the Swedish on their work conditions, and thereby the expansion of Swedish industry. The
original text in the footnote.
conclusion was that industry needed to invest in standardised mass production of
66 Göransdotter, Maria, “Möbleringsfrågan: Om
synen på heminredning i 1930- och 1940-talens
bostadsvaneundersökningar”, Historisk tidskrift 1999:3, 444-474. 67 Decided in 1941, the investigation was carried out in 1942-43.

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larger and better dwellings to secure better conditions for the workforce. Through loans granted to couples setting up home since 1938. Commissioned to conduct
building new types of houses, people’s “opinions, habits and also thereby their this investigation were Åke H Huldt, interior architect and vice president of the
needs” would gradually change as they began living in these environments. But SSF, and Ingeborg Waern Bugge, architect and member of the SAR. Both had
since people were not used to living in more spacious apartments, they would also first-hand insights into both Brita Åkerman’s investigation, and of course into the
need support and education on how to rationally use the new, larger, apartments: dwelling investigation jointly carried out by SAR and SSF.
Through questionnaires and interviews with 164 families in eight different
People must, then, in each case learn to live in 2 or 3 rooms and kitchen, since cities, the investigation focused on how the dwelling loans had been used, and if
this is something new to them. This will entail a very substantial information and that had resulted in the “desired family development”.70 The conclusion presented
PR campaign to influence people to adapt their views and habits in the desired in the official state report in 1943, was that in practically all cases, the loans had
direction, but that is the case for every new item, that is taken to market. If this indeed been used in the intended way: for buying home furnishings and making
information can be built on a trustworthy investigation material rather than base
it possible to set up a first joint home. On the other hand, the study also showed
subjective suppositions and ideas, the expectations for success should be the best.68
that “the loans often have been used wrongly or impractically in regard to the
distribution of financial means available between different categories of furnishing
Government dwelling loans on the one hand, and in regard to the real needs and economic resources of the
Many of the social reforms brought about by the Swedish social democratic clients on the other.”71 Therefore, guidance was suggested as necessary for couples
government in the 1930s aimed at creating better conditions for families, not least applying for dwelling loans to support them in buying appropriate things suited to
materially through providing means for more spacious and modern housing. The their needs, and that a counselling service should be set up for this.
Bostadssociala utredningen (the State Commission on Housing) presented several
proposals, but also the Befolkningskommissionen (the Population Commission) came
to identify reforms and legislation regarding housing and homes as necessary.69 Questions of use: Functions, rooms and furniture
For the Population Commission, the main goal was to initiate state-funded
measures that would ensure that the population in Sweden increased: More These dwelling investigations all took a starting point in attempts to map how
children needed to be born, and creating better homes was identified as a crucial homes were used on a daily basis. In the SAR and SSF survey, “dwelling habits”
part of this. One of the initiatives implemented to increase the number of couples were defined as “nothing more than the way in which the dwelling is used,
marrying and setting up home – and having children – was to initiate government regardless of whether this is determined by habits in the stricter sense or by more
loans that could be used for purchasing furniture and household items. deliberative acts.”72 The initial ambitions had been to map functions identified in
In 1941, the Population Inquiry was formed to follow up and evaluate the relation to the intended use of rooms as these were defined in the floor plans: “The
results of the reforms implemented during the 1930s on the suggestion from the living room is primarily meant for the family’s daily being together, the bedroom to
Population commission and also to push the implementation of the previous sleep in, the dining room or dinette to eat in, the kitchen to cook in.”73
commission’s other proposals. As part of this work, an investigation into dwelling Many of the apartments and houses built during the 1930s were designed in
habits was made to analyse the outcomes of the more than 50.000 government ways that more corresponded to ideal ideas of living than the actual possibilities
for – or interest in – these new ways of life. The attempts to “counteract or if
68 Jörgen Curman Industriens arbetarebostäder (Stockholm: possible hinder” a “wrongful use” of the dwelling through floor plans and fittings
Industriens utredningsinstitut, 1944), 134. “Folk måste had been made in housing design without any real insights into what effects these
alltså i varje fall lära sig bo i 2 à 3 rum och kök, vilket för initiatives would have:
dem är något nytt. Det fordras visserligen en mycket kraftig
propaganda- och reklamkampanj för att påverka folk till
att anpassa sina åsikter och vanor i önskad riktning, men
så är förhållandet även för varje ny vara som skall föras ut
på marknaden. Om denna propaganda kan bygga på ett
vederhäftigt utredningsmaterial i stället för på lösa subjektiva 70 SOU 1943:18 Utredning och förslag angående planmässigt
förmodanden och föreställningar, synas utsikterna till sparande för familjebildning och statens bosättningslån
framgång vara de bästa.” (Stockholm, 1943), 15.
69 The Befolkningskommissionen (the Population 71 SOU 1943:18 Utredning och förslag angående planmässigt
commission) was active between 1935 and 1938. sparande för familjebildning och statens bosättningslån
Later, the Befolkningsutredningen (the Population (Stockholm, 1943), 13.
inquiry) was initiated and between 1941 and 1947 72 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 33.
was tasked with implementing the proposals from the 73 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 109.
Befolkningskommissionen. As part of the 1941 Population “Vardagsrummet är främst avsett för familjens dagliga
inquiry, a specific Women’s delegation was formed to address umgänge, sovrummet att sova i, matrummet eller matvrån att
issues of home life, housework, and women’s rights. äta i, köket att laga mat i.”

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But one also has through the very design of the dwelling intended to counteract dwelling habits. They may also be justified by objective realities. Ideas on how a
or, if possible, prevent a perceived inaccurate use of it. Aiming to exterminate dwelling should be used may be just as conventional as those which, consciously
the so-called living kitchen and with it the associated parlour system, kitchens or unconsciously, motivate how it is used.76
were for a long time so small, that there was no space in them for other than
the pure functions of the kitchen – and sometimes not even for these. Through An example given of such conflicts between intended and actual use was the
the differentiation of rooms and the very naming of the rooms – “living room”, planning of the kitchen and dining areas in the 1920s and 1930s that had followed
“bedroom” – one has tried to stimulate to a certain use of these, but without modernist ideals of differentiating between and physically trying to separate,
assuring oneself that what was intended has become realised.74
functions in the home. It had been taken for granted that the kitchen should not
be a place for eating and that the planning of the dwelling should ensure that
The questions guiding these studies revolved around creating a solid understanding
this was not the case. But after analysing the dwelling investigations, first, the one
of what could be seen in terms of causal effects, and what in more value-based ideas
made in 1937 by Brita Åkerman and subsequent studies after that, the different
or traditions, that governed how a dwelling was actually used. Was the floor plan,
investigators identified new norms and practices around meals that seemed to
and the way an apartment was fitted a decisive factor? What roles did the choice
have emerged in relation to changes in different social strata.
and placement of furniture play? And did social norms and conventions steer how
While the upper and middle classes earlier had found it more or less
people behaved in the dwelling, or were other factors more influential?
unthinkable to eat in a kitchen – a practice associated with servants or housekeeping
In order to investigate this, questions were asked of the daily activities of
staff, which most of these families employed – eating in the kitchen common in rural
the inhabitants; where one slept and ate, and where social activities took place,
homes and working-class families. By the end of the 1930s, the workers’ way of taking
and where, how and by whom work – housework, homework and other work –
meals in the kitchen had largely become adopted also in middle-class households.77
took place. Therefore, the surveys were planned as in-depth inquiries rather
Attempting to separate the function of eating from that of cooking, a small dining
than only quantitative questionnaires: “The investigators were not so much
area in connection to but separated from the kitchen was introduced in many small
interested in discovering the incidence of dwelling habits, as their cause-effect
apartments designed in the 1930s and early 1940s. In the different dwelling studies,
relationship, above all the correlation between dwelling design and use.”75 One of
the room called ‘the dinette’ (matvrå) came to be extensively studied as the perhaps
the conclusions was that while efforts should continue in mass-producing housing
most striking example of how design intent and actual use differed.
of higher standards, there must also be efforts made to promote coherence
between the design of these apartments and of how they were used. The processes
of designing modern dwellings had thus far been all too loosely founded on Using dinettes and living rooms
unsubstantiated ideas of what people were doing in their homes: One aim of the SSF and SAR survey was to find out “where dwelling functions
took place, and how the different rooms were used and furnished.”78 When
The significance of dwelling habits for actual housing standards has long been making these connections, the investigators assumed that matching room to
appreciated, and many different efforts have been organised to combat habits function, or vice versa, would be reasonably easy both by observing the furniture
that are felt to deteriorate these standards. Various kinds of publicity and itself and through making follow-up interviews. However, this seemed to be
information activities in the form of exhibitions, study circles, etc. in Sweden more complicated than planned, since the intended room functions only rarely
(with the Society of Industrial Design as the prime mover) have been and are matched the actual use:
being conducted to interest the public in a more rational and effective use
of the dwelling based on actual needs. In the course of these activities, the There are living rooms, that are not used for daily interactions, bedrooms that
negative aspect of dwelling habits has been emphasised to the point where are not slept in, and dinettes that are not eaten in. On the other hand, the use of
their positive aspect is readily overlooked. The very concept of dwelling habit the rooms on the floor plan marked as bedrooms were not the only ones used
has come to connote something irrational, a conventional view of things, or a but also living rooms and dinettes were used as bedrooms, the real dining room
routine pattern of behaviour. All dwelling habits, of course, need not be poor can be the dinette, living room, bedroom or kitchen, and the daily being together
can take place either in the living room, dinette, or a bedroom.79
74 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 27. “Men man har
också genom själva utformningen av bostaden sökt motverka 76 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 33.
eller om möjligt förhindra en som felaktig ansedd användning 77 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 27. “The latter
av densamma. I avsikt att utrota det s.k. bostadsköket och development, not only in Sweden but also in other countries,
det därmed förbundna finrumssystemet gjorde man sålunda has above all through the lack of servants led to, that many
länge köken så små, att det inte blev plats i dem för annat än de also in the middle class nowadays have changed idea and
rena köksfunktionerna – ibland knappast ens för dem. Genom found it connected to practical advantages to place the dining
rumsuppdelningen och själva beteckningen på rummen – area in the kitchen.”
“vardagsrum”, “sovrum” – har man sökt stimulera till en viss 78 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 49.
användning av desamma, utan att dock förvissa sig om att den i 79 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 109. “Det finns
verkligheten blivit den avsedda.” vardagsrum, som inte användas för vardagsumgänget, sovrum,
75 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 49. som det inte soves i, och matvråar, som det inte ätes i.”

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Mapping of living room functions in the SAR and SSF study.

Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 174.

In schematic overviews in the SAR and SSF investigation, the various uses of
rooms were mapped for each family, depicting how the use of different parts of
the apartment would lead to several functions co-existing in the same space. Only
one room, the living room, could in some families completely lack any daytime
functions or uses, while an average across all of the 100 apartments showed that
the dinette was the room which housed the greatest number of uses in regard
to the different functions. Several of these resulted in what was named ‘function
conflicts’, which were regarded as equally important for the actual use of the apart-
ment as conventional dwelling habits were.
What the three investigations showed, was that many families who by
any statistical or numerical analyses of square meters or number of rooms per Examples of dinettes in the SAR and SSF study.
person could have ample living space, in reality, were to be regarded as living in Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 200.
overcrowded conditions. Trying to get to the root of the causes of this was not easy:
bad dwelling design, irrational dwelling habits, unsuitable furniture, or inherent
function conflicts were entangled in a way that made analyses difficult.
An example of how the design of the apartment had made a negative impact
on how people managed to use their homes, was the dinette. The ambitions
to differentiate functions had led to the introduction of Frankfurt-style small
laboratory-like kitchens, with a separate small adjoining room that was intended
to be used as a dining space.
This was not only an attempt to separate the functions of cooking and eating
but also of ensuring that neither sleeping places nor playing children would be
able to fit in the kitchen since this was deemed unhygienic. This was a design
that people – especially women – already in Brita Åkerman’s study had criticised
thoroughly. Many families stated that they would have preferred a larger kitchen
that was also more spacious to work in, and that allowed room for a dining table.
At the same time, the dwelling survey analyses detected that it was, in fact,
the dinette that, despite being the apartment’s smallest room was the one that used
the most. In the Industry dwelling investigation, the intended dinette was used for
so many diverse functions, while the ‘living room’ was often left unused, that the
investigator Jöran Curman suggested a change in both denominations and functions
of the rooms to better match how people in practice wanted and needed to use them.80
80 Curman, Industriens arbetarebostäder, 169-177.

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Seventy-two of the apartments in the SAR and SSF study held a dinette. Of
these, 59 families took all their meals there. But the room was also used for so
much more. On the one hand, it was in most homes used exactly in the way it
was intended – for eating – but on the other, it was at the same time used for a
vast array of functions for which it was neither intended nor designed. Two-thirds
of the dinettes held one or more sleeping places, and it was also the main daily
gathering place for some 20 families. In many cases, activities like sewing, reading,
doing homework, and children’s play also took place there. For a room that on
average was only about 5,5 square meters, and sometimes even smaller than 4 m2,
it housed a fair share of many families’ daily activities. This led the investigators
to proclaim the dinette a “functional abnormality” often holding a “congestion
of furniture and functions [that] often becomes fairly grotesque”.81 The causes for
this were people’s limited understanding of how space should be used properly, in
combination with designers being out of touch with the reality of people’s actual
ways of living. The dinette, therefore, was pointed to as an idea that had been based
on designers’ and architects’ making a “bad guess about people’s living habits”.82
The living room was another example where design intent did not at all align
with everyday use. Since the turn of the century 1900, home reform had aimed at
establishing the ‘living room’ as the place where families should gather together
for daily activities rather than using it as a ‘parlour’.83 In Swedish, this was explicitly Examples of dinette furnishing Dinette with ‘overloaded functions’.
made clear in the naming of the room on the floor plan, as the term is vardagsrum, arrangements. Johansson, Bostadsvanor och
which means “every-day room”. This term was contrasted to the terms finrum (a Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 201
room with finery) or salong (parlour), which were the uses of the room that were to bostadsnormer, 205
be discouraged. As noted in Brita Åkerman’s study, and confirmed the subsequent
dwelling surveys, the practice of using the living room on an everyday basis had not
at all been adopted. The room, the SAR and SSF report suggested, could instead be
called a “Sunday room”, if one were to name it after how it was actually used:

It was striking how the social and recreational functions were given a dispro-
portionally large place at the expense of the space for sleep and rest. The parlour
in its true meaning – a fine, un-used room, whose doors are only opened for
important or long-distance guests – hardly exists in big city apartments, but what
has come in its place is what we could call a “Sunday room”. “Would like to have
a nice room if someone visits” is a very common statement – usually said as an
excuse, for the propaganda about the abhorrence of the parlour has at least as a
rallying cry come through quite well.84

81 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 206.

82 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 206.
83 Kerstin Thörn, En bostad för hemmet: Idéhistoriska studier i Dinette functions: Staple diagrams over where meals are taken,
bostadsfrågan, Idéhistoriska skrifter 20, diss. (Umeå, 1997). and different uses of the dinette in percent.
84 Lena Larsson “På visit hos 100 familjer” Form 1945:1, 16.
Johansson, “Hur bor vårt folk?”, 10.
“Frapperande var hur funktionen sällskap och rekreation fick en
alldeles oproportionerligt stor plats på bekostnad av utrymmet för
söm och vila. Finrummet i dess egentliga betydelse – ett fint, oanvänt
rum, vars dörrar slås upp endast för storfrämmande och långväga
gäster – existerar väl knappast i storstadslägenheterna, men i dess
ställe har kommit något som skulle kunna kallas “söndagsrum”. “Vill
gärna ha ett rum snyggt, om det kommer någon” är ett mycket vanligt
yttrande – vanligen sagt som ursäkt, ty propagandan om finrummets
styggelse har åtminstone som slagord trängt igenom ganska bra.”

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In the study made of how dwelling loans were used, similar conclusions had been the furniture. If one were to get people to use their finely decorated living room,
made. People often spent most of the loan buying furnishings for the living room: “An the consequence would be that “the housewife would have a hefty workload
especially prominent position in the overview of the situation, that the investigation with constantly cleaning and replacing things in the living room, minding the
gives, is taken by the general presence of the ‘fine room’ which with its costly, children, changing and washing covers on the upholstered furniture, etc., or that
stereotype and unpleasant furnishing does not fill any real function.”85 While the habit upholstered and polished furniture pieces, certain decorative objects etc. were
of furnishing the living room in such a way was understandable from a perspective of not allowed in the home.”87 Taking away the possibility for people to have a nicely
tradition and ambition to keep a home atmosphere that was based in the sanctity of decorated room for festive occasions and Sunday use would just be meaningless:
home life, this practice was nonetheless something to try to work against:
This leads to conclude that the dwelling habits here discussed basically are very
In small apartments, the parlour becomes a parasite, that prevents crucial tasks well-founded. They are in their main traits neither built on habit nor delusion,
from being carried out. The intent may be laudable, but the result becomes but are based on clear needs and practical necessity, and must, therefore, be
grotesque, when one in these small homes finds that most of the space and assumed to continue in the future, as long as the purely technical conditions
the main share of the resources when setting up home is used for a room that are the same.88
does not support the family’s daily life, indeed, that through its furnishing has
become such that it cannot even do so. In its consequences it will therefore lead Designers would, then, have to consider these practices of use when designing
to directly counteracting the intended family development. If one has reason to future dwellings. At least for working-class families in the industrial regions of
talk about dwellings that are unfriendly to children, one can as easily talk about Sweden, the living room ought to be allowed to be the Sunday room it had turned
furniture and furnishings that are directly hostile towards children.86 into. At the same time, the dinette should be given an equal size as the living room,
in its capacity of a daily room – and be renamed as such.
The wide-spread dwelling habit of furnishing the larger room of the home with
upholstered and polished furniture in a representative setting was a dwelling habit Necessary and voluntary overcrowding
that – when probed in the surveys – at first seemed to be completely irrational, but One of the core problems in the housing question had been that of homes being
upon closer investigation might have an at least partially rational foundation. The too small for the families living in them. An aim was, therefore, to find out if the
fact that many chose to keep the parlour furnishing rather than adapt the room to newer and more spacious apartments built in the 1930s had brought about im-
needs of socialising as well as providing sleeping places, seemed to perhaps also provements in the families’ living conditions. One of the most crucial functions
be grounded in conflicting needs and functions, and not only in conforming to to fit in the dwelling was that of providing enough space for beds and sleeping
outdated social norms. furniture for the whole family. Mapping the function of ‘sleep’, therefore, was a
central aspect of all of the different surveys.
In the investigation of workers’ dwelling habits, Jöran Curman noted that the daily Since ‘sleep’ as a function was deemed quite easy to define, as would be
non-use of the parlour or living room had quite rational reasons. The fact that the appropriate furnishing for this with different pieces of furniture, the use of
people didn’t use the room on a daily basis, he meant, was based on the well- the home for sleeping in was thought to be perhaps easiest to reach substantial
founded ambition to keep a nice room where dirty work-clothes would not soil knowledge and conclusions about. However, finding out where people slept and
how they arranged the furniture to support this brought about methodological
85 SOU 1943:18 Utredning och förslag angående planmässigt
difficulties in all of the three investigations. There seemed to be some correlation
sparande för familjebildning och statens bosättningslån, 14.
“En särskilt framskjuten position i den bild av läget, som between the size of the apartment and the practice of trying to allow family
undersökningen ger, intar det allmänt förekommande members as separate sleeping places as possible. However, the practice of
‘finrummet’, som med sin påkostade, stereotypa och
otrivsamma inredning inte fyller någon verklig funktion.” 87 Curman, Industriens arbetarebostäder, 175. “…att husmodern
86 SOU 1943:18 Utredning och förslag angående planmässigt fick ett mycket betungande arbete med att ständigt städa och
sparande för familjebildning och statens bosättningslån, 14. återställa föremål i vardagsrummet, passa på barnen, byta
“I smålägenheter blir finrummet en parasit, som hindrar och tvätta överdrag över de stoppade möblerna m.m., eller att
väsentliga uppgifter att kunna tillgodoses. Avsikten må vara stoppade och polerade möbler, vissa prydnadssaker m.m. icke
lovvärd, men resultatet blir groteskt, när man i dessa små hem finge förekomma i hemmet.”
finner, att det mesta utrymmet och större delen av hemmets 88 Curman, Industriens arbetarebostäder, 175. “Det vill alltså synas
tillgångar vid bosättningen utnyttjas för ett rum, som icke tjänar som om de bostadsvanor, vilka här tagits till utgångspunkt för
familjens dagliga liv, ja, som genom sin möblering blivit sådant, resonemanget, i grund och botten äro mycket välgrundade.
att det icke ens kan göra det. I sina konsekvenser kommer det De äro i sina huvuddrag icke byggda på slentrian och
därför att direkt motverka en önskvärd familjeutveckling. Om vanföreställningar utan grunda sig på klara behov och praktisk
man har skäl att tala om barnovänliga bostäder, kan man med nödvändighet och måste därför antas att komma att bestå
lika stor rätt tala om möbler och möblering som äro direkt i framtiden, så länge de rent tekniska förutsättningarna i
barnfientliga.” huvudsak äro desamma.”

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“clustering” beds – placing many sleeping places closely together in the same
room – seemed to have little to do with the actual layout of the home:

If sleeping habits follow a certain pattern, this seems to be fairly complicated and
often confusing. Even in the most tightly clustered families, white areas tend to
appear: rooms, that completely lack sleeping places. When the web dissolves,
when overcrowding diminishes or completely disappears, these areas tend to
increase, but are here also here fairly distributed and are often combined with
clusters in other parts of the apartment – in order to keep one or several rooms
free from sleeping places one has instead more than filled others, and thereby
submitted oneself to voluntary overcrowding.89

In the SAR and SSF investigation, the measurements of floor plans in combination
with the findings from the furniture retail overview had shown that the rooms were
often too small for the sizes of the beds on the market. This was a reason for people
getting other types of sleeping furniture than proper beds. The market survey of fur-
niture had also highlighted this issue, so synchronisation of standard sizes of beds
and bedrooms seemed like an adequate design change based on these insights. But
investigations had shown that the lack of space was not the only reason for people’s
difficulties in making room for places to sleep. Some families would indeed be over-
crowded due to too many people and too little space. At the same time, others would
use the apartment in such a way that while it on paper seemed spacious enough,
in practice it became overcrowded, and created difficulties to arrange reasonable
sleeping solutions for all family members.
One example was that of how sleeping places were distributed in the 30
families with many children, who lived in so-called barnrikehus with apartments
specially designed large families. It turned out that even in apartments such as these,
with several rooms, people tended to not distribute sleeping spaces in different
rooms. Instead, many slept together in one or two rooms. So what on paper looked
like an improvement in terms of spaciousness for the families with many children,
in practice was still a situation where living conditions were very cramped:

If one started only with statistical data, i.e. the ratio between family size and
apartment size, one would find that only two of these families were overcrowded
according to the usual norms of overcrowding. But if one went into the
apartments and found out how they in reality were used, it showed that only
two of the families were not overcrowded.90

89 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 113. “Även i de tätast

sammanklungade familjerna framträda stundom vita fläckar: rum, som
sakna sovplatser. När nätet glesnar, trångboddheten minskas eller helt
försvinner, bli de flera men ligga även här ganska spridda och förenas
ofta med sammanklungningar på andra punkter i lägenheten – för att
hålla ett eller flera rum fria från sovplatser har man is stället överfyllt
andra och därmed underkastat sig en frivillig trångboddhet.”
90 Gotthard Johansson, ”Hur bor vårt folk? Bostadsvanorna utforskas” Form
1945:1, 8-16. “Utgick man enbart från statistiska data, dvs. förhållandet
mellan familjens och lägenhetens storlek, fann man, att av dessa familjer
voro enligt vanliga trångboddhetsnormer endast 2 trångbodda. Gick man
däremot in i lägenheterna och tog reda på, hur de i verkligheten användes, Voluntary overcrowding: A family of four in a 2-room
visade det sig, att ensat 2 familjer icke voro trångbodda. Felet låg alltså inte i apartment all sleep in the dinette. Johansson,
första hand i bostaden utan i det sätt, varpå den användes.”, 9. Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 114.

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Overcrowding would, in these cases, be induced by people on themselves by not

spreading out the sleeping places over the different rooms in the apartment, but by
sleeping more than two people per room – in several cases as many as 4-5 persons
per room. The reason for people’s difficult living conditions was, in other words,
primarily caused by how the apartment was used – not how it was designed. It
seemed to the investigators that this voluntary overcrowding would not be solved
by providing more spacious apartments since it was the way people chose to use the
different rooms, that was the problem.
A general conclusion, made early on in the process of analysis, was that “(i)t is not
enough to provide enough space. One must make sure that it is used correctly. That
is the first learning from this dwelling investigation.”91 So, not only would apartments
need a redesign – but also the people inhabiting these dwellings needed to learn how
to use them in a rational manner deemed more appropriate to their actual needs.
The reluctance of people, in general, to use the living room for sleeping in,
was often referred to in home reform literature as an expression of an outdated way
of furnishing the largest room of the home as a parlour, to be used only for guests
and festive occasions, and many attempts were made to correct this practice. In
interviews targeting the question of why that was often not the case, parents often
raised the need for having a place in the apartment to spend time after putting the
children to bed. If all rooms were used for sleeping in, there would be no place for
the adults to sit and talk, listen to the radio, or read, after the children’s bedtime:

The ambition to keep one room free from sleeping places needs thus not necessarily
be an expression for a despicable parlour system but can have its origin in a conflict
of functions, impossible to avoid in a dwelling providing insufficient space.92

This mismatch between design intent and actual use led to methodological
difficulties for the mapping of room functions in connection to the furniture in
the home, and the actual functions covered by the use of these in combination:

The existence of a dining table in the living room does thus not necessarily mean
that one eats there. Of the 100 investigated apartments, 80 had dining tables
in the living room, but no less than 55 of these stood unused except at festive
occasions, and only 11 were used daily. But not even the absence of a dining
table has to mean that one does not eat in the living room. It happens, that one
moves a table from a room or the attic.93

91 Johansson, “Hur bor vårt folk?”, 9. “Det räcker icke att skaffa tillräckligt utrymme.
Man måste också se till att det användes på ett riktigt sätt. Det är den första Furniture and functions. The diagram shows the presence
lärdomen av denna bostadsvaneundersökning.” and use of different types of furniture in 100 living rooms.
92 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 27-28. “Önskan att hålla ett rum Johansson, “Hur bor vårt folk?”, 11.
fritt från sovplatser behöver sålunda inte med nödvändighet vara uttryck för ett
förkastligt finrumssystem utan kan ha sitt upphov i en funktionskonflikt, omöjlig
att undvika i en bostad med otillräckligt utrymme.”
93 Johansson “Hur bor vårt folk?”, 11. “Förekomsten av ett matbord i vardagsrummet
betyder sålunda inte med nödvändighet, att man äter där. Av de 100 undersökta
lägenheterna hade 80 matbord i vardagsrummet, men av dessa bord stodo inte mindre
än 55 oanvända utom vid festliga tillfällen, och endast 11 voro i dagligt bruk. Men inte
ens frånvaron av ett matbord behöver betyda att man inte äter i vardagsrummet. Det
händer, att man flyttar in ett bord från ett annat rum eller från vinden.”

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Similarly, both writing desks and sofa beds, that many had in the living room, were would then be part of the household for many years to come. What was promoted
mostly unused, while activities of reading, writing and sleeping happened in other instead, was buying single-piece furniture, cash on the barrel with no down-
parts of the home. Understanding how the rooms of the apartment were used in payments, only acquiring the pieces needed at that specific moment and with
relation to the functions identified, required a closer study of how furniture was the money one had available. Adding things and furnishings to the household as
both placed and used. the family grew and needs changed was something that should come later. This
was the theme for many publications and information initiatives from a variety of
The influence of furniture on use sources, e.g. the cooperative consumer unions as well as in government subsidies
During the SAR and SSF dwelling investigation, and even more so in the later and interventions connected to housing and finances. But did these messages
analysis of the material, the specific types of furniture people had was identified as come across, and had peoples’ habits of buying and furnishing actually changed?
playing a decisive role in the way apartments were initially set up, and then used. In the dwelling survey conducted by Waern Bugge and Huldt as part of the
An idea that had a strong presence in modernist design theory, as well as in the evaluation of the use of government dwelling loans and published in 1943, a primary
writings of proponents of home reform in general, was that if people were given task was to find out if the loans in practice had any effect on the types of furniture
the opportunity to live in well-planned dwellings produced according to rational purchased, and to the quality of home life achieved. The loans had been successful
principles, this would not only address the issues of overcrowded and cramped in supporting more young couples to set up home – there had noticeably been an in-
living conditions but also induce a substantial change in how everyday life was crease in marriages. However, the results showed that difficulties for young couples
led. If people were given enough space, together with information and education in finding both adequate housing and suitable furniture had led to “the young home
on other ways of setting up the home rather than the ‘traditional’ or ‘conventional’ in our country has developed a form, that only to a very low degree responds to the
way, they would eventually embrace the possibility to furnish according to the demands of everyday life and that is very poorly suited for a family with children.”94
needs of the family. This, in turn, would provide the basis for different ways of life. In choosing which things to buy, young people satisfied their “imaginary
For people engaged in attempting to reform housing and furnishing, these needs” due to lack of knowledge and misguided ambitions in combination with a
issues were seen as intrinsically linked to making changes on a societal level: A lack of adequate housing. Young homes in Sweden were primarily dominated by
different home life, labour-saving and function-based, could support a more “child-unfriendly dwellings with child-unfriendly dwelling habits”, since the lack
egalitarian way of life in the home as well as in society. How people could engage of bedrooms in combination with the parlour system made the home ill-suited for
in societal democratic processes, and what was seen as the range of potential for child-rearing.95 The dangers were that the habits of buying representative furniture
personal development of men, women, and children was substantially different or – even worse radios or bar cabinets – instead of things that were actually needed,
from the conditions of previous generations: this should also be materially was too firmly rooted. In the report, this was exemplified with a couple in northern
manifested in the home. Sweden who had spent more than half of their loan on buying an expensive suite
That things – furniture, fittings and everyday objects – were essential to of furniture for the living room and then only having 25 crowns left to spend on a
consider in relation to making a different life possible had been on the reform bed, they bought a one-person camping bed, which they both shared.96
agenda in Sweden since the turn of the century 1900. However, the main emphasis The choice of furniture and its placement in the home seemed to be a
had then been on bringing about a substantial production and distribution of decisive factor for how the home was used. In many cases studied by Waern
everyday goods, making it possible for people as consumers to buy the ‘right’ Bugge and Huldt, this was neither in line with the intended nor the real functions
things. Education and information directed towards promoting guidance for what of either furniture or room, and it was practically impossible to understand how
types of things would be preferable to purchase were to a substantial extent based space was used based on how it was furnished:
on what was imaginable at that time.
The inquiries into ‘dwelling habits’ showed that most people in Sweden, One cannot, in other words, directly from a room’s furnishing deduce its
during the early decades of the 20th century, would invest in buying the bulk of functions. The existence of a bed does not necessarily mean that someone
sleeps in the room, a dining table that one eats there, or a desk that one writes
their furniture and household objects when they were married and set up their
there. On the other hand, the lack of a piece of furniture does not mean that the
first home. After that, the home would not change much in terms of which material associated function does not take place in the room. A bed or a table can at the
things were added to it. Therefore, much of the attention in home reform came to moment of use be moved from another room or a special storage place, writing
focus on how to affect decisions about which items to buy. If people only buy work can just as well happen at a dining table or any other table as at a desk or
things – substantial things, like furniture – on one occasion in their life, that very
first act of purchasing something became the most critical situation to influence.
Many strategies and initiatives aiming at home reform came to target
that specific moment of consumption, the one and almost only occasion when 94 “Ungdomen behöver vägledning vid hembildningen” Form
1943:1, 22.
people would buy their costly furniture, committing to a down-payment plan
95 “Ungdomen behöver vägledning vid hembildningen” Form
that would last for decades to come. It became important to convince people to 1943:1, 24.
buy ‘appropriate’ things based on their ‘actual’ needs. Another practice that came 96 Waern Bugge & Huldt’s rapport, 26. Arkitekturmuseets arkiv,
under scrutiny was the buying of expensive multi-piece sets of ‘suite furniture’ that SAR & SSF bostadsutredning vol 50, Andra utredningar.

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a secretaire; yes – there are school children who have to do their homework at a The issue of overcrowded homes, for example, seemed like a reasonably
sewing machine or a chest of drawers.97 straightforward problem to solve. If one were to provide new housing according
to standards of minimum room sizes in relation to defined functions and peoples’
Why, then, was there such a discrepancy between functions, uses, and furniture? real needs, it would probably improve the situation of overcrowding. But the
In some cases, the difficulties lay in the mismatch between being stuck with a problems with designing dwellings adapted to many different people’s needs, and
certain collection of furniture when moving into a new apartment and not being also to a range of diverse instances of use, was a significant issue. How was one to
able to afford, or not wanting, to buy new things. The fault could also lie with the make sense out of which were rational dwelling habits that pointed to the need for
apartment, which could sometimes be designed so that a specific type of furniture designing differently? What was instead an irrational way of behaviour, that ought
could not be used. And, in some cases, “conventional ideas of how a room should to be addressed by designing apartments and furniture in ways that promoted or
be furnished” could be as conservative as the dwelling habits. limited certain practices? How could one direct the future use of things through
When studying furniture, some pieces were defined as tools, connected to a information and education that aimed at changing people’s understanding of their
specific function, and were analysed in relation to this. Other pieces of furniture own needs as well as their appreciation of certain types of things above others?
– such as the “suites of furniture”, sold in fixed sets – needed to be analysed in And how could these perspectives be brought into the work with establishing
relation to each other since these were “not only functionally motivated but norms and standards for building and other areas of design?
create, especially for certain rooms, an independent, more or less conventionally One of the aims of the dwelling habit investigations had been to lay the
combined unit”.98 It became clear to the investigators that the relations between foundations for establishing norms and standards for housing production on
rooms, use, and furniture were not at all straightforward to map or understand. a national level, as in the SAR and SSF investigation, and in private initiatives,
How people lived with and used their everyday environments defied the ideas of as the Industry investigation. This was compared to the similar way in which
rational and well-defined use in relation to function, that had been the starting standardisation of sizes and qualities had been carried out in industrial clothing
point for both designing modern housing as well as modern things. manufacture. But defining norms for dwellings would be much more difficult than
Home reform ideas, from Ellen Key’s turn-of-the-century writings to those standardising clothes sizes:
of the 1930s functionalists, had built on the conviction that people’s ways of using
objects and environments could be altered through designing other types of things But how are we to find the right standards? Aren’t all standards subjective to
than before. Better and more beautiful things would directly influence people’s ways begin with? The attainment of complete objectivity is naturally impossible, but
of living and behaving. In a sense, this meant that what was expected from design that should be no excuse for not trying to attain it within reason. The mass-
outcomes, was that people would use things as intended by designers – also when produced dwelling cannot be given as individual a fit as the ready-made suit
that included changing behaviours as a consequence of how things were designed. – the housing problem contains too many factors to permit such a solution.
But some of these factors can be objectively charted and measured. To begin
The dwelling surveys indicated that the multifaceted uses of things could
with the kitchen, it requieres (sic) certain work-places and storage units, whose
not always be understood in terms of rational intentions or expected behaviours.
correct dimensions and locations can be determined by study. A bedroom may
The reasons for how and why people used things could not be pinned down in be large or small, but should have enough room for one or two beds of given
ways that were easily overviewed or understood. This, in turn, led to difficulties in dimensions. The space needed for a dining place can be calculated if one knows
deciding on which courses of action to take to provide better housing, and how to how many persons are to make use of it, etc. The dwelling can only be properly
achieve behavioural changes in everyday life. standardised through careful study of its functions and the needs of occupants.99

97 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 109. “Man The difficulties in design when incorporating aspects of actual use came to the
kan med andra ord inte utan vidare av ett rums möblering fore in the dilemma of how to bring in the complex realities of everyday life in
sluta sig till dess funktioner. Förekomsten av en bäddmöbel the home into the design work of defining general standards and requirements
betyder inte med nödvändighet, att någon sover i rummet, for housing. In the attempts to make a different way of living possible through
ett matbord, att man äter där, eller ett skrivbord, att man
design interventions in dwellings and the design of everyday objects, the tensions
skriver där. Å andra sidan behöver avsaknaden av en möbel
between what was predictable and what was not, in terms of future use, were
inte betyda, att den därmed förbundna funktionen inte
förekommer i rummet. En bädd eller ett matbord kan vid brought to the fore. Everyday life would most likely always include practices that
användningen flyttas in från ett annat rum eller från en were hard or impossible to preconceive or understand in design. However, this
särskild förvaringsplats, skrivarbete kan lika väl försiggå did not mean that design should not provide certain frameworks that would
vid ett matbord eller vilket annat bod som helst som vid ett prescribe certain uses of the dwelling and its objects. What was most difficult,
skrivbord eller en sekretär, ja det finns skolbarn, som få göra was distinguishing which sorts of use should bring input for designing, and which
sitt läxarbete vid en symaskin eller en byrå.” use should be eradicated through design outcomes.
98 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 110. “Men
möblerna äro, som redan antytts, inte bara funktionellt
betingade utan bilda, särskilt för vissa rum, en självständig, mer
eller mindre konventionellt sammansatt enhet, möblemanget.” 99 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 23.

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Bringing ‘use’ into design Designing new apartments should, instead, take the starting point in both actu-
al use and in the wishes and suggestions from people. Designers should make
In the SAR and SSF study, the reasons for studying everyday life in the dwelling well-informed decisions in matters where the design intent in regard to defined
were explicitly discussed in relation to its design. Since a fundamental issue with needs, functions, and peoples’ wishes should come first:
mass-produced modern housing was the dilemma that the “owner-occupier”
in the majority of cases had no possibility to “influence the layout and design By studying how the dwelling is actually used and recording the observations
and desiderata of the occupants, housing researchers try to get an idea of how a
through architects and contractors”, it was necessary to find other ways of bringing
dwelling should be designed in order to fulfil its functions and to meet the needs
in aspects of actual use into the process of designing dwellings. The methodology
of the occupants.103
applied in the dwelling investigations was an attempt to lay the foundations for a
user-centered design approach in which both observations of and the active input
The designer/researcher must, therefore, find a way to balance the quantitative
from people was aimed to influence the outcome of new forms of dwellings, and
study with the investigations into people’s behaviour and wishes and analyse
also new types of furnishings.
how to lay a foundation for further research and experimentation. The important
People’s experiences were needed in the process of designing dwellings, but
thing was to find out was how to distinguish between dwelling habits that might
to both understand and evaluate this input, the actual ways of using the dwell-
seem strange, but that were caused by different circumstances that could be more
ing had to be systematically and objectively assessed. With methods and general
than reasonable, and practices that were not founded in needs or intentions, but
theoretical assumptions borrowed from the newly introduced modern American
were irrational remnants of traditional ways of living perpetuated without con-
sociology, finding out how people really used homes could serve as the starting
sideration. This was important to separate since any bad habits caused by under-
point for reconsidering how dwellings should be designed. Earlier attempts to
standable difficulties could be addressed through designing things differently to
provide modern housing, in the aftermath of the 1930 Stockholm exhibition, had
support the unknown needs, while bad habits without rational foundation would
arrived at solutions that by the 1940s had proven “to be illusory, mainly because
need to be addressed in other ways:
the architects have underestimated the significance of dwelling habits.”100
In an article in the journal Form from 1945, the project leader for the dwelling It is not necessarily the dwellers’, but can also be the dwelling’s fault, that this is
investigation Gotthard Johansson summarised and discussed the main findings used in a way that one has become accustomed to regard as bad dwelling habits.104
of the SAR and SSF investigation of dwelling habits. “A real knowledge”, he stated,
“of how the Swedish people live is the first condition for creating better dwellings In order to design for both current and future needs of people, the designer would
and for getting people to use them in a better way.”101 In handling issues of how have to balance the input from people regarding how they actually used their
to improve the living situation for people, both architects and inhabitants often homes, with design constraints as well as the foreseeable futures made possible
have gotten things wrong, since they disregarded the real conditions under which through design. In the analyses of the dwelling surveys, warnings were raised
people lived and instead promoted ideal ways of living: concerning taking people’s input too literally, since that would entail a risk of
designing too much based on current use than for future, desired, use:
When it comes to the relation between the dwelling and dwelling habits, I have
often especially in radical circles of architects met the opinion: ‘What interests The pursuit of a function analysis along purely logical lines is liable to belittle
us is not how people live but how they should live’. On the other hand, I have the actual dwelling habits; but if we proceed from these habits, we run the risk
often in public discussions heard those who represent or consider themselves of becoming too involved in existing conditions and thus tempted to preserve
to represent the dwellers state that: ‘Just give us enough space, and we’ll surely the bad dwelling habits along with the good.105
use it. We don’t need to learn how to live!’ Both standpoints are equally wrong.102
A certain measure of prescriptive or normative constraints in the dwelling plan
100 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 24.
and furnishing needed to be actualised, if a break with old social and formal norms
101 Gotthard Johansson, “Hur bor vårt folk? Bostadsvanorna
utforskas”, Form 1945:1, 8. “En verklig kännedom om hur svenska were to be made in favour of new ways of living that enabled more egalitarian and
folket bor är den första förutsättningen både för att skapa bättre emancipatory lifestyles. How would one find a way to balance prescriptive approaches
bostäder och få folk att använda bostäderna på ett bättre sätt.” in relation to openness for including various potential types of future use in designing?
102 Johansson, “Hur bor vårt folk?” “När det gäller förhållandet And to what extent should current input from users weigh into designing?
mellan bostaden och bostadsvanorna, har jag särkilt i radikala
arkitektkretsar ofta stött på den uppfattningen: “Det som
intresserar oss är inte hur folk bor utan hur de bör bo.” Å 103 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 24.
andra sidan har jag ofta i offentliga diskussioner från dem 104 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 27. “Det
som representerat eller ansett sig representera de boende behöver inte heller alltid vara de boendes utan kan också vara
själva, fått höra: “Skaffa oss bara tillräckligt utrymme, så kan bostadens fel, att denna användes på ett sätt, som man vant
vi nog använda det. Vi behöver inte lära oss att bo!” Bägge sig vid att betrakta som dåliga bostadsvanor.”
inställningarna äro lika felaktiga.” 105 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 24.

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What should change – use or design? There are well situated middle-class families where the wife’s interest in “interior
While the combination of interviews, observations, and diaries would provide a decoration” has resulted in the amassment of all sorts of knickknacks, and there
certain insight into what people did in, and thought about, their home, this gave rise are others where one with simple means has made do in a rational and practical
manner. There are grumblers who complain about everything, and there are
to issues relating to how to handle people’s input as users of things and environments
those who are happy with almost anything. There is, overall, a scale of human
in the process of designing. Methodologically, it was stressed, the questions of what
attitudes and reactions, of shifts in atmosphere and environment, that cannot
one wants to know need to be tightly linked to how one would go about planning and be drawn in any furnishing plan or registered in any table.108
conducting the research. Given that the intent with dwelling investigations differed,
the views on use were also approached in slightly different ways. The complex and often contradicting ways in which people lived with things in the
In the case of the investigation tied to dwelling loans, the main issue at hand home was something that was at odds with most previous understandings of what
was to find ways to directly influence people to buy truly useful things for their a rational use of the home ought to be like. A general idea, widespread in home
homes. The conclusion in that study was that people needed to be educated reform and architecture circles, had been that one issue to come to terms with,
in which things to buy to match their “true” needs. The ways people used their were stereotypical home environments. The general idea was that most people
homes, and their things, was wrong and needed to be corrected through ways used and furnished their apartments in more or less the same – problematic – way,
that would push actual use towards the design intent. The need for education was and that this was the main issue to be solved:
also highlighted in the industry survey, but there rather in relation to the use of the
dwelling as such, and not so much in regard to things or furniture. People needed How often had one not heard from people, who thought themselves to have
guidance as they moved from smaller to larger apartments, but not necessarily in experience of these things, that all modern small apartments looked exactly
the sense of prescribing certain furnishings above others. Instead, the functions the same, that all families made their lives in the same way, and that the use
of the rooms needed to be clarified, so that people would understand, e.g. how to and furnishing of the dwelling was so bound to a conventional scheme, that the
use a living room in the best way. monotony and lack of individual variation was seen to be the main problem.109
The intent with the SAR and SSF study was to form a solid foundation for
the design of better dwellings, highlighting the connections between “floor plan, On the surface, as documented in furnishing plans, types and placements of fur-
fittings and furnishings [are] of value to be able to pinpoint the connection between niture were indeed very similar in many homes. Schematic illustrations in the
dwelling and dwelling habits, between the apartment and its use, between what one dwelling surveys would outline all the possible combinations of arrangements of
has and what one wishes.”106 Since the questions asked in the initial stages of the SAR furniture in the different types of apartments included in the studies. Some ‘irra-
and SSF project were fairly easy to formulate in relation to the very tangible aim of tional’ ways of placing furniture were attributed to the way the apartments were
creating “a concrete basis for the theoretical study of the dwelling’s functions and planned, that only allowed for certain furniture placement.
spatial needs”, it had also been relatively easy to pose the questions of where one In the dwelling loan survey, for example, the evolutionary stages of parlour
eats, sleeps, what activities go on in the living room and so forth. furnishing were mapped both in relation to the placement of furniture and to the
But upon trying to analyse the answers to these questions of everyday types and styles of objects. From ‘bourgeois’ with the dining table in the middle
use, neither the methods nor the results were straightforward to handle and of the room to the more modern version where the furnishing is made according
understand. The investigators quite soon discovered that only very rarely were to “clearly marked function groups” of undecorated furniture.110 But when more
the answers direct and univocal: “Completely contrary to what one earlier, in in-depth analyses of the material were made, it became clear that almost no two
general, had believed and often had assured, the dwelling habits were very
varied, disparate, and unstable.”107 People’s ways of using and relating to their 108 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 46. “Där
homes differed immensely, in ways that could not be captured, neither systematic finns välsituerade medelklassfamiljer, i vilka fruns intresse
för ’heminredning’ resulterat i en anhopning av allsköns
quantitative study nor attributed to any specific social factors:
krimskrams, och där finns andra, där man med enkla medel
inrättat sig praktiskt och rationellt. Där finns över huvud
en atmosfär och miljö, som inte kunna inritas på någon
möbleringsplan eller registreras i någon tabell.”
106 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 30. “…en 109 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 47-48. “Hur
beskrivning av de undersökta bostädernas planlösning, ofta hade man inte fått höra av personer, som ansågo sig äga
inredning och möblering [är] av värde för att kunna fastställa erfarenhet av dessa ting, att alla moderna smålägenheter sågo
sambandet mellan bostad och bostadsvanor, mellan precis likadana ut, att alla familjer inrättade sig på samma
lägenheten och dess användning, mellan vad man har och sätt och i fråga om bostadens användning och möblering
vad man önskar sig.” voro så bundna av ett konventionellt schema, att själva
107 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 47. “Alldeles enformigheten och bristen på individuella variationer syntes
tvärtemot vad man tidigare i allmänhet föreställt sig och ofta utgöra det egentliga problemet.”
försäkrat, visade sig bostadsvanorna vara mycket varierande, 110 “Ungdomen behöver vägledning vid hembildningen,” Form
oenhetliga och instabila.” 1943:1, 22-26.

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families would use their home in the same way, despite having furnished them
in similar ways. Similarities between the homes could be attributed only to the
styles and types of furniture, and in many cases to how these were placed in the
dwelling. But concerning the use of rooms and things, the variations in use were
more substantial than the similarities.111
The conclusion was that more research was needed to distinguish between
poor dwelling habits with a rational foundation, caused by faults in planning
and design of dwellings, and those that were caused by routines inherited from
outdated social norms. Some findings, both in regard to people’s feedback and to
the observations made, already showed that certain dwelling habits were caused
by faulty dwelling design, such as the tiny kitchens and dinettes. These needed
to be addressed in new standards and different designs for housing. But equally
important would be to pinpoint dwelling habits that were built on convention, and
that caused “hygienic, social and practical problems”. These must be eradicated
through designing different ways of behaviour in the home, through the design of
material things and environments. Additionally, education and information must
be intensified and also adapted to how people actually live, and how the functional
needs, as well as the more socially grounded wishes of people, could be catered to:

If the dwelling in this way is adapted to the dwelling habits, there must also be an
interaction in the opposite direction. One must consider if it is more rational to
adapt the dwelling plan to the dwelling habits, or vice versa. A habit, founded in
convention and lack of knowledge should not be made the norm for a dwelling plan.
It will of course take a very substantial information campaign to influence people
to change their views and habits, but on the other hand there have hardly been any
general dwelling habits developed in modern two-room apartments, since the
industry workers mainly live in outdated apartments of one room and kitchen.112

In the material gathered from the surveys of dwelling habits, the ambition to
give voice to people’s opinions, needs and practices in the process of designing
comes across clearly. However, equally apparent as the intent to bring in a greater
understanding of the how and the why people use their homes in certain ways,
was the intent to shape specific future practices in the home to align better with
That’s the way we want it. Broschure based on the first study the design intent. To work with this forming of future uses – and users – one must
circle in dwelling knowledge in Gustafsberg, 1944. not make the same mistakes that previous “radical architects” and “societal
improvers” had made, of paying too little attention to reality and over-emphasising
the ideal intentions while being:

111 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 48.

112 Jöran Curman “Industriens bostadsutredning” Form
1943:7-8, 120. “Om bostadsplatsen på detta sätt anpassas till
bostadsvanorna, måste även i motsatt riktning en växelverkan
äga rum. Man måste överväga om det är rationellare att anpassa
bostadsplanen efter bostadsvanorna eller tvärt om. En vana, som
grundar sig på slentrian och bristande kunskap bör ju ej göras
normgivande före en bostadsplan. Det fordras visserligen en
mycket kraftig propagandakampanj för att påverka människor till
att ändra på sina åsikter och vanor, men å andra sidan ha några
allmänna bostadsvanor knappast hunnit utbildas i moderna två
rum och kökslägenheter, då industriarbetarna för närvarande
mest bo i omoderna lägenheter på ett rum och kök.”

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so dedicated towards how the dwelling should be used – i.e. in regard to the dwelling investigators became a reality, when the city of Stockholm instated
one’s own opinion of its use – that one has lacked interest for the question of the function of a “dwelling counsellor” that would advise young couples asking for
how it is actually used and regarded opinions and wishes from them, whose dwelling loans in regard to matching their planned purchases to both their needs
dwelling situation one has wanted to improve, as irrelevant for the solution of and their financial situation.114
the problem. Such an attitude is not uncommon amongst those who wish to
The educational efforts that formed the basis for the Bosättning brochure, as
improve society, but it is nonetheless out of touch with reality.113
well as for the counselling service, were based in similar ideas as those that had
been promoted by Ellen Key and others at the turn of the century. Educating people
Educating users in matters of taste was seen as a needed training of the faculty of judgement, that
The results of the dwelling surveys came to provide arguments that legitimised people needed to be able to apply in relation to a broad understanding of social
the home as an arena for socio-political intervention and made possible the issues as well as their individual needs and personal preferences.
incorporation of issues regarding life in the home as well as questions of interior Taste, then, was seen as something broader and deeper than subjective
decoration into public debate and government policy. Conclusions in the different opinions on what was pleasing or what things looked like. The faculty of taste was
dwelling surveys indicated that it would not be enough to focus only on the design important when choosing the appropriate material environment for ones’ daily
and production of new types of dwellings and things. Education and information life, since that was seen as formative for the practices that could – and should –
were needed to shape people’s understanding and use of the home. This came to take place in the home, as well as a manifestation of adherence to a particular
unite organisations and associations of different ideological and political views in view on society. The explicit ambition was to strengthen democracy and equal
efforts to, in a sense, ‘form users’ that would adapt to handling modern ways of life. opportunities for people:
The housing issues, and questions of how to address issues of people’s
everyday behaviour in the home, came to be established as a matter of concern that the young home is created in closer conformity to the demands and
that resulted in different actions aiming towards home reform as well as the design possibilities of the times. It has been produced with the conscious knowledge
of new sorts of things and dwellings. A low standard of living, which during the that the classless home, the type home of democracy, can only be formed in a
early 20th century above all was seen as a moral and hygienic problem, towards state of larger freedom from conventional and traditional delusions through a
mid-century more and more was defined as something that prevented the simpler and natural selection of everyday things and increased knowledge of
individual from evolving into a modern and democratic citizen. fitness to purpose and quality.115
Home reform during the 1940s, therefore, aimed at changing the lifestyles
not only of the working class but also of the middle class, as part of a more exten-
sive societal program of empowerment and emancipation. What people needed Designing democracy
to be liberated from, in this view, were norms and conventions that stood in the In December of 1943, when the brochure Bosättning was presented, the repre-
way of people being able to fully embrace the advantages of full citizenship in a sentatives of a variety of national popular movements were invited by the Svenska
modern, democratic, society. In order to enlighten people, education in matters slöjdföreningen to a conference on the theme of housing and interior decoration.
of everyday home life and interior furnishing was deemed necessary. The aim for the SSF was to involve all of the Swedish national movements such
Questions of how to promote a modern use and furnishing of the home had as the Temperance Movement, and various educational associations, women’s
been brought up on the political agenda in relation to the dwelling loans in 1943. organisations, youth movements, unions and the consumer cooperation in the
Then, the Slöjdföreningen was asked by the state department of social affairs and practice of educating people in dwelling knowledge and interior decoration. At
the Swedish Riksbank to produce a brochure on rational interior decoration, this conference, the support from these organisations for the home reform project
that could be distributed to everyone who applied for a dwelling loan. When the presented by the SSF was unanimous.
brochure Bosättning (Setting up home) was published in 1944, it demonstrated how A decision was made to form a committee, headed by the SSF, to work
to create a modern home within the financial limits of the dwelling loans, and how with the practical arrangements of how to teach ‘dwelling knowledge’. The Bo-
to choose the appropriate furniture for ones’ needs as individuals as well as from kommittén (the Dwelling Committee) was formed in 1944. The SSF was the
the perspective of a family. The same year, another of the suggestions proposed by organisational centre, and the funding of the committee’s work was given in
equal amounts both from LO, the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, and from
the Industriförbundet, th Federation of Swedish Industries. Representatives from
different national movements took part in the committee. They united their efforts
113 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 28. “…så inriktad
på hur bostaden bör användas – d.v.s. hur man själv ansett,
att den bör användas – att man saknat intresse för frågan hur
den i verkligheten användes och betraktat synpunkter och 114 Centrum för Näringslivshistoria, Föreningen Svensk Form 7069:1,
önskemål hos dem, vilkas bostadsförhållanden man velat F1:104, mapp 629, “Motioner i andra kammaren, nr 161. Av fru Humla
förbättra, som problemets lösning ovidkommande. En sådan m.fl. angående anslag till Svenska slöjdföreningen för anordnande av en
attityd är inte ovanlig hos samhällsförbättrare, men den är utbildningskurs för bosättningskonsulenter m.m. [ort, år,]”, 8-10.
inte desto mindre verklighetsfrämmande.” 115 Åke H Huldt & Ingeborg Waern Bugge Bosättning (Stockholm, 1944).

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to educate people in matters of taste and everyday practices under the motto
“Better homes – better society”.116
The first study circle in dwelling knowledge was held in the town Gustavsberg,
in cooperation with the porcelain factory Gustafsberg not far from Stockholm, in
1944 with SSF’s Lena Larsson as one of the circle leaders.
The participants gathered once or twice a week, during six to eight weeks, for
introductory lectures by circle leaders from the SSF. After the talk, there would be
discussions and exercises so that the participants could analyse and practically
exercise the theme for the evening.
Keeping to a democratic and participatory study format throughout the
course was central to the pedagogical foundation of the study circle, which was
also expressed by the chair of the Gustafsberg study circle, Mrs Alice Pettersson:
“We are thankful to our leaders from Svenska slöjdföreningen, who have come
to us not as teachers but as good comrades with empathy for our problems
while generously sharing their expertise”.117 At the end of the whole course, the
study group arranged a public exhibition of one or more apartments that they
themselves furnished and decorated. Following the model of the Gustafsberg
study circle, the Dwelling committee supported adult education classes and
courses in interior decoration and dwelling knowledge all over Sweden. Over ten
years, from 1944 to 1954, more than 300 courses in interior decoration were held
with the support or participation of the SSF.118
These courses aiming to teach people to form their everyday material
environment differently became a great success for the Dwelling committee. One
reason for this was that the program of rational home reform was not identified as an
end in itself, but as a means towards a goal that many different organisations could
unite around: the creation of a democratic society. Different groups engaged in
education and home reform had diverse motives for supporting the SSF courses and
other initiatives taken to “elevate taste” and teach people how to use their homes.
But all of them could unite around the idea that changing uses and practices in the
home was central as a means of building a different, and better, society.

116 After two years, the financial support from the unions
and industrial leadership ceased, but there were still
representatives from them in the committee. Eventually,
in 1946, the committee was transformed into the SSF:s
Study Department. But the work initiated by the Dwelling
committee in the first couple of years set the standards for
how teaching ‘dwelling knowledge’ was to be done through
study circles and exhibitions all over Sweden during the
whole 1940s and 50s, until it later entered the public-school
curriculum in the late 1950s.
117 Så ska vi ha’t: Bo-cirkel propagerar för bättre hem (Stockholm
1946), 31.
118 These courses were commissioned from the SSF, and
targeted towards couples – and even if participant lists
show that a majority of attendees probably were women,
both men and women did join these. Maria Göransdotter,
Course leaders Lena Larsson and Erik Berglund prepare “Möbleringsfrågan: Om synen på heminredning i 1930- och
generative materials for dwelling knowledge study circles. 1940-talens bostadsvaneundersökningar”, Historisk tidskrift
Så ska vi ha’t, Gustafsbergscirkel propagerar för bättre hem. 1999:3, 444-474.

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In these educational endeavours, the main message was that the most
important thing to learn was the methods and principles of modern living –
understanding ones’ own needs, aspirations and potentials – rather than being
given pointers on what things to buy. The way things were used was more
important than what they looked like. As Gregor Paulsson, the director of the SSF,
said in the inaugural speech when the Dwelling committee was formed in 1944,
the ambition to bring about material, as well as behavioural reforms in the home,
was ultimately a way of laying the foundation for a democratic society:

Democracy is not only a constitution, but also a way of life. It is the nature of
the society we have built for ourselves, and even of society in its most concrete
sense. History teaches us, without a doubt, that the social and political structure
of society manifests itself in its exterior expression. [---] The popular movements
are democracy’s primary organ, and work towards realising certain cultural and
political goals. Together, they not only build democratic society, but democratic
man. Svenska Slöjdföreningen sets the final stone, so to say, in this construction
through endeavouring to give democracy its adequate environment.119

In histories of the Swedish welfare state, these initiatives have been described as
social engineering. Interventions aimed at reforming people’s private domain,
the home, has been interpreted as a civilising and normative project of social
engineering and control over the individual. And from one perspective, that is
hardly the case to dispute. But if we take another perspective, and regard these
initiatives in the light of emerging practices of user-centered design, another
interpretation could also be made.
This coming together around interior decoration and material everyday prac-
tices could just as well be seen as a sort of participatory articulation of drawing
Course literature for study circle in dwelling knowledge. things together in relation to matters of concern. With the wide variety of organi-
Så ska vi ha’t, Gustafsbergscirkel propagerar för bättre hem. sations and associations represented in the Dwelling committee – from women’s
rights organisations and the temperance movement to industry representatives – we
could also argue that this is an instance of the coming together of different stake-
holders, of which many were struggling to give voice to issues that were not yet on
the political agenda.
In this context, inviting people to take part in study circles in interior decoration
to share the knowledge that would empower them in their roles as citizens, as well
as contributing to making material changes in their everyday life, was understood
by those engaged in it as a fundamentally emancipatory and empowering project:

119 Gregor Paulsson, “Demokratisk miljö. Hälsningsanförande vid S.S.F.:s

konferens på ‘Vår Gård’ den 7 december”, Form 1944:1, 2. “Demokrati är
inte blott en författning, utan också ett levnadssätt. Den är beskaffenheten
av det samhälle vi byggt upp åt oss, och även samhället i dess mest
konkreta mening. Historien lär oss otvetydigt, att samhället sociala och
politiska struktur visar sig i dess yttre beskaffenhet. [---] Folkrörelserna
äro demokratiens primära organ, som arbeta för realiserandet av
vissa kulturella och politiska mål. Tillsammans bygga de inte blott ett
demokratiskt samhälle utan också den demokratiska människan. Svenska
Slöjdföreningen lägger s.a.s. slutstenen i denna byggnad genom att arbeta
för att demokratien får en adekvat miljö.”

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It is a – unfortunately much too common – misunderstanding that the problem The concept of use, as approached in the context of dwelling surveys and
of interior design is to give an answer to the question if green is more beautiful home reform, was formed in a historical situation where the explicit intention
than red or the opposite in a certain context, and similar trivialities. The problem was to enable certain ways of using the home, while disabling others, through
of interior decoration is instead primarily a question of fitness to function and design. Simultaneously, active efforts were made to shape the ways people lived
quality, of a correct way of life and of our homes’ adherence to it. What one
on an everyday basis by initiating broad educational programs that targeted the
means with good taste is nothing else than the final consequences of utility.
“The beautiful is the brilliance of the true” as a philosopher so correctly put it.
consumption of certain things and specific ways to use them. This goes both for
the instrumental or rational use tied to enabling or fostering a particular individual
Svenska Slöjdföreningen does not strive to implement an aesthetic program, but it behaviour in relation to specific things or environments, and for a more collective
announces – and to its best ability seeks to solve – a cultural program. and systemic design program aiming to bring about new norms, practices and
socio-material (infra)structures that would support new ways of life.
The association strives to realise this program along two lines. Through As the different dwelling surveys showed, envisioning a particular use when
collaboration with production, it aims to achieve an improvement of items of designing does not necessarily mean that design intention is what will be played
furnishing, in quality as well as in form, wherewith the most important item, the out in actual use. What also came across already in the 1940s, in the attention to
dwelling itself, shall not be forgotten. Through education among the consumers, real versus ideal use, was that even if design intent and people’s appropriation and
it seeks to distribute knowledge about all the factors, that form part of the setting use of the design thing did not align, change of some sort did still come about. It
up and the use of a dwelling.120 might not take the expected trajectory, but it would make a difference – that then,
as a next step could form a new framework for future design proposals. If we were
to look at a couple of the aspects targeted in the dwelling design and educational
A historical understanding of ‘use’ efforts of the mid-20th century Sweden, some of these brought about actual and
intended change fairly fast, while others were less successful.
This prototypical history has provided a backdrop, or foundation, to the coming The way design was approached in these initiatives speaks to an awareness
about of Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design, as located in of negotiating the complicated relationship between design intent based on
domestic everyday settings rather than the military or professional work arenas definitions and precisions of functional needs and performances with the
usually referred to as where the ‘user’ comes into focus with the study of human unpredictable ways that people make design outcomes a part of their everyday
factors and ergonomics. Articulations of ideas of ‘use’ and ‘users’ in design life. While design decisions based on understandings of people’s current ways of
emerged in activities aiming to address housing issues and reforms of everyday using things could lead towards certain possible futures, they were also seen as
practices that different organisations engaged in during the first half of the 20th open for negotiations and other potential interpretations though how people used
century. In this process, the tensions between design intent and real use came them. As the dwelling investigations showed in the 1940s, designing with attention
to be explicitly considered and addressed, in ways that might also provide entry to use is about providing proposals and possibilities that in the end are difficult to
points to reflecting on how to negotiate the inherent tensions between ideal and control from a position of design intent, since these can always be actualised in
real, potentiality and actuality, in designing. other ways than expected – or not actualised at all – through use.
The new methods applied in the sphere of re-shaping the material and
120 Gregor Paulsson, “Demokratisk miljö”, 4. “Det är ett – tyvärr behavioural practices of everyday life in Sweden of the 1930s and 1940s targeted
alltför ofta återkommande – missförstånd, att det problem both how people acquire things, and the continued use and appropriation of
heminredningen sysslar med är att ge svar på frågan, om grönt things and the environments these formed as part of something that needed to
är vackrare än rött i ett visst sammanhang, eller motsatsen, be considered in designing.
och liknande oväsentligheter. Heminredningsproblemet With the introduction of the idea of incorporating studies of actual use in
är i stället i första hand en fråga om ändamålsenlighet och
order to design for future situations, the shift from seeing things as imbued with
kvalitet, om en riktig livsföring och våra hems anslutning
qualities of usefulness and purposefulness to seeing use as an emerging relational
till densamma. Vad man menar med god smak är ingenting
annat än de sista konsekvenserna av det funktionsenliga. ’Det practice emerged in the 1940s. In this context, we can also see the beginning of the
sköna är glansen över det sanna’, har en filosof riktigt sagt. formulation of ‘the user’ as necessary to have included in the process of designing,
Svenska Slöjdföreningen kämpar därför inte för realiserandet not least through the ambition to shape correct use through education. This was
av ett estetiskt program, utan den förkunnar – och söker efter both explicitly expressed and linked to design of material things as well as to work
bästa förmåga lösa – ett kulturprogram. Detta program strävar towards political and social arenas to influence legislation and societal discourses.
föreningen att realisera efter två linjer. Genom samarbete med The attention to how the dwelling was used in practice opened up for discussing
produktionen strävar den att åstadkomma en förbättring av and re-visioning how life could be lived together – not only on a family level in the
bohagsvarorna, såväl i kvalitet som i form, varvid den viktigaste home, but on a societal level. Satisfying material needs with a focus on the practical,
varan, bostaden själv, icke glömmes. Genom upplysningsarbete
rational, use of the dwelling and its objects was perhaps not so much a goal in itself,
bland konsumenterna söker den bibringa kunskap om samtliga
as it was a means to both formulate and bring about ways of doing things differently.
de faktorer, som ingå i bildandet och begagnadet av en bostad.”

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Chapter 5 Use

Historians have pointed to the processes in which scientific methods and aims to open up processes and methods of designing for complex contexts,
“social engineering” were applied to change the everyday practices in the Swedish evolving relations and fluid constellations of people and non-humans, the
homes in normative and oppressive ways, aesthetically as well as socially.121 From concept of ‘users’ becomes more problematic.122 If the concept of ‘the user’ is
our contemporary perspective this is, of course, one very valid interpretation. But in play without attention to the implications of design intent embedded in the
when does a norm become a norm, and when is a challenge a challenge towards methods and processes applied in design, or even the notions or perceptions
“power” from a “marginalised” group? Where do processes shift, and when do carried by language and terminology, the directions and potential consequences
power structures solidify, so what was a challenge of an existing hierarchy or state of promoting a certain design intent become obscured.
of things, in turn, becomes the new hegemony? Projections of possible futures, and the potential future uses or situations
In 1940s Sweden, full participatory democracy was only two decades old. aimed for, are perhaps not expressly identified as always instrumentally pointing
The workers’ movement had turned the tables on traditional political governance towards a readily identifiable ‘user’. Nonetheless, since design inherently carries the
through pressing forth radical reforms allowing both workers and women funda- ambition to do something for someone, all designing will inevitably not only lead
mental political rights that had shifted the weight of decision-making power in so- towards what the ‘something’ might be but also towards which sort of ‘someone’
ciety. Reforms and activist movements opened up and advocated new forms of re- that thing is directed.123 People defined as ‘users’ are made and shaped in relation to
lationships between men and women, both in public and in private life. Traditional the current situations and contexts where designing takes its starting points.
norms and conventions governing social life were questioned, and radical new ways Increasing attention in design research has been turned towards the
of living seemed not only possible to strive for, but actually also plausible to achieve. development and prototyping of methods and approaches that would avoid
Bringing about radical change, politically and socially, was formulated as a limiting preconceptions or definitions for what and with whom design would
program aiming to transform Sweden into a democratic, classless and genuinely need to engage.124 Neither does design intent only reside with people identified
modern country. In this, the project of reforming material conditions linked to as ‘designers’ in a design process. In situations of co-designing, the intent is often
ideological and ideal visions of what it meant to be human in a modern, industrial both formulated and given form in collaborations where notions of the futures of
world. Design was not only about making material things but about creating new the design things being proposed and created are collectively imagined. As more
ways of thinking and acting. It was not enough to address issues of working life and open and collaborative spaces for articulating matters of concern are searched
industrial production, or secure that democratic principles governed institutions and probed, the roles and responsibilities (and response-abilities) identified in
and gave everyone the right to take part in processes of influence and governance. designing are undergoing significant shifts in articulation.125
Formal rights to vote, to work, to higher education, to medical care and so on The inherent tensions between the ideal and the real, between intent
were the infrastructures that could make a different way of life possible. Equally and adoption, embedded in the concept of ‘use’ since its emergence, does not
important was the transformation on the individual level that was seen as each necessarily have to be something negative. Nor does it have to be restrictive in
person’s responsibility for actually using the rights to take part in and to influence terms of supporting innovative or critical emerging design practices. It does,
society – which was linked to the ability to also use all aspects of everyday life to not however, need to be present and visible in terms of accountability, ethics and
only make that empowerment possible, but to actually become realised. considerations of power relations in designing as well as what the outcomes of
Embedded deeply in notions and the practices of Scandinavian user- ‘user’-oriented designing can afford.
centered design, lies the concept of not only designing things for a particular ‘use’, There are always values embedded in regard to what is considered appropriate
whether for or together with people. In this idea also lies implicitly that a particular or possible in relation to use, such as in participatory design practices characterised
design outcome should be adapted to a specifc sort of future user – and as such, as building further on a Scandinavian tradition.126 And as what we value changes
the ‘future user’ is also part of what becomes envisioned and designed. This is over time, what in a certain historical context was perceived as important for
not to say that designing users is necessarily problematic. Quite the contrary: In
many instances of design, a ‘tight fit’ between design intent and future use is both
122 Johan Redström & Heather Wiltse, Changing Things: The Future
desired and required.
of Objects in a Digital World (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).
A future user of specialised technologies or tools – be it in professional
123 Harold G. Nelson & Erik Stolterman, The Design Way:
fields or everyday situations – would not always be supported by leaving too Intentional Change in an Unpredictable World (Cambridge,
many flexible options for alternative uses open. But in instances where design MA: MIT Press, 2012), 47f.
124 Kristina Lindström & Åsa Ståhl, “Politics of inviting: Co-
121 Yvonne Hirdman “Utopia in the Home: An Essay” articulating issues in designerly public engagement”, in Design
International Journal of Political Economy 1992:22, 5-99; Anthropological Futures: Exploring Emergence, Intervention
Yvonne Hirdman, Att lägga livet tillrätta. Studier i svensk and Formation (London & New York: Bloomsbury Academic,
folkhemspolitik (1989) (Stockholm: Carlssons, 2000); Zandra 2016), 183-197.
Ahl & Emma Olsson, Svensk smak: Myter om den moderna 125 “The Lancaster Care Charter”, Design Issues 2019:1 (vol.35),
formen (Stockholm: Ordfront, 2001); Linda Rampell, En kritisk 73–77.
undersökning av det modernistiska projektet för design i Sverige, 126 J. Gregory, “Scandinavian approaches to participatory design”,
diss. (Lund, 2004). International Journal of Engineering Education 2003:1 (vol 19), 66.

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Chapter 5 Use

liberating or reconfiguring practices, in regard to certain norms and values, will in

another time be interpreted as restricting, normative and limiting.
Applying the concept of ‘use’ in design not only requires attention to the
process and future proposed situations of design in regard to the expectations
or limitations envisioned in future use. Going back to the historical contexts in
which ideas of ‘use’ became important to address in the process of designing, we
could argue that the concepts of ‘use’ and ‘user’ will most likely always come with
embedded understandings and mechanisms of intentionality and limitation in
regard to what ‘use’ can be.
To use something is to have an intent, a direction, an aim. It might align with
the intent, direction or aim formulated in the designing of the thing, or it might be in
conflict, resistance, or opposition to it.127 In any case, ‘use’ can really only consist in an
active engagement with something. For this reason, ‘user experience’ will also always
point to the experience of intentionally handling something for some purpose, rather
than other types of experiences that are not aimed or directed towards achieving a
specific result: “…what happens when we reduce the space for personal interpretation
of ‘use’ in our ambition to design for efficiency when our understanding – and indeed
the limits of what knowledge we can have access to during the design process – of ‘use’
cannot match the complexities and subtleties of actual use?”128
The importance lies in being aware of what is activated in terms of implicit
and explicit consequences when we talk of ‘use’ in design. Often, we want
to create the tight fit between design intent and use that this implies. But in
processes aiming to open up, or even question, relationships between people in
design situations, the notion of ‘users’ is likely to be more problematic. Rather
than trying to find ways to upheave or dismantle perceived problems associated
with dichotomies such as designer-user, or intended use-actual use, we might
approach these inherent conflicts historically embedded within the concept of
‘use’ as that which might make it possible to create openings for thinking and
doing things differently.

127 Mahmoud Keshavarz & Ramia Mazé, “Design and Dissensus:

Framing and Staging Participation in Design Research”,
Design Philosophy Papers 2013:1 (vol.11), 7–29; Carl DiSalvo,
Adversarial design (Cambridge, MA; MIT Press, 2012).
128 Redström, “Towards user design”, 134.

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Chapter 6 Methods

6. Methods

The attention to methods is central in design practice. Developing design

methods through experimentation and critical reflection is fundamental to both
commercial design and design research in how to address the continuously
changing situations for, and expectations on, design. However, the attention
to the historicity of design’s methods is minimal – if it even exists at all. I argue
that an awareness of design’s historicity needs to be part of critical inquiries for
approaching existing and emerging design methods, questioning what it means
for processes and outcomes of design its methods have come about in particular
historical situations.
In the following, I prototype a design history made from a perspective of
‘methods’, with the dual aim of making present historical ideas embedded in
designing, and of presenting a design history of Swedish user-centered design.1
This example takes a starting point in exploring historical aspects of how methods
in user-centered design have emerged in response to new contexts and challenges
for design. This prototype of a transitional design history is constructed in a way
that begins with establishing the conceptual lens for the study – in this case by
Archival material from the Hemmens forskningsinstitut. giving an outline of how the concept of ‘methods’ is central to design. After that,
Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv. the context is set through outlining a historical situation for the study, which here
builds both on the prototype presented in the previous chapter and on previous
historical research. This is then the context in relation to which the conceptual lens
of ‘methods’ is applied to a more specific location and situation. A brief glimpse
of the 1960s emergence of the British design methods movement is given, as this
is often identified as a springboard for initiatives aiming to develop new methods
for designing. The focus thereafter is on Swedish design-related organisations
of the 1930s and 1940s. Here, the source material springs from the Hemmens
forskningsinstitut (HFI, the Home Research Institute), and consists of different
types of written and visual documentation of the work carried out in the 1940s
intending to investigate and change domestic work practices.
I propose that design methods and approaches that came to the fore in
Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design in work-related contexts in the
latter decades of the 20th century, were to some extent already present in the contexts
of domestic research and home reform in 1940s Sweden. In the development of the
systematic studies of ‘dwelling habits’ discussed in the previous chapter, continuing
with deepened studies of domestic work practices and environments, iterative
processes, ergonomic studies, prototyping, and new methods for user participation,
were introduced in a context of designing. This precedes by about two decades what
is usually considered as the coming-to-be of user-centered and iterative methods in
Publications by Hemmens forskningsinstitut. In 1948-49 design, and calls into question what counts as relevant contexts for genealogies of
these covered small utensils for the home, processes of designing in design history and design practice.
conservation, and children’s situation in the home. As design has evolved, various methods and tools have been developed
to support practices of designing. Some of these, such as sketching, have been
around even since before industrialism brought about the split between designing

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Chapter 6 Methods

and making that called industrial design into being. Others, like brainstorming, Connecting the dots and building relationships
function analysis, user testing, and iterative prototyping have been developed between different citizens, stakeholders and partners.

or brought in from other fields of practice along the way to address new design
situations and new practices in designing. Most – if not all – of these methods are DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
still actively present in design. 1. Be People Centred

The situations in which these methods came about and the things they were 2. Communicate (Visually & Inclusively)
3. Collaborate & Co-Create
4. Iterate, Iterate, Iterate
made to handle and address are no longer present, but the ways of designing that
they gave rise to are still around. Embedded in how methods, tools, and processes
work and what they can do, are remnants of what the world was like, and what
designing was like when they came into being. Making visible the historical
dimensions of contemporary designing, aims to re-position the outlook of design CHALLENGE OUTCOME

doing in the present: What is it that we can expect our current – historical – design

D
is

er
e

ev
in
co

iv
methods to help us deal with, and what would it take to handle historicity when

ef

el

el
ve

op

D
r
aiming to develop other ways of thinking and doing design?
METHODS
BANK
Explore, Shape, Build

Methods in design
In the autumn of 2019, the British Design Council celebrated that 15 years had
Creating the conditions that allow innovation,
passed since its launch of the ‘double diamond’ visualisation of the design including culture change, skills and mindset.

process.2 On its website, articles described how a group of people at the Design
Council in the early years of the 21st century developed the ‘double diamond’ as a
general description aiming to cover the fundamental commonalities of all design
and innovation processes. The double diamond, depicting the design process as
© Design Cou
The ‘double diamond’ visualises a design process trajectory building on steps visualised by the Design Council. www.designcouncil.org.
of divergence and convergence, labelled ‘discover’, ‘define’, ‘develop’ and deliver’, uk/news-opinion/double-diamond-15-years
that in turn include several different methods aiming to support these steps.
The Design Council promotes its own “methods bank” which is described as a
“portfolio of design methods which help our clients to identify and address their
challenges and achieve successful outcomes”, sorting the methods in categories of those that explore challenges and needs, that shape prototypes and visions,
and that build ideas and expertise.3 These methods can be used by designers and
1 Maria Göransdotter & Johan Redström, “Design methods non-designers alike to support opening up and narrowing down an iterative and
and critical historiography: An example from Swedish user- collaborative process applied in order to find design solutions to problems or
centered design”, Design Issues 2018:2 (vol.34), 20-30. challenges, with the message that “whatever the question, design has an answer”.
2 Cat Drew, “The Double Diamond: 15 years on”, https://www. In the online description of its history, the Design Council points to the 1960s
designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/double-diamond-15- as when design methods and a process focus emerged in designing but states that
years (accessed 2020-06-10). there was then no commonly understood or shared model of the design process. In
3 Jonathan Ball, “The Double Diamond: A universally accepted
passing, names of eight men are listed as people who between the 1960s and 1990s
depiction of the design process” https://www.designcouncil.
org.uk/news-opinion/double-diamond-universally-
worked with ”models containing elements of divergence and convergence, cycles and
accepted-depiction-design-process (accessed 2020-06-10). iterative structures” of importance to developing the double diamond.4 Besides this,
4 Jonathan Ball, “The Double Diamond: A universally accepted the only references to past explorations carried out within design research and design
depiction of the design process” https://www.designcouncil. practice to develop the methods and process described by the Design Council are to
org.uk/news-opinion/double-diamond-universally- design consultancy IDEO, referred to as in practice running a double diamond design
accepted-depiction-design-process (accessed 2020-06-10). process already in the 1990s, but without visualising or labelling it as such.
5 IDEO “Design thinking defined”, https://designthinking. This way of presenting the design process and associated methods is relatively
ideo.com Retreived 2020-06-10. For collections of methods, common, not least in commercial design. Several companies and organisations
see for example IDEO’s Human Centered Design Kit highlight ‘design methods’ or ‘design thinking’ in easy-access formats as toolkits
https://www.ideo.com/post/design-kit (accessed 2020-
or method cards for “people who aren’t trained as designers to use creative tools
06-10), or Nahman’s Service design tool kit https://www.
servicedesigntoolkit.org Retrieved 2020-06-10.
to address a vast range of challenges”.5 One could argue that these simplified and

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Chapter 6 Methods

The conscious development of new design methods aims to support exploring

ways of opening up for different types of knowledge and experiences to be brought
into designing, aiming to address change and complexity.6 However, little attention
is given to what implications for present-day and emerging design practices that
might come into view if one were to explore the historicity of designing. When
historical perspectives are introduced in relation to designing, making a case for
the importance of temporal contextualisation, these temporal views seldom stretch
more than a decade or two from the near present.7 The temporal aspect – historical
and futural – of the design methods that new proposals for methods build on, reject
or relate to, is seldom addressed.
Seeing the present, the temporal ‘now’, as the springboard for design’s
movement towards making possible futures, requires paying attention to where
the present comes from: how we come to perceive this specific state of things as
the present. Approaching the questions of why these methods came about, and
how that formed not only new tools, techniques and processes in design will also
On the first page of the British Design Council’s web site, it need to highlight the actual ways in which these developments took place.
states that “Whatever the question, design has an answer”.
https://www.designcouncil.org.uk (2020-06-10). Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design
Prototyping tools and methods for user-centered and participatory designing
has been central to the establishment of a Scandinavian design tradition. Tools
for exploratory and generative practices, methods for bringing people together in
easily accessible entry points to designing have spread insights in society in general codesign situations, and infrastructures that allow for open-ended design processes,
and in both private and public sectors, which strengthen the presence of design has had a strong presence in commercial design as well as in community contexts
in many areas. One could also argue, that these understandings of designing as and research settings8.
based on easy-access, universal, methods and tools, reduce design to a procedure The centrality of methods can, for example, be seen in the Participatory
of producing problem-solving outcomes rather than seeing it as something that Design Conferences initiated in 1990, where papers discussing and proposing
addresses complex situations through proposing other possible futures. methods and tools were the most frequent contributions throughout the first
Design methods and processes seem to implicitly be perceived as recent, neutral,
and a-historical sets of pre-defined tools and techniques that can handle a variety
of situations. Design methods tend to simply be there, as something that can easily 6 Paul Gardien, Tom Djajadiningrat, Caroline Hummels,
be picked up from others’ explorations or toolkits be taught and learned in design & Aarnout Brombacher, “Changing your Hammer: The
education, and practiced and further developed through own design experiences. Implications of Paradigmatic Innovation for Design Practice”,
There is little awareness, it seems, of the where and how different methods International Journal of Design 2014:2 (vol.8), 119-139; Seyram
and processes have come about, and how they have come to be adopted in Avle, Silvia Lindtner, & Kaiton Williams, “How Methods
designing. There is perhaps even less appreciation of the time frames and the Make Designers”, in Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on
efforts required, that have made significant contributions to methodological human factors in computing systems (ACM, 2017), 472–483.
changes in designing. In other words, neither the historicity nor histories of 7 To give but two examples: Ìdil A. Gaziulusoy & Chris Ryan,
“Shifting Conversations for Sustainability Transitions Using
designing tend to be present in current practice and research in design.
Participatory Design Visioning” The Design Journal. 2017
While methods, on the one hand, are seen as ‘just being there’, the attempts to (vol.20, sup1), S1916–S1926; Liesbeth Huybrechts, Niels
alter the ways design is done has become increasingly focused in design practices Hendriks & Sarah Martens, “Counterfactual scripting:
during the latter half of the 20th century. Indeed, there are many examples of design challenging the temporality of participation” CoDesign:
research that emphatically emphasise that designing needs to change radically, Special issue: Participatory Design in an Era of Participation.
which would require substantial shifts in positioning and performing design. Guest editors: Rachel Charlotte Smith, Claus Bossen and
Over time, as new tools and methods are introduced and others continue Anne Marie Kanstrup. 2017:2 (vol.13), 96–109.
to be incrementally tweaked and altered, some ways of doing design tend to 8 Susanne Pagold, Function rules: En bok om Ergonomidesign
stabilise as core methods that become more or less taken for granted. These (Stockholm: Arvinius, 2006); Kerstin Wikström, A&E design:
methods once came about as radically new, in specific historical contexts where The book (Stockholm, 2018); Liam J. Bannon & Pelle Ehn,
“Design: Design Matters in Participatory Design” in Jesper
traditional methods no longer provided the support needed for addressing new
Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.) Routledge International
design situations. Handbook of Participatory Design (London: Routledge, 2012).

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Chapter 6 Methods

two decades of the conferences.9 Developing tools, theoretical foundations and brought about many tools, techniques and methods used in different stages of
methods for participation and involvement in design action is highly present also design processes, with different aims.12
in recent and emerging design practices, aiming towards finding methods for As participatory and user-centered design practices have evolved, initiatives
codesign and other more open-ended practices.10 The abundance of techniques towards expanding the range of methods for user insights and collaborative design
and tools developed to support participatory design practices have in turn led to work have to a large degree over the latest decades sprung from initatives “within”
the compilation of handbooks, toolkits and frameworks aiming to systematically design. Approaches, procedures and methods from other fields also continue
describe and group different methods in regard to the aims and contexts these to be bought into design, often through inter- and multidisciplinary projects
could be used in, as well as where tools and methods are lacking.11 and programs that aim to develop new ways of handling design situations and
Whether intending to support formulation and scope of a design endeavour, participatory practices. At the same time as ways of doing design continue to be
sharing of experiences, analysis and reflection, or making joint design decisions, explored and expanded, there are certain formats, terminologies and methods
the focus on methods and tools is prominent in user-centered and participatory that over time more or less have become “standard” to these design practices.
design. These often include working with different ways of making people come This might include the format of the ‘workshop’, the practices of ‘prototyping’, the
together, through introducing prototypes, mock-ups, scenarios, design games use of ‘ethnographic methods’ such as observations and probes, working with
and various tool-kits. The purposes of introducing for example lo-fi prototyping ‘generative tools’, and so on.
and workshop methodologies were not only to enable discussion and decision- The conceptual foundations of these terms, tools and methods have become
making in the design process but fundamentally also to bring forth other types so embedded in the way design is thought and done, that they are hardly thought
of knowledge in the process through practice. This design-by-doing approach of as once having been new and introduced into designing at some point. It
has, in combination with the introduction of ethnographic methodologies that would be quite difficult – and frankly not even very relevant – for designers to
aim to gain both broader and deeper insights into people’s actions and thinking, be knowledgeable of the history of each and every method or technique applied
in every design situation. Nevertheless, it would be necessary for designers to
9 Methods and tools are the “most well-described aspects of PD be aware of the fact that the tools and methods in their toolbox are historically
in the early proceedings” of PDC, between 1990-98, according shaped and carry with them certain implications for designing. Overcoming
to Ditte Amund Basballe, Kim Halskov and Nicolai Brodersen the a-historicity of designing could, then, begin with questioning what it means
Hansen, “The Early Shaping of Participatory Design at PDC”, for thinking and practicing design that its methods have emerged and become
in PDC’16 (Aarhus, 2016), 23; Kim Halskov and Nicolai established in specific historical contexts.
Brodersen Hansen, “The diversity of participatory design Acknowledging that the material things that enter our lives through design
research practice at PDC 2002-2012”, International Journal of will affect how we live and what we can do with them, in terms of their historicity,
Human-Computer Studies 2015:74, p. 83.
is not very hard. In our daily lives, we can all probably relate to experiences of how
10 For example, Kristina Lindström & Åsa Ståhl, Patchworking
designed environments, things, and systems sometimes manifest their historicity
publics-in-the-making: Design, media and public engagement,
(PhD diss., Malmö, 2014); Ezio Manzini, Design, When in terms that make us acutely aware of their outdated assumptions about who
Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for Social we are and how we wish to live: the scarcity of power outlets in older houses, the
Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2015). Per-Anders difficulty of biking with thin tyres on cobblestoned streets, the way many societal
Hillgren, Anna Seravalli & Anders Emilson, “Prototyping and institutions are built on heteronormative presumptions, or how ‘skin-coloured’
infrastructuring in design for social innovation”, CoDesign band-aids or nylon stockings tend to be light beige in colour.
2011:3-4, vol.7, pp. 169-183; Christopher A Le Dantec and It will often take a bit more of an effort to grasp that the way these things
Carl DiSalvo, “Infrastructuring and the formation of publics have come about – the methods and processes of designing – are themselves also
in participatory design”, Social Studies of Science 2013:43(2); designed things that carry a similar type of historicity that affects us daily. The
Susanne Bødker, Christian Dindler & Ole Sejer Iversen, “Tying
concepts design methods, tools, processes and ways of thinking are founded in
Knots: Participatory Infrastructuring at Work”, CSCW 2017:26,
have set the limits for what can be expected for design to take on, and what it can
245-273.
11 Elizabeth B.-N. Sanders, Eva Brandt & Thomas Binder, present as possible design outcomes. What becomes in a design process, and what
“A framework for organizing the tools and techniques comes out of it, is not only dependant on the situations in which the designing
of participatory design” Proceedings of the 11th Biennial takes place but on the situations in which the ways designing is done once have
Participatory Design Conference (Sydney, 2010), p. 195; Jesper come about. The methods applied in design, the premises on which they were
Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.), Routledge Handbook of built when they were invented or introduced in design will undoubtedly influence
Participatory Design (New York: Routledge, 2012); Elizabeth what design can and cannot do, and also what remains hidden and what is made
B.-N. Sanders & Jan Pieter Stappers, Convivial Toolbox: visible in design.
Generative Research for the Front End of Design (Amsterdam:
BIS, 2012); Mike Kuniavsky, Elizabeth Goodman & Andrea
Moed, Observing the User Experience: A Practitioner’s Guide to 12 Sanders et al., “A framework for organizing the tools and
User Research (Waltham, MA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2012). techniques of participatory design”, 195-198.

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Historical methods and considerations able to deal with the situation at hand. As many of these methods have been tried
Despite the centrality and attention to matters of methods and process in most and tested enough to be deemed appropriate for designing, they have become
user-centered and participatory design practices today, the historicity of the perceived as stable and belonging to core design skills and practices. Approaching
methods, tools and techniques applied in designing is seldom considered. If the historicity of these methods aims to make visible ideas and assumptions that
it is, it is mainly with reference to developments in the last decade or so, or – if can be questioned or called out in relation to which types of design situations
the historical time scale stretches beyond that – with a more sweeping pointing these methods now are expected to address.
to ‘tradition’. In participatory design research, for example, a quite common As design develops, the once-new methods that previously could support
formulation that points to the historical development of methods or perspectives design’s move into new areas, could perhaps nowadays instead make desired
in the field is that of ‘the Scandinavian participatory design tradition’. Here, ways of contemporary or future designing difficult. Making histories of design
methods referenced include tools and techniques for mutual learning in methods – of designing – contributes to probing the conceptual spaces in which
designing, as well as methods aiming to provide ways for non-designers to actively designing takes place, with the intent to shift perspectives and points of departure
take part in design work and processes. Only very rarely, it seems, are questions for design’s becoming otherwise. What we consider design to be, influences
raised of when and why these design methods once came about, and what the histories told about what designing has been, and through that also project
preceded the formulation of participatory design, initially called the “collective trajectories of what one could imagine designing to become.
resource approach”, in 1970s Scandinavia. Other potential histories will make visible other possible futures. How we
Historicity is neither considered in terms of the Nordic historical context perceive the present and futures made possible in and through designing both
leading up to the formulation of participatory design in the late 20th century, nor conditions and is conditioned by what we acknowledge as design’s past. The ways
in what it could mean that this sort of design did not just ‘emerge’, but that it came in which design is done in the present is formed and shaped by the past, and not
about in a situation where existing ideas and practices of past situations made only then by the histories we make of where design comes from. The historical
its formation possible. Considering that designing comes from somewhere, not situations in which our ways of understanding and making the world has come
from nowhere, should probably mean something for designing, in terms of the about will be re-enforced and re-produced in the ways and procedures that set the
embedded historical values or affordances at play when applied in contemporary directions for what types of things we make in design.
design situations. Through making design histories that are transitional in the sense that they
Similarly, investigations of histories of design methods have had very little are provisional, situated and changing as the understandings and practices of
presence in design history. While design historical scholarship has studied many designing changes, the aim is not to provide objective or definitive accounts of the
layers of historical contexts of design, the question of where, how, and why past as a stabilising account of what design is. Instead, the aim with transitional
various design methods came about is all but lacking in the history of design. histories is to support a shift in perspective that might also open up for other ways
In accounts of the early formation of industrial design in the US, attention is of thinking in design, by questioning things that are perhaps often considered
often drawn to the way that the formation of design consultancies incorporated non-issues or that are taken for granted.
methods from the emerging field of advertising and marketing that led to the The historicity of many methods used in design is, I propose, such a blind
adoption of specific types of user research, such as consumer surveys and market spot that could be investigated and questioned in order to make visible ways of
segmentation aiming for understanding consumer preferences.13 Alison Clarke doing and thinking that can be re-considered if we aspire to do design differently.
has pointed to the incorporation of ethnographic methods that came with the What if there were histories of the development of design methods that would
anthropological turn in design of the 1960s and 1970s, and the need for design enable us to see our, often invisible, assumptions of what we regard as design
historiographies that would include material outcomes of the 1970s ‘design for today, and therefore also what we go about searching for as ‘its’ history? How do
development’ practices as well as the methodological and political foundations we recognise design when we go searching for it in the past?
for these practices.14 However, when design history pays attention to methods, it is If the places and situations where new ways of designing were developed,
not usually the methods of designing but its own historiographical methodologies were not spoken of as ‘design’ at the time, and have not later appeared to be
which are in focus. relevant when searching for ‘design history’– how can we then begin to see the
blind spots of where our doing and thinking might stem from? How have design
Transitional design histories that explore the historicity of design methods address methods been developed historically, and what could that speak to in terms of the
the relations between stability and change in design practices. When new methods aims to develop yet new ways of designing for current and future potentialities?
have come about in design, these have been developed or imported to support In making this prototype of a design history of methods, I have, of course,
design’s expansion into areas where traditional ways of designing have not been applied methods of my own in doing so, which requires some considerations and
clarifications. To start with terminology: A method, in a standard definition, is a
13 See for example, Nic Maffei, Norman Bel Geddes: American plan of how to go about doing something, often for a particular purpose or aim. A
Design Visionary (London: Bloomsbury, 2018) method implies a systematic and practical approach to the type of action or doing
14 Alison Clarke, “Design for Development, ICSID and UNIDO:
aimed for, but can also refer to a combination of several linked ways of doing, or
The Anthropological Turn in 1970s Design”, Journal of Design
methods, brought together in a process.15
History 2016:1, vol.29, 43-57.

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When I state that this historical study takes its starting point in contemporary Working with the material from which to draw out a history of design
methods of designing, I refer both to combinations of methods spoken of as “design methods in a Scandinavian context, I have used archival and published material
process”, categories of methods gathered under a specific label such as “methods connected to several organisations and projects: the Svenska slöjdföreningen
for creativity”, and specific methods like “brainstorming” or “lo-fi prototyping”. (SSF) and the Swedish Architects’ association’s (SAR) investigation into dwelling
The closer we move towards specific methods, the more likely it is that other terms habits, the home life investigation by Brita Åkerman that had inspired that
can be used more or less as synonyms – which is often the case in texts dealing investigation, both discussed in the previous chapter, and the research institute
with design methods. In reference to different ways of supporting actions and HFI, Hemmens forskningsinstitut (The home research institute) that picked up on
perspectives in design, the terms ‘techniques’ and ‘tools’ are sometimes used themes from the previous two investigations.
in parallel to that of ‘method’. While these words are sometimes used almost However, I have chosen to begin with a brief overview from an Anglo-
interchangeably, I use ‘tool’ as something that is applied or enacted in order to American and context: the conference proceedings on ‘design methods’ from the
allow or enable the doing of something. A technique is a pre-defined procedure early 1960s and statements on methods as these appeared in publications from
that one can follow in order to achieve a specific result, and combine in sets of the design school HfG Ulm in that period. The reason for beginning there – despite
procedures. While these terms are linked, the differences between considering a the theme being Scandinavian user-centered design – is that these settings are the
way of doing something a ‘method’ or a ‘technique’ will imply different levels of ones most often pointed to in histories of where the concepts of “design methods”
openness or directedness in what could be expected. were initially formulated and developed. The later emergence of participatory and
user centered design in a Scandinavian context, in the 1970s and 1980s, and the
In positioning the outlook towards Swedish mid-20th century practices aiming for subsequent developments of methods based in this tradition, is usually understood
a design reform of everyday domestic life, I have searched for ideas and practices to build on the approaches formulated in the design methods movement in regard
that preceded the emergence of what became user-centered and participatory to how collaborative designing can be supported (see chapter 3).
Scandinavian design in the 1960s to 1980s, in regard to ‘methods’. When looking Building on the outlines of what in the period 1960-1980 was considered to
for material for this study, I have stayed quite close to the design contexts around be central to the new methods for designing that shifted the focus from product
the Svenska slöjdföreningen (SSF, Swedish Arts and Crafts Association), since to process in design work, the analysis of the Swedish material revolves around
that organisation has been a central node for many design initiatives and policy the search for earlier instances of the development and use of similar concepts or
proposals and in addition, is an actor that is highly present in much of the methods in the context of changing design practices.
established Swedish design history narrative.
Approaching the SSF through the studies made into housing and everyday Needs for new methods
dwelling practices of the early 1940s, I trace the formation and use of methods In the process of industrial design’s becoming a field of practice, responding to
in design to contexts of the rationalisation of domestic work that linked different societal, economic and industrial transformations, a core element has been the
persons and organisations to the SSF. In the archival and published material used development of different methods for designing. In the transition from crafts
for this study, I have searched for descriptions and discussions, implicit as well as to industrial production, methods were developed to support the separation
explicit, of practices and concepts relating to ‘methods’, ‘tools’ and ‘techniques’ of designing from production. Techniques and tools that honed in on creative
aiming to influence design processes and practices. practices and ways of working with exploring and defining qualities of visual and
While presenting a design history that is also complementary to existing design tangible form were developed based on crafts traditions as well as in relation to
historical narratives, this is mainly a proposal of how transitional design history emerging societal and technical contests.
could contribute to shifting perspectives on current issues in design. Methods are For example, the separation of making from production in designing led to
not neutral. Where and when these were developed will have an impact on the the Bauhaus formulation of the prototype as something not only representing a
values embedded in these, as well as on the types of design they can support. potential final, actual object to produce but as a support for the iterative process
In applying various tools and methods, there needs to be an awareness of of exploring of different possibilities and limitations in designing.16 Similarly, and
the historical situatedness from which these have sprung. If not, the world views, reacting to the move of design into societal situations and levels of complexity
norms and assumptions these methods are based on, as well as the historical that could not be handled or reduced to issues of visual or three-dimensional
traditions these carry, will be put into play in contemporary situations without form-giving, the design methods of the 1960s and 1970s proposed to introduce a
reflection on what this means for the trajectories we draw. With a historical plethora of methods, rationally described, that could form tools for designing in
perspective on how methods come about, we might also see other possibilities response to wicked problems and systems-level approaches.
in the present for different fields from which design could borrow and build The coming-about of the design methods movement built on expansions
processes, practices and tools that make sense for the sorts of open-ended in practices of designing during the 1950s, that built on bringing in different
designing that could open up towards resilient and sustainable futures.
16 Walter Gropius, “Principles of Bauhaus production [Dessau]”
15 Merriam-Webster dictionary, “method”; “tools”; “technique”, in Ulrich Conrads (ed.), Programs and Manifestoes on 20th
https://www.merriam-webster.com (accessed 2019-10-29). Century Architecture (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 96.

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methods and perspectives from different disciplines into designing. At the connected to other initiatives in the same vein in other places. By the early 1960s,
Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm (HfG Ulm), for example, the explicit aim a critical conversation had arisen on the theme of design methods, and in one of
was to break with an older educational format that emphasised the designer’s the Ulm quarterlies from 1962, director Tomás Maldonado refers to an established
artistic individuality.17 Instead, the curriculum at the HfG Ulm from the early tension in relation to design methods:
1950s to late 1960s emphasised teamwork and brought in teaching in semiotics,
sociology, mathematics, ergonomics, cybernetics and a range of other fields to The necessity and possibility of a particular methodology for industrial design
both introduce new ways of thinking in design, as well as tools and methods for has recently become – above all in Europe – a polemical object found quite often
working with formulating and addressing design problems. among industrial designers and educators dedicated to the training of industrial
In industrial design education, director Tomás Maldonado argued, designers. On the one hand, there are those who believe that all design problems
can only be solved by mathematical formalisation. On the other hand, there are
knowledge of different types was necessary in order to tackle the increasingly
those who assume that all problems in this field can only be solved with common
complex situations of design, which meant that design must find ways to assimilate sense. [---] Both positions suffer from a very alarming lack of realism, and I believe
that this results from the fact that both groups understand radically different things
the new types of relations between theory and practice, engendered by the most a [sic] industrial design. The main problem today is that we constantly operate
recent scientific developments. We know now that theory must be impregnated with the notion ‘industrial design’, as if it meant one and only one reality. There
with practice, practice with theory. It is impossible to act without knowledge, or exist [sic] not only a single but many realities of industrial design.21
to know without doing.18
In the same autumn, of 1962, a conference on the topic of Design Methods was
The incorporation of new requirements for designing needed new methods to match convened in London. It brought together people who, in different locations, were
the developments in industrial production as well as in societal contexts, which was exploring new ways of going about designing. The participants, active in design and
emphasised in the description of the aims of the industrial design programme: design education in the UK and the USA, discussed and proposed different ways
in which new methods could bring a more transparent and systematic process to
The purpose of the department is to train designers of industrial products. The
designing. Several of the presenters were active in engineering, architecture and
development of new kinds of methods of fabrication has faced the designer with
problems which can no longer be mastered from previous artistically-based polytechnic institutions, and many professed an interest in methods from fields
standpoints. The education of the designer must give greater emphasis to the such as mathematics, cybernetics, operational research, and “digital computers”.22
scientific and technological disciplines which now, as they will in the future, In the proceedings from the conference, one of the members of the organising
guide the operational processes in industrial production, and which ever more committee, Peter Slann, describes the background to arranging the event:
critically determine the product. Today, the designer of industrial products
must be capable of using the foundations of professionally-based knowledge The Conference, believed to be the first to be concerned with the methods,
for his work, which will be in close collaboration with constructors, production processes and psychology of the Design act, was the outcome of a discussion
engineers, and economists. Above all, he must be in a position of awareness of which took place a few years ago, when I first met Christopher Jones. Then, as
the cultural and sociological context in which his activity takes place.19 now, we were particularly keen to seek out and establish systematic methods
of problem solving, especially those problems associated with design. We also
A systematic approach to designing was introduced to students in all programmes sought a means by which design could be taught as a creative process that could
at the HfG Ulm already from the first semester’s foundation course, in order to be aided by a systematic process of conscious thought, integrating experience
“guide students to have, as far as possible, a systematic approach – rather than with academic knowledge whilst at the same time keeping the imagination free
from inhibitions.23
merely to work intuitively; thus to acquire some knowledge of method.”20
The HfG Ulm published a quarterly magazine, in which the school’s
philosophy was shared through articles and project examples, all in parallel text
covering German, English and (initially also) French. These ideas about designing 21 Tomás Maldonado, “Preliminary Note”, ulm 6, Quarterly
bulletin of the Hochschule für Gestaltung, Ulm, October 1962, 3.
22 Jones, J. Christopher & Thornley, D.G., Conference on design
17 René Spitz, HfG Ulm: The View Behind the Foreground. The methods. Papers presented at the Conference on Systematic
Political History of the Ulm School of Design (1953-1968) and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design,
(Stuttgart & London: Edition Axel Menges, 2002), 17. Architecture and Communications. London, September 1962.
18 Tomás Maldonado, “New Developments in Industry and (London: Pergamon Press, 1963), ix-x.
the Training of the Designer”, ulm 2, Quarterly bulletin of the 23 Peter A. Slann, “Foreword” in Jones, J. Christopher &
Hochschule für Gestaltung, Ulm, October 1958, 39. Thornley, D.G., Conference on design methods. Papers
19 “Industrial Design Department”, ulm 1, Quarterly bulletin of presented at the Conference on Systematic and Intuitive
the Hochschule für Gestaltung, Ulm, 1958:1, 6. Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture
20 Anthony Fröshaug, “Visual Methodology”, ulm 4, Quarterly and Communications. London, September 1962. (London:
bulletin of the Hochschule für Gestaltung, Ulm, 1959:4, 57. Pergamon Press, 1963).

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The focus on bringing systematic approaches to design through the incorporation design were increasingly moving towards handling the unknown and the unstable
of methods from other disciplines was, at this first conference, highly connected to in proposing different futures, which required other methods than before:
questions of what could be said to constitute, or bring about, creativity in design.
These designers and design educators working in various fields of design suggested We can see that the designers of the future can expect to find few fixed points
that the process of designing could, and should, be made as comprehensible as of departure. Their job will be to give substance to new ideas while taking away
possible through developing joint terminologies that described how designing the physical and organisational foundations of old ones. In this situation it is
happened, in order for new methods to be able to be developed and adopted. nonsense to think of designing as the satisfying of existing requirements. New
needs grow and old needs decay in response to the changing pattern of facilities
Many pointed to the increasingly complex situations of designing required other
available. To design is no longer to increase the stability of the man-made world:
tools, other ways of designing, and new ways of approaching design problems than it is to alter, for good or ill, things that determine the course of its development.26
what traditional ways of designing could provide.
Following the 1962 event, a series of conferences on the topic of design Developing systematic methods in design was, for Jones, not a matter of providing
methods were held during the 1960s, which later led to the formation of the procedures for reaching design solutions to problems, but fundamentally re-
Design Research Society.24 In the USA, the Design Methods Group was formed designing how design as a process could be approached more flexibly, depending
at UC Berkeley in 1963 by Horst Rittel, formerly a teacher at the HfG Ulm. Several on the scale and context of the design situation. While systematic and analytical
books focusing design methods were published during the 1960s, including, methods could be used during stages of the design process, the aim with the
towards the end of the decade, two publications that became highly influential methods was not to conduct a systematic analysis to reach objective decisions:
on developments in the field: Herbert Simon’s Sciences of the Artificial and John
Chris Jones’ Design Methods: Seeds of human futures.25 the purpose of divergence is to seek questions, not answers. The effect of
divergence is to deliberately create muddle and confusion in one’s mind, to
Inventing design methods upset one’s own assumptions so that one can become more sensitive to existing
The aim with the book Design Methods was to present different methods and realities and new possibilities.27
techniques that would allow designers to go about defining and exploring design
situations in terms of systematically setting and analysing design problems, which Which method to use in a particular situation must always be a matter of choice
then would need to be approached in designerly ways that built on a combination made by the designer or design team, based on intuition and experience as well
of experience, intuition, and systematic methods. In a process of alternating as broad and systematic knowledge, and cannot be reduced to a matter of rational
divergent and convergent steps, diverse approaches could be opened up and procedure. The making of new methods for designing was necessary in order to
leading to designers being able to choose between different tools and techniques create a systematic and transparent way to both be aware of and to handle complex
appropriate to the situation at hand. design situations that went far beyond giving form to products. Designers could
In Design Methods, the methods, or techniques, exemplified and categorised no longer rely on traditional, individual and drawing-based design methods. New
in the second part of the book relate to the different moments of divergence, ways of working and thinking were required if design were to be able to address
transformation and convergence that Jones ascribes to the process of designing. systems-level issues in designing.
This bears strong similarities to the example of the double diamond design process In order to approach systemic levels of designing, the tools and processes
launched by the Design Council some 35 years later. A significant difference, that had sufficed earlier could no longer support the new types of design. In
however, consists of the views on the approach towards methods in relation to these more complex processes, Jones and others stressed, the designer could
design. John Chris Jones, in Design Methods, emphasised that the ways of working in no longer work on their own but would need to collaborate and coordinate with
multiple other disciplines, and with users. Opening up design processes for the
participation of others than trained designers, therefore, required ways of both
24 ‘The teaching of engineering design’ in 1964, ‘The Design
talking about and questioning what happens in designing. For Jones, this was one
Method’ in 1965, ‘Design Methods in Architecture’ in
of the main differences compared to the traditional ways of designing. As he wrote
1967. Design Research Society, Publications, Conference
proceedings, https://www.designresearchsociety.org/cpages/ in the preface to the 1980s edition of Design Methods:
publications-1, (accessed 2019-10-28). Nigel Cross, “A History
of Design Methodology”, in M.J. de Vries et al. (eds.), Design
Methodology and Relationships with Science (Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1993), 16; John Chris Jones (1974), “how my
thoughts about design methods have changed during the 26 John Chris Jones Design Methods, (1970) 2nd edition (London:
years” in Designing Designing (London: Architecture design John Wiley & Sons, 1992), 33.
and technology press, 1991), 15-16. 27 John Chris Jones, [1973] “Love, hate and architecture. or what
25 Herbert Simon’s Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge, MA.: is a method? Memories of a seminar in Bologna” in Johan
MIT Press, 1969); John Chris Jones Design Methods: Seeds of Chris Jones, Designing Designing (London: Architecture
Human Futures (London: John Wiley & Sons, 1970). design and technology press, 1991), 8.

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Looking back now, at this book, and at what has become of design methods, I In the search for new histories of how and where design methods aiming for
think that this is the crux of the matter: the new methods permit collaborative iterative and participatory design practices arose in Sweden, the position taken here
designing whereas the old methods do not. They change the nature of designing, is that of looking towards the domain of everyday life, and the enmeshed categories
or can if one lets them. [---] The new methods, properly used, release everyone of “private” and “professional”. Historians have pointed to the domestic sphere as
from the tyrrany [sic] of imposed ideas and enable each to contribute to, and to
a location where we can find entry points to histories of design that go beyond the
act upon, the best that everyone is capable of imagining and doing. This is not
easy. It requires not only new methods but a new conception of the self.28
narratives of the professional design of things. Relevant calls have been made for
considering women’s engagement in the perceived private and domestic domains
That other ways of thinking, as well as other methods of designing, were needed of, for example, interior decoration, homemaking, crafts, and the mediation of
in order to approach new contexts for design was also stressed in the emerging advice or ideals in these fields, as a relevant part of design history.31
Scandinavian participatory and user-centered design contexts. Notably, early Furthermore, while not opposing this type of expanded design history
proponents of the design methods movement such as John Chris Jones and approach based in feminist theory and perspectives of power and interpretation
Christopher Alexander had publicly denounced the movement they had been part – quite the contrary – why not also consider the possibility that design methods
of initiating already in the early 1970s, with reference to methods being adopted applied in “public” or “professional” design contexts might also have origins in
in too instrumental and procedural ways. “private” or domestic settings?
The critique towards these developments in the first generation of design
methods was also highlighted in the Scandinavian context of making participatory
methods that aimed to counter the rational and science-oriented route that had Investigating everyday life
grown strong in the design methods movement. For example, in UTOPIA project
researcher Pelle Ehn’s dissertation, where he stated that: In 1964 – during the same period that design methods were intensely discussed
in an Anglo-American setting – the Swedish design organisation Svenska
Today, participative and creative approaches to design are championed as slöjdföreningen (SSF, the Swedish Arts and Crafts organisation) published a book
candidates to replace the systematic and rationalistic design in the movement called Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer (Dwelling habits and housing norms).32
of design methodology. This is a critique that comes from the inside, from some The publication described and analysed a study of how 100 families in 1940s
of the most important contributors to a Cartesian design approach. Theory and Stockholm used their apartments, in regard to what types of furniture they had,
practice in architectural and industrial design have moved away from the early and what sorts of work and social activities took place in the home.
ideas of design as decomposition of complex hierarchical systems, and towards This study had been part of a more extensive investigation into housing and
a qualitative understanding of what good design is.29 design issues, run by the Svenska slöjdföreningen and the Svenska Arkitekters
Riksförbund (SAR, the Swedish Architects’ National Association) in the 1940s.
Towards the end of the above quote, Ehn mentions the ambition to shift Even though the study was already 20 years old at the time, the SSF and the SAR
understandings of the concept of ‘good design’. In design historical studies of obviously saw it worth publishing anyway. In the introduction, the editor Gotthard
Swedish design, this concept has been highly present, and many established Johansson discussed the time gap between research and final publication, that
narratives and critiques of 20th-century Swedish design have related to this. Many was attributed to lack of funding and staff at the SSF and SAR for publishing the
of these design histories have pointed to the centrality of the private sphere of the complete study. However, since substantial parts of the study and the analysis of
home in reform work aimed to promote ‘good design’ through influencing both the material had already been disseminated in the 1940s, through journal articles
production and consumption towards asserting a particular aesthetic and formal
expressions.30 In contrast to this, the context where the development of participatory
methods for ‘good design’ was the professional sphere of the work-place. 31 Grace Lees-Maffei, “From service to self-service: advice
literature as design discourse, 1920-1970”, Journal of Design
28 John Chris Jones “1980 edition. A review of new topics” in History 2001: 3 (Vol.14), 187-206; Penny Sparke, As Long as
Design Methods, (1970/1980) 2nd edition (London: John Wiley it’s Pink: The Sexual Politics of Taste (London: Pandora, 1995);
& Sons, 1992), xxxiii. Cheryl Buckley, “Made in patriarchy: towards a feminist
29 Pelle Ehn, Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts (Stockholm: analysis of women and design”, Design Issues 1986:2 (Vol.3),
Arbetslivscentrum/Almqvist & Wiksell, 1988), 214-215. 3-14; Cheryl Buckley, “Made in Patriarchy: Theories of
30 Maria Göransdotter, “Från moral till modernitet: Hemmet i women and design - a reworking” in Hazel Clark (ed.) Design
1930-talets svenska funktionalism”, Nordisk arkitekturforskning Studies: A Reader (Oxford: Berg, 2009), 233-238; Alison J.
1999:2, 45-54; Christina Zetterlund, “Just Decoration? Clarke, Tupperware: The Promise of Plastic in 1950s America
Ideology and Design in Early-Twentieth-Century Sweden”, in (Washington: Smithsonian Inst. Press, 1999).
Kjetil Fallan (ed.) Scandinavian Design: Alternative Histories 32 Gotthard Johansson (ed.), Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer:
(London: Berg, 2012), 103-116; Zandra Ahl & Emma Olsson, Bostadsvanor i Stockholm under 1940-talet. Svenska Arkitekters
Svensk smak: Myter om den moderna formen (Stockholm: Riksförbund och Svenska Slöjdföreningens Bostadsutredning
Ordfront, 2001). (Stockholm: Kooperativa förbundets förlag, 1964).

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and partial analyses publications, many of the findings had already contributed and, second, for the tabulation and preparation of data.”34 Before coming back to
to establishing housing norms and national policies, as well as to impacts on the the study conducted by Åkerman, let us first take a closer look at which the methods
design of things as well as information campaigns aimed towards households. were, that Johansson pointed to as innovative and groundbreaking.
Why, then, publish the book in the mid-1960s? Johansson stated that he
hoped and believed the publication to still be highly relevant: even though the Methods for investigating use
living conditions have changed substantially in the two decades that had passed, The SSF and SAR survey aimed to find out “where dwelling functions took place,
the intent with the book was to contribute to a methodological body of knowledge and how the different rooms were used and furnished” by people on an everyday
that could support further housing research – and design. That the book included basis.35 The overall aim of the research was targeted explicitly towards how to
summaries in English of the main points of the material also suggests that the understand use in relation to apartments and objects. The dwelling habits as
intent was to contribute not only to a Scandinavian but to an international context. such were interesting as an entry point to discover “their cause-effect relationship,
What was it then, in terms of methods, that the study aimed to contribute to? above all, the correlation between dwelling design and use.”36
The impetus for the investigation of dwelling habits described in the The questions guiding the SAR and SSF study revolved around understanding
publication came from a Finnish invitation to SAR and SSF to participate in a what were the causal effects, and what the more value-based ideas or relationships
housing exhibition in Helsinki, Finland, in the autumn of 1939.33 The Swedish that governed how a dwelling was used. Was the floor plan, and the way an
contribution to the exhibition was asked to target the housing situation for families apartment was fitted a decisive factor? What roles did the choice of furniture play?
with many children. The exhibition did open but was closed prematurely due to Did social norms and conventions steer how people behaved in the dwelling or
the outbreak of the war between Finland and the Soviet Union in November. It were other factors more influential? In order to investigate this, questions were
later reopened again after the end of the war, in 1940, but by then the SSF and SAR asked of how and where the inhabitants spent time together, where one slept and
with the exhibition had extended into an extensive research program that could ate, and where housework, homework and social activities took place. Therefore,
provide a solid foundation for dwelling building in the Nordic countries after the the survey was planned as an in-depth inquiry rather than a survey of statistic and
second world war. As there was little or no material to base the design of new types quantitative character:
of dwellings for large families on, the idea came up to first conduct a thorough
investigation of the current Swedish situation. A scheme was set up, that would Every particular concerned with the use of a dwelling could not, however, be
target the material conditions set by the design of the dwelling, in terms of the inserted in the furnishing plan; the observations, statements and wishes of the
floor plan, and in relation to practices of interior furnishings. interviewees, and the observations and impressions of the interviewer (covering
As part of this joint initiative between SSF and SAR, a committee of three both family and dwelling) had to be given in an adjoining text. The question
architects, representing SAR, and three persons from SSF first organised the here was whether to set up this test point by point as a questionnaire or to write
exhibition, and after its closing in 1940 began the planning of the research it more freely in unrestrained form; for several reasons, the investigators finally
decided in favour of the latter method. The result is a series of small monographs
investigation. The scope was extended to also include small apartments in larger
on the 100 families and their dwellings. While containing all the required facts,
cities, and the Swedish Association for Furniture Retailers was brought into the they also describe in clear and concrete terms the relationship between the
project that would come to comprise four different, but interlinked, parts: A dwelling and the persons living in it, between the family and its environment.37
general study of dwelling functions and rooms, a specific kitchen investigation,
a survey of dwelling habits, and an investigation of the furniture market. In the This study of the dwelling habits was conducted from November 1942 to May
1964 publication, it is only the dwelling habit investigation that is presented as a of 1943. The planning and framework of the study had been set up by Gotthard
methodological contribution. Johansson, writer, editor and member of SSF, together with interior architect
In the book from 1964, Gotthard Johansson who headed the SAR and SSF Elias Svedberg after discussions with Brita Åkerman.38 All interviews and visits
investigation, several times mentions that the whole investigation was based on to the 100 Stockholm families participating in the study were made by furniture
the ‘groundbreaking’ and ‘seminal’ methods developed by Brita Åkerman for designer Lena Larsson, accompanied by her husband Mårten Larsson, architect,
investigating everyday life in the home, published in 1941 as Familjen som växte ur
sitt hem (The Family that Outgrew its Home). The decision to conduct a similar study
in the SAR and SSF investigation was based on methodology applied by Åkerman. 34 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 33. Cf.
The aim was to further develop the methods she had used so that these would Arkitekturmuseets arkiv. SAR:s och SSF:s bostadsutredning.
provide even more in-depth material for understanding the relationship between Vol. 57 ”Plan för bostadsvaneundersökning 7/10 1941”.
furniture, people’s everyday habits, and the design of dwellings: “Our immediate 35 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 49.
problem will, therefore, be to develop a methodology, first for the collection of data 36 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 49.
37 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 50-51.
38 “Letter from Åke Stavenow to Brita Åkerman 18 Nov 1939”.
33 “Program för svenskt deltagande i ’Bostadsutställningen Centrum för Näringslivshistoria. Svensk forms arkiv. F1:96
39’ i Helsingfors”. Arkitekturmuseets arkiv. SAR:s och SSF:s Registraturen 1938-1970. 598a Möbelinventering i samband
bostadsutredning: Vol. A10. med Statens bosättningslån 1939-1940.

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who served as photographer. The reason for having only one person conducting so on. Nearly all apartments were also photographed, in order to document the
all interviews was both due to Larsson’s qualifications as a designer, but also to the types of furniture as well as the “general character” of the apartment. These photos
idea that it would be easier to compile a uniform material in this way. In the work were later attributed with a specific importance in the analysis of furniture, since
with the material, the move between attention to details and a view of the whole “they often say more than lengthy descriptions, which especially for the analysis of
was emphasised. The reason that it would be best to appoint only one person to furnishing and furniture, which during the course of the work have shown to own
process the material was to avoid that “the whole overall picture of the individual a more intimate connection with the dwelling habits than previously suspected.”43
case thereby risks sliding out of view”.39 Documentation of the home interiors was extensive: floor plans noting
Interviews with people in the 100 households in the study were conducted as the intended room functions, the marking of the exact position of different
open conversations based on a core set of questions, deemed as a format that would pieces of furniture and furnishings as well as the materials these were made of,
increase the reply rate as well as the depth of the questions posed.40 Through a series detailed photographs showing the interiors, and short written descriptions by the
of thirteen pre-defined questions, the interviewed persons’ replies regarding their interviewer, often also accompanied by value judgments or reflections regarding
preferences and experiences of their homes were noted in some detail, which gave the quality of the interior or the atmosphere in the home.44
“a plenitude of information not only about the inhabitants’ subjective views on the In order to obtain more substantial insights into the daily life of people, a
dwelling and its different details, but also of the actual existing dwelling habits, the method was adopted in which people were asked to keep diaries, or protocols,
use of the rooms, and the placement of the functions.”41 over their daily activities in which “the dwellers themselves keep protocols over
While the interviews would yield a particular type of information, one of the their daily doings, where it is noted when each family member gets up and goes
significant draw-backs was that it would only focus on the persons’ opinions, and to bed, goes to work or school, comes home, eats, does their homework etc. and
not give any insights into the layout and type of dwelling in question, or of how it was where for each function there is a note made of in which room it takes place.”45
fitted or furnished, and how these factors would play into people’s opinions: “It is While the combination of interviews, protocols, photographs and furnishing
thus of little value to know how many percent wish to have larger or more bedrooms plans would provide a certain insight into what people did in, and thought
when one knows nothing of the rooms’ or family’s size.”42 In order to provide about, their home, one additional issue remained to be solved – that of how this
adequate input for designing, people’s preferences and practices needed to be connected to not only how the apartment was designed, but to the context of its
understood in relation to the contexts of the individual families’ diverse situations. furnishing. Methodologically, it was stressed, the questions of what one wants
The material gathered in the investigation was therefore of three different to know needs to be tightly linked to how one would go about planning and
types: basic facts about the family and the apartment, including its use and conducting the research.
furnishing, the inhabitants’ comments about the dwelling including complaints and
wishes, and also the investigator’s impressions and evaluations. For each apartment, The SAR and SSF dwelling investigation was a systematic study of furniture and
the placement of furniture was drawn on a 1:100 scale floor plan, using a series of floor plans, in which in-depth interviews and diaries over daily activities brought
specific annotations to specify both the different types of objects and if and how in the point of view of people living in the apartments in regard to how they used
these were used. Specific codes were used to show if a sofa, for example, was used their things and their apartments. The aims with gathering both objective and
as a sleeping place, who in the family used it, where daily meals were taken and subjective information and insights was to provide a foundation for the design of
new types of dwellings. In order to be able to design apartments that suited not
39 Johansson,Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 47. only contemporary but future needs, the ambition was to take account of people’s
40 Examples pointed to where of this type of method, what we ways of living and everyday dilemmas, as well as the material and financial
today would call a semi-structured interview, were taken conditions of city planning in relation to the things with which people furnished
from where the 1100 interviews made in England in the and equipped their homes.
“wartime surveys” by the British Mass-Observation institute,
published in 1943 as People’s Homes. Johansson, Bostadsvanor
och bostadsnormer, 29. Also: Arkitekturmuseets arkiv. SAR &
SSF bostadsutredning. Vol 63 100 fam I 100 läg: Familjer och 43 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 46. “…de ofta
lägenheter; Vol. 79 100 fam i 100 läg.; and 100 fam i 100 läg, säga mer än långa beskrivningar, som alldeles särskilt för
enkät 1-50 & Enkät 51-100. analysen a möblering och möbler, vilka under arbetets gång
41 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 29. “…en visat sig äga ett intimare samband med bostadsvanorna än
mångfald upplysningar inte bara om de boendes subjektiva man tidigare anat.”
inställning till bostaden som helhet och dess olika detaljer 44 Arkitekturmuseets arkiv. SAR & SSF bostadsutredning. Vol 63 100
utan också om de faktiskt existerande bostadsvanorna, fam I 100 läg: Familjer och lägenheter; Vol 79 100 fam i 100 läg.
rummens användning och funktionernas förläggning.” 45 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 30. “…de boende
42 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 30. “Det är själva föra protokoll över sina dagliga sysselsättningar, där det
sålunda av föga värde att få veta hur många procent av de antecknas när varje familjemedlem stiger upp och lägger sig, går
boende som önska större eller flera sovrum, när man varken till arbetet eller skolan, kommer hem, äter, läser sina läxor etc.
får veta något om rummen eller familjens storlek.” och där det för varje funktion anges i vilket rum den försiggår.”

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The methods developed and applied in the dwelling investigation were quite These methods for gathering material documenting furnishings and
thoroughly discussed in the 1964 publication, and are presented as a contribution everyday life, from perspectives of users as well as from designers, seem to have
more significant to future housing research than the actual results obtained. spread relatively rapidly. They became applied in several subsequent Swedish
Many of the methods applied were inspired by the new sociology of the 1940s, dwelling investigations during the 1940s and 1950s, both within housing research,
but also by the research into everyday life made in organisations dedicated to in studies of family sociology, and in the context of research into the ways work
the rationalisation and understanding of work in the home. In the overview of in the home was carried out.49 Also in the other Nordic countries, initiatives were
methods applied, references are made to techniques already well-known and taken to map and understand daily life in the home building on the methodologies
used in other, previous, contexts of mapping everyday life. Questionnaires were developed – at least according to the way the story was told by the SSF.50
deemed the simplest and cheapest way to gather material, but also too limited in The combined methods of systematic, measurable data with photographs,
regard to what could actually be known through them: inventories of objects, and in-depth interviews focusing everyday habits as well
as hopes and aspirations that Brita Åkerman had spearheaded, was still after 20
The method is best adapted to opinion polls, where one wishes to find out the years deemed relevant to share with a national and international community in the
public’s wishes and opinions in relation to certain types of dwellings or certain publication of the survey in Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer. The strength of this
details of the dwelling’s fittings and equipment. But even there, it has limited form of inquiry, it was stated, is that it is closer to family sociology than to technical
value.46 housing research, in its attempt to provide “an objective account of how the family’s
daily life elapses in the dwelling.”51 How, then, did these methods come about, and
The use of questionnaires in gathering information about living conditions dated become applied in the design of apartments and objects for the home?
back to home reform initiatives adopting this method already around the turn of the
century. In the early years of the 20th century, several different initiatives were taken
to, through questionnaires, find out how people lived, in order to provide a basis
for building better housing.47 However, since the response rates to questionnaires
were consistently so low that they were practically useless for founding any
substantial conclusion on, the issues of the need for better methods and more
systematic research into housing and dwellings was raised in relation to the need 49 The Industriförbundet (National Federation of Swedish
for more extensive information and “propaganda” for better housing.48 The dwelling Industries) conducted an extensive investigation into the
investigation was conducted as a way of trying to establish a different method for dwellings of some 250 working class families in 1944, building
gaining insights into people’s everyday needs and actions in their homes. on the same methods used in the SAR and SSF study. A few
years later, when an evaluation of the state funded Swedish
loans for young couples setting up home was made, the
46 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 29. “Mest combination of diaries and interviews was once again used.
lämpar sig metoden för opinionsundersökningar, där man vill Architects Åke Huldt and Ingeborg Waern Bugge, both affiliated
utröna allmänhetens önskemål och inställning till exempelvis to the SSF, then conducted a dwelling investigation among 164
olika bostadstyper eller vissa detaljer i bostadens inredning families who had obtained dwelling loans in the late 1930s and
och utrusning. Men även där är den av begränsat värde.” early 1940s, with the intent to find out if and how everyday life
47 In 1906, for example, writer Elna Tenow published a series of had been affected by the chosen furnishings.
books, the Solidar series, aiming to critically discuss issues of 50 In Norway, a committee led by architect Carsten Boysen
home life and the need for building better dwellings in order undertook a study similar to the SSF and SAR project, in
to address more pressing social issues. In connection to the which studies of dwelling habits were made and published in
publication of Tenow’s books, a committee was formed with 1948 as Mennesker og boliger (People and dwellings) and in
the intent of finding out how people in Stockholm would like 1952 as Livsform og boligform (Life form and dwelling form).
to see future apartments organised, in order to provide better The work was conducted during the war, in 1942-43, as a team
dwellings. But of 800 questionnaires, only 117 were answered. effort comprising some 50 investigators with a background
Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 46. in either architecture or psychology, combining field work
48 Similar problems with low response rates to written and interviews with documentation of interiors. In Denmark,
questionnaires was exemplified by a more recent dwelling a study was made in 1943 by the Landsforeningen Dansk
survey, conducted in Gothenburg in 1939. With the Kunstaandvaerk, in which architects and statisticians mapped
aim of finding out if the newly built residential area of dwelling habits in Copenhagen, through interviews and
Johanneberg had provided dwellings that the inhabitants documentation of furnishings. Johansson, Bostadsvanor och
found satisfactory, 500 questionnaires were distributed. bostadsnormer, 32.
Only about half of these came back with replies. Gustaf 51 Johansson, Bostadsvanor och bostadsnormer, 30. The research
Munthe, “Hur byggas våra bostäder? Röhsska museets carried out by Åkerman was planned and conducted years
bostadsundersökning“, Form 1939:5, 99-106. before the British war-time surveys.

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Sociology and research into everyday life Åkerman and her classmates proposed a study of dwellings, where the
The dwelling survey conducted by SAR and SSF as part of the more general ambition would be to find out how people actually lived in their homes and what
housing study was heavily influenced by an investigation conducted in 1937 of the differences modern and more traditional dwellings and furnishings played to how
living conditions of 214 families in Stockholm, published in 1941 by Brita Åkerman life was led.54 Inspiration came from an influential book, Middletown, published
as Familjen som växte ur sitt hem (The Family that Outgrew its Home). In the mid- in 1929 by two American sociologists who had studied an American mid-size
1930s, the new American sociology, with a strong emphasis on empirical and town in the year 1925, and compared everyday life then to what life had been like
systematic methods for measuring and comparing social phenomena in modern some thirty years earlier, around the 1890s.55 The method of that study included
society, was introduced in Sweden.52 In the years 1936 to 1937, a class in this new analyses of publications and statistics, and engaging people, mainly women, in in-
sociology was given at Stockholm University, and the author of the book, Brita depth interviews about how their lives had changed in comparison to that of their
Åkerman had been one of the students in that class. parents inspired the methods used in Åkerman’s study.56 Combining a gathering
Åkerman was well connected in the socio-political contexts of government of quantitative data with in-depth interviews that targeted everyday practices and
committees and initiatives aiming towards legislation and policymaking in Sweden the qualities of real life in relation to statistical analysis, led to the development
at this time. She was engaged in several groups and committees engaging in of a methodology that gave both objective ‘facts’ and a sense of people’s real-life
politically strengthen women’s representation in society and politics by highlighting experiences of how to negotiate different situations of complexity in relation to
women’s issues. As chair of the Hemkommittén (Home Committee) in the mid- making things work.
1930s, she came to focus on the design of homes and their rational organisation.
Her husband Alf Johansson was between 1933 and 1947 head of the Bostadssociala New methods, new insights
utredningen (the State commission on housing), of which Hemkommittén was Through Åkerman’s network, funding was secured for conducting the sociological
a sub-committee. Their friends Alva and Gunnar Myrdal were involved in core study of women’s situation in the home. The cooperative housing association HSB
political initiatives and many governmental committees, advocating making provided funding for the project, as well as access to the HSB housing registry.
research the basis for socio-political reform through bridging social science settings Through the statistical office of Stockholm, a random selection of families with
and political arenas.53 Other close family connections of Åkerman’s were also children living in 1- to 3-room apartments were contacted about participation in
engaged in establishing new ways of making change, not least through new types of the study.57 The 214 families that accepted to participate received a visit from a
research: Carin Boalt, Åkerman’s sister, was a trained architect and had worked with social worker, who interviewed the woman in the household according to a list of
the consumer cooperation and later with the Institute of Public Health, and whose pre-specified questions. How did they feel about the apartment, what they would
husband Gunnar Boalt was a researcher in sociology. like to change, and what were their habits? Where did they eat, sleep, work, and
Issues of gender and women’s representation in politics as well as in forming spend time together? Initially, the primary motivation for conducting personal
the conditions for modern society were strong driving forces for Brita Åkerman interviews in Åkerman’s study was to increase the response rate in comparison
and others in her network. Socio-political issues connected to the home, and to to using questionnaires and to make sure that there would be enough material to
everyday life, became a way for “women’s issues” to enter the political agenda, base an analysis on. Methodologically, this was not much of an innovation, as there
with women as experts. Dissatisfied with the information and analyses available were earlier examples of studies made by philanthropists and social workers visiting
about everyday life in the home, and the work in Hemkommittén, Åkerman people’s homes in order to provide input aiming to change housing conditions.58
enrolled in the sociology course at Stockholm University to learn more about the What was innovative in this study, were the methods tested to explore how the
new sociological methods. As part of the course, the students were to plan and actual use of the home played out in relation to how it was furnished, and how that
conduct a sociological investigation themselves. affected what activities could take place there. The study group had decided that it
would be interesting to document the material context of the homes visited, through

52 Alva Myrdal and her husband Gunnar Myrdal, professor in 54 “Manuskript: I Familjen som växte ur sitt hem
economy and colleague with Alf Johansson who was married Hemkommittén, sociologi och bostadsboken”, 6. Brita
to Brita Åkerman, had both studied sociology in the US. They Åkerman’s archive.
managed to found the Social institute, that educated social 55 Robert Staughton Lynd & Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A
workers, that became the basis for the introduction of the new Study in American Culture (1929) (New York, 1956).
sociology. See Anna Larsson & Sanja Magdalenić, Sociology 56 “Manuskript: I Familjen som växte ur sitt hem
in Sweden: A History (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Hemkommittén, sociologi och bostadsboken”, 19. Brita
Macmillan, 2015). Åkerman’s archive.
53 Per Wisselgren, “Reforming the science-policy boundary: 57 All of which lived in apartments except for 19 families who
the Myrdals and the Swedish tradition of Governmental lived in small houses and who were included for comparison
Commissions” in Sven Eliaeson & Ragnvald Kalleberg (eds.) of eventual differences. Brita Åkerman, Familjen som växte ur
Academics as Public Intellectuals (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge sitt hem, 5.
Scholars Publishing, 2008), 173-195. 58 Thörn, En bostad för hemmet, 32-133.

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already ended, and the sociologists teaching it had left Sweden. Brita Åkerman
was left with a massive amount of material to analyse more or less on her own.60
For the quantitative data and the statistical analysis, she had some support from
a colleague, but when it came to the material gathered through the new methods,
and how to bring it all together to a coherent whole, she struggled with the analysis.
The methods of diary-keeping and furnishing drawings were novel. Since no
similar study had been made previously, there were no established procedures
or analytical tools that could be readily adapted to bring the different types of
materials together, nor to base the analysis on. Instead, Åkerman worked on trying
to analyse the material as best she could, between stepping into her new role as
secretary of the Committee for increased women’s representation (in 1937) and
later as director of the organisation Aktiv hushållning (in 1940) and secretary for
the women’s delegation within the 1941 state Commission on population issues.
It was not until 1941 that the publication Familjen som växte ur sitt hem came
out, and then in a format that both accounted for the “hard data” in the study, but
that also foregrounded women’s voices and experiences of everyday life and work
in the home through examples, photographs and quotes from the interviews.
What stood out was that many families’ living conditions were cramped,
with the tiny apartments that people had in relation to the size of the families
and also in relation to the types of furniture and norms for furnishing. Homes
were furnished based on the types of furniture available to buy, rather than on
what types of furnishings would support everyday activities. Between making and
unmaking beds and sleeping places for everyone each evening and morning, the
children had little room to play or do homework, and the parents had little time –
and space – for their activities.
Moreover, as the study showed, women were trapped in a never-ceasing
Protocol over a day’s activities by one of the women in the circle of domestic work and childcare, which led to that they had utterly slight
1937 study later published as Familjen som växte ur sitt possibilities to study, or work, outside the home. Meals were one of the most
hem. Brita Åkerman’s archive, Umeå University library. time-consuming chores in the home, since practically all meals were taken, or
prepared, there for all family members. Packing lunch for the working fathers
and schoolchildren, or preparing their lunches when they all came home to eat
making notes of the way the apartments were furnished. Floor plans were provided at midday, and providing snacks and meals throughout the day for the different
through HSB, and during the interview, the social worker would use a pre-printed family members, led to a minimum of six meals and sometimes up to 9-10 meals
representation of the floor plan of the apartment, and schematically draw and make per day being prepared, served, with dishes being done afterwards.61
notes of how furniture was placed in the home. In some cases, photographs were One conclusion in the study was that the living conditions – both standard of
also taken of the home, but not in a systematic and pre-defined way. apartments and the furniture available on the market – as well as the difficulties for
With the aim of gathering material to explore these different aspects of life women to work and study, resulted in situations where couples hesitated to have
in the home, every family was also asked to take notes about what they did on children. This, in turn, was seen as a problem on state policy and national level,
a daily basis, stating who did what, and how much time each activity took. This since diminishing numbers in the Swedish population had been identified as one
diary-keeping was something that, in later publications, is also described as a
methodological novelty.59 Not only did it give insights into the activities carried 59 ”Manuskript: I Familjen som växte ur sitt hem
out in the home in relation to the layout of the dwelling. Besides the practical Hemkommittén, sociologi och bostadsboken”, 7-8. Brita
dimensions of what types of work and which actions took place, where, and who Åkerman’s archive.
carried these out, the study also connected this to what that might mean for the 60 Riemer left for the US, and Sterner went to the US with
relationship between wife and husband, and the children’s place in the home Gunnar and Alva Myrdal as part of a research project, leaving
and the family. The introduction of the furnishing drawings, photographs, and Brita Åkerman to analyse the material on her own with some
the diaries gave a new type of material to include in the sociological analysis of assistance in compiling graphs by Sam Ljungdahl.
61 ”Manuskript: I Familjen som växte ur sitt hem
life and work in the home.
Hemkommittén, sociologi och bostadsboken”, 11. Brita
When the material gathering was concluded, the sociology course had Åkerman’s archive.

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of the most pressing issues to address if Sweden were to be able to develop into a slöjdföreningen, the National Association of Swedish architects, but also the
strong and stable, modern, nation.62 consumer cooperation and the Industriens utredningsinstitut (the Research
institute for industrial economics) engaged in adopting the new methods. Since
The Family that Outgrew its Home came to inspire others to engage in systematic these gave new potential insights into people’s actual use of dwellings as well as
dwelling research through the adoption of these new methods. Methodologically, furnishings and objects, as well as ways to holistically relate these insights to socio-
though, Åkerman meant that she was of little help to subsequent studies. She economic and political initiatives and frameworks, it seems that the new methods
stated in her memoirs that opened up for other positions from where to approach the design of things and
environments.
I had so much to do at the beginning of 1941 that I did not have time to settle
down and become an expert on dwellings. The sociology group that had been Domestic work and women’s expertise
part of planning the study was dissolved. When people wanted to discuss with
By the time Brita Åkerman’s book was published in 1941, she had been recruited
me how to plan new investigations, I could not provide them with any thoughts
on the sociological or statistical method. I had no compilation of terms through
to a role as director of the Aktiv hushållning (AH, Active Housekeeping). This was a
which I could formulate our investigation methods.63 unit created under the Swedish government’s information Office, as part of the crisis
management of food, textiles and other resources set up due to the Second World
Despite that the publication had taken some time to finalise, the learnings and War.66 The work conducted at the Aktiv Hushållning aimed to spread information
methods from the study had already begun to be spread and acknowledged on how to make the most of rationed goods through advice on cooking, sewing,
through Åkerman’s engagement within different committees and organisations. mending and caring for everyday things. Aktiv Hushållning did not develop any
In these settings, the methods and findings presented as a result of the study specific methods or advice of its own but functioned as a mediator of knowledge,
resonated with the ambitions to fundamentally re-shape Swedish society, through information and advice that different women’s organisations in their turn
the means of socio-political as well as through material reforms. provided. The Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté (the Housewives’ collaboration
The attention towards the methods applied, as well as to the way that these committee) was formed with the purpose of networking and collaborating with
gave insights into ordinary people’s everyday situations, was picked up in three Aktiv Hushållning. Represented were the Consumer cooperation’s women’s section,
main areas. One was within social politics – hence the recruitment of Åkerman the Women’s organisation of Sweden’s rural areas, the National association of
to the role as secretary in the Commission on population issues, given that issues housewives’ organisations, and the Social democratic Women’s League.67 Through
relating to housing and family policies were at the core of this investigation.64 the Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté, contact was made with the so-called ‘home
Secondly, as we shall return to later, the scientifically supported consultants’ that were tied to the regional household development organisations
investigations focusing on the analysis of eating, cooking and on women’s work with the task of providing guidance and advice in housekeeping matters to rural
in the home were picked up by women’s organisations with different agendas and homes, in order to activate them in the spreading of the Aktiv Hushållning advice.
goals for increasing female representation in politics as well as raising women’s The outreach of Aktiv Hushållning was – for its time – substantial, with
issues in general. While the political organisation and representation in labour average editions of its brochures of 100.000 copies and a strong presence in both
market matters were difficult for women to gain access to, issues of family politics, radio and printed media.68 As part of the organising of ways of collaborating,
as well as domestic work and its professionalisation, provided spaces for women spreading information, and providing courses and education in domestic work,
to engage politically as well as practically.65 teachers in home economics formed a new national organisation – the Home
Thirdly, the new methods were picked up by individuals and organisations
searching for new ways to work with architecture and design, such as the Svenska 66 Aktiv Hushållning collaborated with the housewives’
organisations through contacts with Husmödrarnas
62 Alva Myrdal & Gunnar Myrdal, Kris i befolkningsfrågan (1934). samarbetskommitté, but was run by women with expertise
63 “Manuskript: I Familjen som växte ur sitt hem in other areas. The chair, Karin Kock, was an economist at
Hemkommittén, sociologi och bostadsboken”, 11. Brita Stockholm university, who when she was appointed to set
Åkerman’s archive. up AH hired Brita Åkerman as director and Kaj Andersson,
64 Nina Almgren, Kvinnorörelsen och efterkrigsplaneringen: journalist, to work with producing media content. Brita
Statsfeminism i svensk arbetsmarknadspolitik under och kort Åkerman “Aktiv hushållning”, in Brita Åkerman et al., (eds.)
efter andra världskriget, diss. (Umeå, 2006); Johanna Overud, I Kunskap för vår vardag. Utbildning och forskning för hemmen
beredskap med Fru Lojal: Behovet av kvinnlig arbetskraft under (Akademilitteratur: Stockholm, 1983), 78-79.
andra världskriget, diss. (Almqvist & Wiksell: Stockholm, 2005). 67 Kooperativa kvinnoförbundet, Svenska Landsbygdens
65 Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More work for mother: The ironies of Kvinnoförbund, Sveriges Husmodersföreningars Riksförbund,
household technology from the open hearth to the microwave Socialdemokratiska kvinnoförbundet.
(Basic books, 1984); Kjell Östberg, Efter rösträtten: Kvinnors 68 A brochure on conservation, for example, was printed in
utrymme efter det demokratiska genombrottet (Eslöv: 200.000 copies in 1940, sold out almost immediately, and
Symposion, 1997). was re-printed in both 1942 and 1943. Some 6-8 articles

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Chapter 6 Methods

economics teachers’ organisation – in order to have closer contact with AH.69 Brita Åkerman has later described that these ideas, in the early 1940s,
In other words: through the Aktiv Hushållning, channels were established for became a turning point for her. Wägner’s feminist philosophy led Åkerman to
collaboration, discussion, and for taking action in matters that regarded women’s completely change her view on women, and on the world: “I perceived that Elin
work and situation in the home in relation to a broader societal context. Wägner wanted to share a message of something new that ought to make us change
With the affiliation to the government Information Office, the advice and our way of thinking and acting. For me, it meant a fundamental conversion.”74 The
information given in home matters through film, radio, brochures and courses initiative to establish a research institute focusing on women’s work in the home,
had established women as experts in areas of domestic matters on the bases to bring about societal change became – at least for Brita Åkerman – an attempt to
of both experience and professional knowledge. As stated in the first brochure, bring Wägner’s feminist ideas into practice.75
that introduced Aktiv Hushållning’s mission as aiming towards “activating the
experiences and knowledge that the Swedish housewives hold, to intensify research
to find new paths toward increased collaboration between individuals and groups.”70 Hemmens forskningsinstitut
Through the platform provided through Aktiv Hushållning, different Swedish
women’s organisations that in various ways, promoted a rational and scientific During the years at Aktiv Hushållning, Brita Åkerman and others had pointed
reform of housework gained a strong voice. While the work with coordinating and towards the need for establishing not only sporadic but systematic and scientific
spreading information through Aktiv Hushållning also continued after the end of studies of home life and housework that would be run based on women’s
the war, mainly focusing then on textiles and clothes, several of the women who had expertise, and from feminist perspectives. The influence that women had gained
been engaged in AH instead turned towards how it might be possible to establish during the war, also connected to the socio-political reforms that had begun to be
ways of generating scientific knowledge about the home, in order to establish a solid initiated in different parts of society.
foundation for making change on household as well as societal levels. Establishing women’s expertise in home matters as crucial to the (re)
The feminist movement in Sweden had increasingly come to focus on formation of industrial production, societal planning, and economic and political
issues of societal participation and equality in terms of bringing issues from levels of decision-making, could be strategically linked to the expansion of social
the perceived private sphere of the home to the public sphere of socio-political sciences as well as to political initiatives aiming towards improving and altering
discussion and reform.71 In 1941, one of the leading debaters in the feminist conditions for family life in Sweden.
movement, Elin Wägner, published the book Väckarklocka (Alarm clock), which State committees had stressed the need for building better housing, and
emphatically criticised current societal structures. Wägner argued for the need to funding was directed towards setting up research institutes, mainly focusing
create a different form of society, built on radically different values as foundations technical engineering research, such as Tekniska forskningsrådet (the Technical
for human life and culture, and proposed that women must enter into politics not research council) and Statens kommitté för byggnadsforskning (the State committee
within established power structures, but on terms of their own experience and for building research). Several research institutes that were part state and part
knowledge in order for current systems to be dismantled.72 industry-funded had also been initiated in the areas of wood, textile and nutrition
One of the ways to do this must be through women claiming more influence research. However, despite suggestions from women’s organisations to also set up a
in society, in order to create a ‘good life’ that would not be based on ever-increasing state-funded institute focusing on research about the home, this had not been done.
consumption. Instead, the aim would be to find new ways of leading everyday life, Instead, the vast network of women’s organisations took that matter into their own
that took into account a balance between collectivism and small-scale production, hands, through Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté, and began planning for how to
where a key was the proposal that quite small changes in patterns of everyday set up systematic research into everyday life in the home.
consumption could lead to a transformation of society as a whole.73
Planning for a research institute
distributed each month through the AH press service, and Aktiv In November of 1943, two sessions were convened by the Husmödrarnas
Hushållning also was allotted half an hour on national radio samarbetskommitté, to discuss the possibilities of establishing research in the
every Tuesday morning, to fill with content. Brita Åkerman, field of domestic work. Several representatives for different organisations and
“Aktiv hushållning” in Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 87. areas gathered to express the forms and directions that such an endeavour might
69 Hushållslärarinnornas samorganisation. Brita Åkerman,
“Aktiv hushållning” in Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 79.
70 Aktiv Hushållning nr 1 1940, Statens informationsstyrelse 73 Elin Wägner, Väckarklocka (Stockholm: Bonnier, 1941);
(Stockholm, 1940), 13. Katarina Leppänen, Rethinking civilisation in a European
71 Helena Bergman & Peter Johansson (eds.), feminist context: History, nature, women in Elin Wägner’s
Familjeangelägenheter: Modern historisk forskning om välfärd, Väckarklocka, diss. (Gothenburg: Acta Universitatis
genus och politik (Eslöv: Symposion, 2002). Gothoburgensis, 2005).
72 Katarina Leppänen, “At Peace with Earth—Connecting 74 Brita Åkerman, 88 år på 1900-talet: Bland vänner och ideer (T.
ecologial destruction and patriarchal civilisation”, Journal of Fischer & co.: Stockholm, 1994), 99.
Gender Studies, 2004: 1 (vol 13), 37-47. 75 Åkerman, 88 år på 1900-talet, 148.

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Chapter 6 Methods

take and the expectations and direction that could be set for the aims of this sort research regarded what the actual aims were with engaging in research:
of work.76 Many of the women engaged in this, were active in the various women’s
organisations and were also members of government committees and sub- We must clarify for ourselves what we want to achieve with new research, what
committees – such as the Women’s Committee under the Population Committee, we need to know. Not everything that is possible to know, is worth knowing.
in which Brita Åkerman was secretary. With professional training and experience There is, for example, nothing interesting in knowing how many steps the
in different areas of knowledge, ranging from nutritional science and architecture women in Sweden walk each day, unless this is related to certain conditions,
which could be improved. If we study how many steps one walks while making
to economics and sociology, the participants in the discussion advocated that
meatballs and lemon curd in one kitchen, and in another, and which appliances
a research institute into matters of everyday domestic life must cover a variety make the work easier, that does not mean that we are there. We must also know
of scientific disciplines. The questions of how to set up a research institute, if it is actually rational to make meatballs and lemon curd from the viewpoint
organisationally as well as with which specific aims, led to intense discussions. of full health of the nation, from a work savings point of view, and from an
Architect Ingeborg Waern Bugge referred to the systematic and scientific economic point of view. Which dietary habits are worth encouraging. We must
studies of domestic work carried out in countries such as the US, Germany, not offhand assume anything permanent. Perhaps we should not knead and
England and Finland. Especially the activities at the US research institute under whisk to the extent that assisting appliances are worth having. – and besides, it
the department of agriculture, stemming from scientific home economics studies is not certain that the preparation should take place in the individual home.78
initiated by chemist Helen Richard in the 1870s, was mentioned as a format that
could be interesting for a Swedish research institute to follow: The questions of what the research aims of the new institute should be were placed
in the broader context of societal development as a whole. In the above quote,
The methods and formats for studies vary from case to case: they do not commit Wohlin’s statement that nothing existing should be taken for granted speaks to that
to a template, and do not confine themselves within their institutions (…) In programmatic ambitions were not only embedded in the project of establishing a
regard to establishing standards based on the conducted studies, they proceed home research institute but were actually made very explicit.
with utmost caution – especially in regard to the smallest and poorest homes: Other speakers also stressed the importance of not taking a starting point
a tiny error can have such fatal consequences, the homes must in a sense be in the current way of doing things as given. Writer Lilly Arrhenius, for example,
prepared for each adjustment, and an adjustment in one area must be tested pointed out that the research into housework must be as radical and as
in relation to other circumstances, the whole standard of the home, or else one
unprejudiced as possible:
does not move the home forward.77

Such an investigation must not start from the home’s and the housework’s
Economist Margit Wohlin emphasised that the studies at a research institute would current outer forms as being eternal and unchangeable. It must with imagination
not benefit from spending too much time doing inventories and studies of the existing
situation in actual homes since the quality of the dwellings and their standards differed
much too much. Instead, the main question to be handled in relation to domestic

76 “Synpunkter på en kommande forskningsverksamhet på 78 “Synpunkter på en kommande forskningsverksamhet på

hemarbetets område. Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av hemarbetets område. Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av
Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november
1943”. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a 1943”, p. 9. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945. Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945. “Vi måste göra klart
77 “Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av Husmödrarnas för oss vart vi vill nå med nya forskningar, vad vi behöver veta.
samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november 1943”, Icke allt är vetvärt som är vetbart. Det har tex intet intresse
4-5. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a att veta hur många steg kvinnorna i Sverige går om dagen, så
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: vida detta inte sätts i relation till vissa förhållanden, som kan
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945. “Metoderna och förbättras. Om vi studerar hur många steg man går för att laga
formerna för studiearbetet växlar från fall till fall: man låser inte köttbullar och citronkräm i det ena köket och i det andra och
fast sig i schablon och låser inte in sig inom sina institutioner. vilka maskiner som underlättar arbetet, så är vi därmed icke
(…) Då det gäller att på bas av utförda studier fixera standard framme. Vi måste också veta om det verkligen är rationellt att
går man fram med yttersta försiktighet – särskilt då det laga köttbullar och citronkräm ur synpunkten av nationens
gäller de minsta och fattigaste hemmen: ett litet fel kan få så fulla hälsa, ur arbetsbesparingssynpunkt och ur ekonomisk
ödesdigra verkningar, hemmen måste liksom vara färdiga synpunkt. Vilka dietvanor är värda att uppmuntras. Vi får
för varje förändring och en förändring på en punkt måste inte utan vidare godtaga något bestående. Vi kanske inte bör
prövas i relation till andra omständigheter, hemmets hela knåda och vispa så mycket, att assistentmaskiner lönar sig. –
standard, eljes för man inte hemmet framåt.” Synpunkter på en och för övrigt är det inte säkert at beredningen bör ske i det
kommande forskningsverksamhet på hemarbetets område. enskilda hemmet.”

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Chapter 6 Methods

consider how one will be able to find forms for solving the problems, that for extent, saw this as a means to question the forms of social relations within the
many women in the current situation seem almost unsolvable.79 home as well as how these were mirrored in or connected to societal orders.
Solving seemingly unsolvable problems was at the heart of the ambitions to use
The ambition to bring about change in terms of what sort of future society might research to gain knowledge that could provide new ways of designing things, which
be possible, then, had to begin with finding ways to think differently. Developing in turn was linked to designing different ways of living. Designing new dwellings,
new research methods would, it was hoped, provide the tools for not only solving new things to be used in them, and new methods for carrying out housework was
problems but for making visible the assumptions and ideas underlying current not only a matter of rationalisation, but of radical societal redesign:
social orders through a radical questioning of its foundations.
Two of the men invited to the discussion, Sigurd Erixon and Gotthard Overall, when one asks how one can rationalise and simplify, and which the ideal
Johansson, both also supported and emphasised the need for research into ways of working are, and its methods and machines, one must also know what
domestic life from a systematic and scientific perspective. Gotthard Johansson, the goal is. To rationalise means to do things sensibly. What is sensible? Perhaps
as the lead for the SAR and SSF investigation into housing norms and dwelling one, in general, can call that sensible which furthers the individual family’s
habits, had already earlier been involved in the preparatory discussions aiming psychological and physical health and happiness. But it is not enough, it must also
further the people’s life as a whole and the mutual relations between families.81
to establish domestic research in relation to designing change.
Based on the SAR and SSF study, the view among many in the network of
architects and designers in these organisations, was that the design of products, In the continued discussion about the aims of initiating research into domestic
dwellings, behaviour and socio-political systems were all interconnected. Sigurd work, the question of what should be an individual activity in the home, and
Erixon, professor of ethnology, advocated that if the studies were to aim towards what could be addressed on collective, societal, levels arose and almost led to an
reforming life and work in the home in general, also men’s life in the home should ideation-like situation. What could one imagine being done together, and could
be studied. The difficulty, then, would be where to draw the line between domestic there be forms that combined collective solutions with individual choices?
work habits to be studied, and more general aspects of “leading life” in the home. One of the speakers sketched an idea where each block in a city could have
In order to be able to design new things as well as new methods of working, collective facilities for childcare, supporting schoolchildren’s homework, and
a core area of knowledge must be that of understanding people. In that context, facilities for preparing semi-finished food dishes that women could pick up on
Erixon advocated sociology with the addition of ethnographic methods to make the way from work and finish cooking at home with the seasonings and additions
sure that “methods must be to adapt inventions after the actually existing needs” of their choice. If one also had a system for hiring domestic work support by the
that build on knowledge about people.80 hour, say for cleaning, mending, canning and other tasks, women could find
The overall ambition with initiating domestic research was to find ways ways to combine paid wage work outside the home with managing the everyday
to shape a new type of society. Through understanding people’s home life, and domestic work – that despite these outspoken ambitions to think in new ways was
through radically questioning the current order of things, it seemed possible to not associated with anyone else but the housewife.82
make material interventions that could bring about a different everyday reality,
in which perceived ‘private’ and ‘public’ issues were intertwined. Not taking
for granted something so mundane as what food to cook, where it should be 81 Margit Wohlin quoted in “Synpunkter på en kommande
prepared, and how cooking should be done, and not only suggesting but stating forskningsverksamhet på hemarbetets område. Inlägg vid
that systematic knowledge about this could bring about a different way of living diskussioner anordnade av Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté
was the overall program of change associated with establishing domestic research. den 10 och 18 november 1943”, 11. Riksarkivet.
The women, and men, who engaged in initiating the scientific and systematic Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a Handlingar rörande
study and redesign of domestic work, and its tools and environments, to a large hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: Hemarbetsundersökningen
1944-1945. “Överhuvud, när man frågar, hur man kan
79 Lilly Arrhenius quoted in “Synpunkter på en kommande rationalisera och förenkla och vilka de idealiska arbetsformerna,
forskningsverksamhet på hemarbetets område. metoderna och maskinerna är, så måste man veta vilket målet
Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av Husmödrarnas är. Att rationalisera betyder att göra saker förnuftigt. Vad är
samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november 1943”, förnuftigt? Kanske man allmänt kan kalla det förnuftigt som
15-16. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a gagnar den individuella familjens psykiska och fysiska hälsa och
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: lycka. Men det räcker inte, det måste också gagna folkets liv i dess
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945 helhet och de inbördes relationerna mellan familjerna.”
80 “Synpunkter på en kommande forskningsverksamhet på 82 “Synpunkter på en kommande forskningsverksamhet på
hemarbetets område. Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av hemarbetets område. Inlägg vid diskussioner anordnade av
Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté den 10 och 18 november
1943”, 28. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a 1943”, 17-18. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945 Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945

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Chapter 6 Methods

Developing domestic research methods

In 1944, the research institute Hemmens forskningsinstitut (HFI, the Home
Research Institute) was officially founded, and located in the basement of the
Statens instititut för folkhälsan (the National Institute of Public Health). There,
the SSF and SAR housing and dwelling investigation had already previously,
in collaboration with Aktiv Hushållning, set up a fully equipped test kitchen to
prototype the planning of kitchens for new types of dwellings.
When the SAR and SSF dwelling investigation closed, the fact that there was a
test kitchen to build home research around was one of the factors promoted to push
the establishment of the HFI.83 The investment in equipment was already made,
the Institute for Public Health was keen on continuing supporting home research,
and Aktiv Hushållning would initially handle the administration of the new research
institute. Funding was secured from the consumer cooperation, from the Industry
association, and also a government grant, which enabled the research institute to
begin its work, in a relatively independent and flexible manner.84
The outspoken ambition at the HFI was to not begin with defining exactly
what the forms of research at the institute should be. How its work should be
conducted was instead left rather open, since the aim was to develop entirely
new investigative methods. These should contribute to systematically building
knowledge about domestic work and life in the home to bring about changes of
how these were done, and led. As stated in the constituting meeting in April of the
same year, the institute should:

Work for a systematic rationalisation of the working conditions in the Swedish

homes through research concerning the technical and economic problems that
are associated with the roles of homes as centres for consumption and work,
considering the psychological, hygienic, and social problems that are linked to
the general roles of the homes.85

In other words, the HFI inquiries aimed at understanding what happened when things
were brought into people’s lives in the home, and how activities defined as “work”
were carried out, and what that meant from a broad range of perspectives. That the
work needed to begin quickly was stressed in the planning and preparation work:

Thirteen women and two men formed the board of

the Hemmens forskningsinstitut in 1944. Riksarkivet,
Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv.
83 “Förslag till första etappen av undersökningsarbetet inom
kommittén för hemhushållnings- och hemarbetsstudier”
Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
84 Brita Åkerman, “Forskning för att förändra” in Åkerman,
Kunskap för vår vardag, 131-139.
85 “Riktlinjer för verksamheten och aktuella arbetsuppgifter vid
HFI”, HFI-meddelanden 1948-49:1, 1-2

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Chapter 6 Methods

Since many of the tasks to be investigated that this concerns are highly urgent
due to the planning work that in other areas is conducted regarding the post-war
production of dwellings and goods for consumption, regulations of educational
issues for the female workforce, and for the societal construction in general, it is
desirable that the investigative work be started as soon as possible.86

The measurability of domestic work

The initial studies carried out at the HFI in 1944 focused work physiological
investigations into three different types of housework: baking, doing dishes,
and cleaning floors. The committee planning the studies consisted of members
of the HFI board, including director Carin Boalt, while several persons were
hired for 4 to 7 months for some or all of the three studies.87 Over the years, the
number of permanent or temporary staff would vary, depending on the types of
competencies needed in the different studies, and the available funding.
The three activities – baking, doing dishes and cleaning floors – were chosen
since they were activities that would be carried out in all sorts of homes, on a daily
or weekly basis. The study focused on finding ways to measure ergonomics as well
as strain and energy consumption in working at different heights of workbenches
and in different postures, with the aim to:

investigate the possibilities of establishing an objective basis for assessing

certain domestic work in relation to the work method and work posture. Such a
method of assessment is necessary for the development of norms for fittings and
equipment of the work stations in the home and for the development of efficient
work methods in domestic work.88

86 “Förslag till första etappen av undersökningsarbetet inom

kommittén för hemhushållnings- och hemarbetsstudier”
Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
87 These were Boalt herself, for 7 months as operative secretary,
a home economics teacher, a rural home economics Time studies of potato peeling, in the series of HFI
teacher, two laboratory assistants, a time studies clerk, tests of potato peeling tools. Riksarkivet, Hemmens
and an office clerk. Besides Boalt, the members of the
forskningsinstituts arkiv.
committee were Greta Bergström, Greta Kastman and Sten
Lindegren (chair). “P.M. angående tekniska sektionens
verksamhet”. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII
a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
88 Arbetsfysiologiska undersökningar över hemarbetet. Hur mycket
tid och energi går åt vid bakning, diskning och golvrengöring
med olika arbetsställning. En undersökning utförd av
Carin Boalt, Ing-Britt Hagberg och Yngve Zetterman.,
1-2 “…undersöka möjligheten att ernå en objektiv bas
för bedömning av vissa husliga arbeten med hänsyn till
arbetsmetod och arbetsställning. En dylik bedömningsmetod
är erforderlig för utarbetandet av normer för inredning och
utrustning av arbetsplatserna i hemmet och för utarbetandet
av effektiva arbetsmetoder inom hemarbetet. I denna
undersökning har tidsåtgång och energiomsättning vid
utförande av vissa arbeten studerats.”

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Chapter 6 Methods

The aim was to find methods for the systematic study of housework, in order to in
a later stage redesign the ways certain types of work in the home was carried out.
In other words, to develop new methods for analysis as well as new methods for
doing housework.
In a pamphlet describing the procedures and outcomes of the study, all
aspects of the trials were accounted for in minute detail. In all of the studies, fatigue,
strain and energy consumption were measured in relation to different methods
of conducting the work, and various tools and equipment used. The studies were
thoroughly documented, down to details of room temperature atmospheric
pressure and at what time of day the test took place. Besides the measurable factors
of the context of the test, the more qualitative experience and training of the “test
subject” was also accounted for. In the laboratory studies of dishing, cooking and
cleaning, the same person performed all of the work tasks. She was described as a
woman thirty years of age, 164 cm and 58,9 kg, which was the equivalent of

the normal measures of a Swedish woman according to professor G Dahlberg

at the Institute for Racial biology, Uppsala. She was an experienced domestic
worker, who for several years had worked in a large number of different homes,
which had led to her not being tied to any specific working conditions such as
height of workbench, etc.89

The time studies were conducted by “a trained time study clerk”, who in detailed
protocols noted the exact amount of time spent on each step in different activities,
from the 110 seconds it took to mix yeast and milk when baking, to the 52 seconds
needed to scrape the dough from the bowl onto the workbench.90
In the HFI studies, the thoroughness and detail to which every aspect of work
was studies were reported with precision, in writing as well as with illustrations
of photographs and graphs. In the study of floor cleaning, for example, posture
(standing, kneeling) and equipment (broom, scrubber) were studied in relation
to the floor material (linoleum, wood) and accounted for as to the time and the
energy consumption for each method:

89 Arbetsfysiologiska undersökningar över hemarbetet,

5. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a Measuring energy and fatigue in the activity of baking.
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym Work physiological investigations in the home, the first HFI
1: Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945. “denna typ report in 1944. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts
motsvarade normalmåtten på svensk kvinna enligt professor
arkiv.
G Dahlberg vid Rasbiologiska institutet, Uppsala. Hon var
en van hemarbeterska, som i flera år arbetat i ett stort antal
olika hem, vilket medfört att hon ej blivit bunden vid några
särskilda arbetsförhållanden såsom bestämd bänkhöjd etc.”
90 “Tidprotokoll för bakning, 20/6 kl 9.40”. Riksarkivet.
Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a Handlingar
rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945

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Chapter 6 Methods

Linoleum carpet. The energy consumption during standing scouring was 4,04 changes in domestic work practices and its material manifestations included
kcal/min. and when lying considerably lower, 3,59 kcal/min. The time spent was collaborating with Swedish manufacturing industries to assess, and to develop,
on the other hand higher when kneeling than in standing posture, 9,41 resp. 6,88 the available tools for conducting domestic work as well as with architects and
min. For the after work, rinsing and drying there was no significant difference planners to redesign dwellings. Thus, already from the beginning of its research
in regard to energy consumption. As with scouring of wooden floors, also in this
practices, the HFI cultivated collaborations with both individual companies and
case a lower score was measured for the total energy consumption in standing
posture 27,8 than in lying posture 33,8 kcal. The difference here amounted to
with different organisations, in a similar manner to how the networks of women’s
22 percent.91 organisations had been established.
In order to be able to have a direct dialogue with different companies
In the measurement of energy consumption for different tasks, the equipment manufacturing household goods, the HFI set up a collaboration committee with
adopted was “the Douglas bag method for indirect calorimetry”.92 The instrument representatives for many different types of Swedish manufacturing industries.94
used was a breathing mask connected with a tube to a rubber bag – at HFI carried The chair was the CEO of Kockums ironworks, and represented were Husqvarna
by the test person on her back – and that measured oxygen uptake. While much weapons, the association of iron manufacturers (SJM), Sweden’s mechanical
attention has been given in historical accounts of these energy studies – indeed, workshop industries’ association, the electrical goods companies Elektriska ab
the photographs of women wearing the Douglas bag while working are one of Helios and Electrolux, and Separator. Through this collaboration committee, a
the most frequent illustrations of the HFI – the question of what was possible to number of more specialised technical sub-committees with engineers and other
measure, and what was actually important to find out, were foregrounded already staff from companies were organised within different industry areas. After a few
in this first study: years, there were technical committees for cutlery, floors and flooring materials,
knives, crockery, stoves and cooking vessels (pots and pans).95 These would meet
That a type of work is fatiguing can generally be seen to be synonymous with with the HFI staff to both discuss adequate testing methods, and to work together
its being tiring, that one thus can keep going for long periods of time. One asks in different steps of the testing processes carried out at the research institute.
oneself, then, what it is that lies behind this subjective feeling of work being tiring.93 At the HFI, it was the ‘technical section’, led by architect Carin Boalt who
planned and conducted all tests and studies of housework from technological,
So, while the more long-term scope of the research would be to investigate the economic and practical aspects. The institute planned which studies to perform
socio-psychological effects of certain types of work, a foundation of methods to on an overall level – for example dishwashing, kitchens for disabled housewives,
gain measurable data would be needed to provide the basis for moving further tools for cutting and slicing, vacuum cleaners etc. – and then developed ways to
towards more qualitative ways of studying work. perform the investigations in collaboration with the technical committees where
manufacturers were represented.
Collaboration with industry From 1948, the HFI also set up more permanent “housewives’ committees”
From the viewpoint of the development of design methods, the way that the HFI with the task of testing utensils and tools in their homes on an everyday basis.
in the 1940s took on the rethinking of seemingly taken-for-granted practices of The HFI would also receive material in the form of objects for testing on the direct
women’s work in domestic life, bears strong similarities to some of the central initiative from the producers, and in the process have a dialogue and collaboration
arguments brought forth in the design methods movement of the 1960s and with the specialised technical committees in regard to changing the design of the
1970s. If the aim is to base designing on formulations of design problems or design items based on the results. In some cases, certain manufacturers could discontinue
situations on as broad a basis of information about situations and verifiable facts a product that did not work well. In others, the tests could instead lead to joint
as possible, instead of making assumptions about what the design problem might initiatives towards agreements on standards for certain types of items – and,
be, there need to be ways of providing that broad collection of information. eventually, also to national norms and standards for environments and things.
The systematic ambitions at the Hemmens forskningsinstitut to bring about Based on the work at HFI, a Swedish national standard for kitchen layouts was
established in 1950, regarding heights, sizes of cupboards, and recommendations for
placement of sinks, stoves and other fittings. Standards were also found, for example,
91 Arbetsfysiologiska undersökningar över hemarbetet,
11. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a for jars and containers for canning and preservation, and children’s clothing.
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
92 Arbetsfysiologiska undersökningar över hemarbetet,
3. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a 94 Samarbetskommitté mellan Hemmens forskningsinstitut och
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: industriens branschföreningar 6/7 1944. Riksarkivet, Hemmens
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945 forskningsinstituts arkiv, AIII:1 Fullmäktiges protokoll, Övriga
93 Arbetsfysiologiska undersökningar över hemarbetet, protokoll 1943-1956.
2. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a 95 Brita Lövgren, Hemarbete som politik: diskussioner om
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: hemarbete, Sverige 1930-40-talen, och tillkomsten av Hemmens
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945 forskningsinstitut (diss., Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell), 148.

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Understanding users
Besides the laboratory-based studies into domestic work, the HFI also stressed
the importance of understanding what these practices and situations looked like
in ordinary Swedish homes. Initially, the methods for this built on traditional
questionnaires. In the studies carried out in the first year of HFI’s practice, the
national organisation Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté, (the Housewives’
Collaboration Committee) distributed a vast number of questionnaires through
the local sections of different women’s organisations.96 One targeted floor
materials and floor care, another dishwashing and dishwashing utensils.97
The questionnaires covered the ages and occupations of the household
members, the annual income per year (husband, wife and children), the specifics
of the dwelling, and the level of education of the housewife. Details about the
kitchen infrastructure (indoor plumbing, hot water, how much water was used
per time dishes were done) and the utensils used were asked for, along with as-
sessments of pros and cons with these. The participants were also asked to draw
a simple sketch of the kitchen sink and other areas used for dishes, from above,
with notations about where clean and dirty dishes were placed. Also noted was
the amount of time spent doing dishes, along with details of which member of the
household had taken part in the work. Several sections were dedicated to more
open questions regarding how doing dishes could be made easier and more ef-
ficient in regard to both utensils and other aspects, as well as if there were other
measures to be taken to make doing dishes less straining or time-consuming.
Engaging women to contribute with their experiences was explicitly framed as
a means to both highlight the importance of domestic work, and that the aim was to
find ways of making change happen based on the input from the participants. In the
introduction to the questionnaires, this aim towards making change was stated clearly:

To the participants in the domestic work survey! In order for improvements to be

made in the area of domestic work the housewives must tell what their situation
is, and what they wish for. We therefore ask you to answer the below questions
as thoroughly as possible. The more who participate in the survey and leave
detailed answers, the greater the possibility for us to show that the domestic
women’s work must be relieved and how this will be able to be done. We shall
then do our best to promote the housewives’ wishes.98

96 Aktiv Hushållning and Husmödrarnas samarbetskommitté

coordinated, and the distributing organisations were
Kooperativa kvinnogillesförbundet, Svenska Landsbygdens
kvinnoförbund, Sveriges Husmödraföreningars Riksförbund
and Sveriges Socialdemokratiska Kvinnoförbund.
“Hemarbetsundersökning nr 5. Disken och diskutrustningen” Questionnaire about doing dishes, from the HFI
(rapport). Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a housework investigation 1944-45. Riksarkivet, Hemmens
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 1: forskningsinstituts arkiv.
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
97 See, for example the questionnaire forms:
“Hemarbetsundersökning nr 5. Disken och diskutrustningen”,
“Hemarbetsundersökning nr 6. Golvmaterial och
golvvård”. Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
98 “Hemarbetsundersökning nr 5. Disken och diskutrustningen”.
Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a

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The women asked to participate were indeed interested in making their voices
heard. In the dishwashing study, a total of 2260 replies were gathered. Along with
highlighting of the probable knowledge bias in terms of previous engagement with
issues concerning domestic work, given that the women filling in the forms also
all were members of different organisations engaged in promoting such matters,
it was also considered probable that both equipment and work methods used by
the respondents might be of a higher than average quality.99
The material gathered for analysis in these early domestic work studies ranged
from the chemical study of components in detergents and cleaning products to the
controlled conditions of experiments in a laboratory context, to the gathering of
information about everyday practices in homes through questionnaires, and later
also observations and interviews with people in their home environments.
Laboratory studies formed the basis for the more quantitative analysis of
different aspects of housework, applying methods from the natural and technical
sciences in both analysis and communication of the results. In diagrams, different
relations were made visible, such as how the ratio between the time spent doing
dishes and the time it took for dishes to dry changed in relation to how dirty the
dishes had been, and what sort of food stuffs they had been used for.100 In the lab-
based time studies of dishwashing the time-study sheets divided the steps of the
activity based on what category of objects were washed thus also setting not only a
standard procedure for the test but for how dishwashing ideally should be carried
out. Different varieties of sinks, and different ways of doing the dishes – different
“methods of dishwashing” – were tried out in various combinations, clocking the
time needed and monitoring the movements and procedures.
The timing of the total activity started with “[g]etting brush, opening of water
tap” and the rinsing of plates, bowls, pots and pans, before the preparation of water for
dishing and rinsing. After that followed the following actual washing of the dishes in
order from glasses over cutlery and plates to utensils and pans, ending with the tapping
out water, wiping the sink, and hanging up the dish brush.101 Drying the dishes was
monitored separately, noting both the variety of dish stand, and the type of towel used.102

Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:

Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
99 More than half came from women living in the countryside, and
out of the 545 replies from women living in cities only a hundred
or so were from the three largest Swedish cities of Stockholm,
Gothenburg and Malmö. “Hemarbetsundersökning nr 5. Disken och
diskutrustningen” (rapport). Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut.
FII a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Time study protocol, doing dishes. Riksarkivet, Hemmens Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
forskningsinstituts arkiv. 100 Diagram ”Sambandet mellan disktiden och intorkningstidens
längd.” Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
101 “Diskmetod I 19.9-44” Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut.
FII a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
102 “Torkning o. nedsättning av glas 31.10-44”Riksarkivet.
Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a Handlingar rörande
hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2: Hemarbetsundersökningen
1944-1945

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The same equipment examined in the lab kitchen environment was also
sent out to several households to be tried and assessed in a home environment
throughout one to two months. A full inventory of all available dish brushes
currently on the Swedish market had already been made, and the brushes had
been analysed in regard to cost, materials and form. Many had been tried and
tested in a laboratory setting to assess work efficiency. Now, the question was how
the brushes worked in everyday environments over a longer period.
Dish brushes were distributed to women, through home consultants and
organisations, along with a questionnaire asking the participants that “the
enclosed dish brush be used regularly during a month in the household” and
after that returned together with the filled-in form. Besides the number of family
members in the household, the information provided by participants covered the
number of meals per day and which time of day they took place, together with
the approximate number of items washed each time. The brand of detergent was
listed, along with details about how the dish brush was stored in between doing
dishes, how long the total time spent each day doing dishes was, and if the test
brush was satisfactory or not – and the reasons for the opinion.103 The same was
done with dish stands, to be used for two months before returning them and the
form, stating their general comments along with opinions if the stand’s size was
“just right”, “unnecessarily large” or “too small”.104
In the questionnaires, the participating women gave their opinions on the
utensils used, often noting how materials used in the utensils made them difficult
to use – some wooden stands didn’t respond well to water, others left rust stains on
dishes and sinks – and how the design of different items played out in actual use.
Many found the dish stands difficult to use because of them being too large, or too
small, or impossible to place certain types of items such as glasses or oven forms in.
The feedback from the women using the dishwashing equipment in their
everyday environments was then compiled together with the lab-based studies of
different sinks and equipment in relation to time, movements, strain and posture,
the chemical analyses of different detergents and water temperatures, etc. and
published in the first HFI report, Diskning i hemmen (Dish-washing in the homes).
Time, it was stated, could definitely be saved if adequate tools and properly
planned sinks of a reasonable height were used. “Standard dishes” would be
ready 8 minutes earlier in such a setting than if a too small and poorly planned
workbench was used. Actions were also suggested in order to improve the “physical
and mental well-being” as well as the efficiency of the person doing the dishes.
In the conclusions, and the overview of tools and equipment included in the
publication, the suggestions made by the HFI spanned over recommendations for
the most efficient methods for doing dishes, over recommendations for producers Dishwashing study in the HFI test kitchen. Riksarkivet,
of equipment for improvements, to suggestions for standards in regard to heights Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv.
of workbenches and sinks. The work initiated in these studies eventually led to the

103 “Hemarbetsundersökningen. Utprovning av diskborstar i

hushåll. 2.4504” Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII
a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945
104 “Hemarbetsundersökningen. Utprovning av disktorkställ
i hushåll” Riksarkivet. Hemmens forskningsinstitut. FII a
Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar. Volym 2:
Hemarbetsundersökningen 1944-1945

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Chapter 6 Methods

Dish brushes from the

dishwashing study
published in 1946.
Riksarkivet, Hemmens
forskningsinstituts arkiv.
establishment in 1950 of a national standard for kitchen layout and fittings.
Taking the washing of dishes, an everyday activity that played out in all Swedish
households multiple times on a daily basis, as the first study to conduct and publish
was significant for how the HFI continued its work. As ambition was stated initially,
the research at the HFI should focus on the home, but not take any of the current
situations or ways of doing things for granted. The aim was to develop methods for
investigating everyday practices in the home, through assessing and redesigning
the tools used as well as investigating and developing the methods employed in
housework. Ultimately, the scope was to provide a change in material as well as
immaterial conditions for women’s position and power in society.
The studies conducted during the first years of the institute’s existence were
set up in light of what could strategically be expected to be managed in terms of
available people, their expert areas of knowledge and the funding and time frames
at disposal. Even if time measurement was a central part of the assessment of
how strenuous or time consuming a work task was, time studies alone would not
provide a basis for creating possibilities for change.
Already from the beginning, the explicit ambition at HFI was to push methods
of investigation and analysis beyond what was measurable – such as time studies,
chemistry and statistics – to more qualitative methods that would support studying
what was considered the crucial and complex issues: the individual and collective
experiences in the home, from psychological as well as sociological perspectives.
However, a fair amount of groundwork in regard to the more material and
measurable aspects of housework had to be covered first, to lay a foundation for the
more socio-psychological studies planned.
In descriptions of the methods used for evaluating different utensils for the
home, the quantifiable and measurable properties of an object were reasonably easy Questionnaire evaluating a month of doing dishes
to assess. However, equal weight and importance must be given to other factors with the dishbrush “Gloria”. Riksarkivet, Hemmens
determined through practical testing of these by actual users, “…such as shape of forskningsinstituts arkiv.

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handles, risk of causing damage during use, etc., [which] must of necessity be purely
subjective evaluations”.105 As one of the founders of HFI stated years later:

One wanted to see the different work processes in the home as a whole, where
there are a variety of different factors to take into account. It is for example not
enough to state that work is done in such or such a long time, or with a tool of this
or that making. One must try to see to the whole at the same time as one studies
the particularities of the work processes.106

In histories that touch upon the HFI, the main focus has been placed on the institute
as a promoter of the rationalisation of housework, and its role in establishing of
both consumer advice and women as expert consumers. Through its application of
scientific methods aiming to change the ways women worked in the kitchen and its
role in establishing consumer advice based on systematic comparison and studies,
the HFI has figured as an important organisation in the history of consumer activism
and empowerment.107 However, very little attention has been turned to the practices
of designing that were developed at the HFI. Many of the methods developed at the
HFI for investigating and assessing the tools and equipment already for sale on the
Swedish market, also became applied in processes aiming to determine how new
things could be designed based on the insights given through the new methods.

Dishwashing in a new apartment kitchen, with a sink so

Rational home management
small the dish stand needs to be placed on a chair.
As such, some of the methods developed at the HFI fell back on a previously
HFI-meddelanden 1944:1, Diskning i hemmen, 94.
existing discourse of rational home reform that had been advocated in relation to
the increasing industrialisation in the West since the mid-19th century. Household
work should be considered a profession equal to salaried work outside the home,
and improvements in terms of the work environment, tools and methods were
needed in order for housewives to become established as true professionals.
Through a systematic study of the ways cooking and related work was done,
the ambition was to create a labour-saving kitchen that would ease the burden
of women’s work as well as establish a professional role for women as experts on
domestic work. The emphasis on rational and scientific methods for assessing
best practices and the most efficient ways to carry out work in the kitchen placed
the common everyday tasks of women in a context of potential societal change.
If work were to be carried out differently, and if kitchens were considered to
be workplaces of equal importance to the workplaces men held outside the home,
women’s roles and influences in society would be strengthened. Using a rational
and industrial logic to study and analyse domestic work became a legitimising
factor used to argue for the value of housework.
These initiatives were connected both to the increasing lack of domestic
105 Undersökningar av småredskap: Stekspadar, potatisskalare,
konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4, 9.
106 Carin Boalt, “Hemmens forskningsinstitut”, in Åkerman,
Kunskap för vår vardag, 152.
107 Ulrika Torell, Jenny Lee, & Roger Qvarsell (eds.) Köket: Rum
för drömmar, ideal och vardagsliv under det långa 1900-talet Studies of stacking dishes while sitting. Riksarkivet,
(Stockholm: Nordiska museets förlag, 2018).; Britta Lövgren Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv.
Hemarbete som politik: Diskussioner om hemarbete, Sverige
1930-40-talen, och tillkomsten av Hemmens forskningsinstitut,
diss. (Stockholm, 1993).

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servants, as young women would rather work in industries and offices than in the
homes of others. In the US, the advocacy of rational home management was also,
for example in the case of Catharine Beecher, argued rationalisation of housework
both as a method for professionalising the housewife’s work and as a strategy
towards the abolishment of slavery. With efficient methods for home keeping, a
woman could run her own household in a modern way, also without enslaving
other persons.108 For early home economics and domestic work rationalisation
advocates such as Catharine Beecher around the 1850s, the aim was thus to both
change the ways work in the home was conducted, and how housework was
valued, and how social structures and societal systems functioned.109 Rationalising
domestic work was one means towards the liberation of women, and enslaved
persons, through the application of scientific methods and arguments.
Around the turn of the century 1900, Christine Fredericks and others argued
for the introduction of scientific management and industrial engineering as means
to increase efficiency and financial gain in the industry was quickly also advocated
as methods suitable for adoption in the home.110 The methods for motion studies
conducted of bricklayers and other workers by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth were
later introduced to study women working in kitchens. Emphasising efficiency in
movement, the studies aimed to simplify housework and make it more rational.
The movements, postures and procedures involved in everyday work were as
thoroughly analysed as that of different types of professional work, using time-
taking and motion studies, in combination with photography.
The Gilbreths worked with analysing motion studies, as well as fatigue, of the
assembly and disassembly of small arms during world war one, as well as studies
of cooking and other kitchen work. The way that these studies were made bear
strong resemblance to the posture studies also carried out in what later became
known as ergonomics. In a context of tracing the roots of where design methods,
such as ergonomic studies, once emerged, it seems just as plausible to draw a
connection to these motion and posture studies in everyday kitchen settings, as it
is to draw them to military technological development situations.
That the kitchen became a location for modernisation, in terms of technological
innovation as well as architectural layout and the rationalisation of housework in the
early decades of the 20th century has been emphasised in several historical studies.111
In a Western and global North context, the attention paid to re-thinking and

108 Catherine E. Beecher, A treatise on domestic economy, for the use of young ladies at
home, and at school (New York, 1848).
109 Janice Williams Rutherford, Selling Mrs. Consumer: Christine Frederick and the rise
of household efficiency (Athens & London: University of Georgia Press, 2003).
110 Christine Fredericks, The New Housekeeping: Efficiency Studies in Home The most common ways to hold a whisk. HFI-meddelanden
Management (Garden City, N.Y., 1918); Mrs. Frank A. Pattison, “Scientific 1948-49:1, 20.
management in home-making”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science 1913:1 (vol. 48), 96-103.
111 Juliet Kinchin & Aidan O’Connor, Counter Space: Design and the Modern Kitchen
(New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2011); Ulrika Torell, Jenny Lee & Roger
Qvarsell (eds.) Köket: Rum för drömmar, ideal och vardagsliv under det långa
1900-talet (Stockholm: Nordiska museets förlag, 2018); Barbara Penner, “The
Cornell Kitchen: Housing and Design Research in Postwar America”, Technology
and Culture 2018:1(vol.59), 48–94; Ruth Oldenziel & Karin Zachmann, Cold War
kitchen: Americanization, Technology, and European Users (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2009).

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redesigning the kitchen has played a quite significant role in attempting to reform
everyday life. In Germany, as part of the Bauhaus-inspired modernist endeavours
to produce rational and modern dwellings adapted to a new and democratic way of
life – as well as rational and low-cost in production – included making the kitchen
smaller and more laboratory-like. The Frankfurt kitchen, designed by Margarete
Schütte-Lihotzky for the social housing project in Frankfurt in 1926 built on the ideas
of labour-saving layout and efficiency in work as defined in works of scientific home
management, and incorporated modernist ideals of the definition and separation
of different functions in the floor plan of the home.112
The ideas about the rationalisation and scientific management of the home
and housework came to be adopted in Sweden as well, already from the early
years of the 20th century, by women’s organisations as well as by the consumer
cooperation.113 Modernising women’s work through adopting new technologies
and through the reformation of ways of conducting everyday domestic work came
to unite women with quite diverse social and political agendas.
The rationalisation of housework was seen as a means for giving women
increased status as expert professionals, and thus a position from which to argue
for the rights to full citizenship in a new type of society – with rights to vote, and
new relations between men and women. For others, the focus on female caring and
domestic abilities in relation to homemaking instead served as a way to strengthen
and maintain existing societal structures based on ideas of women’s specific abilities
as wives and mothers.
Whatever the aim of the initiatives, the result did become that women actually
gained influence in the public and political realm through establishing expertise in
the domestic sphere. As experienced users, and professionals in the areas of cooking,
cleaning and caring for children and family, the ‘housewife’ was established as an
expert on equal terms with expert professionals from other areas. 114

Motion studies and ergonomics

The research at HFI was conducted in multidisciplinary teams, building on
bringing together different sorts of expertise. Teachers in home economics and
cooking would work together with physiotherapists, chemists and engineers both
in setting up and in evaluating various studies, and bring in ordinary housewives’
views as well, which was a practice adopted from the very beginning of the HFI.
And quite quickly, some methods of study became core to almost all the different
domestic work areas and utensils investigated.
One area that became prominent, already from the first work studies conducted
at the HFI, was that of posture, motion studies and ergonomics. Testing different
grips and documenting movements established attention to the ways that women Horizontal projection and motion study of doing dishes
interacted with specific tools as well as with kitchen – or apartment – environments as using different sinks. HFI-meddelanden 1944: 1, Diskning i
hemmen, 57.

112 Finn Arne Jørgensen, “Frankfurt Kitchen, Germany (Grete

Lihotzky, 1926)”, in Grace Lees-Maffei (ed.) Iconic designs: 50
stories about 50 things (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 167–164.
113 Peder Aléx, Konsumera rätt: Ett svenskt ideal: behov,
hushållning och konsumtion (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2003).
114 Boel Berner, “Housewives’ Films and the Modern Housewife.
Experts, Users and Household Modernization. Sweden in the
1950s and 60s” History and Technology, vol 18 (3), 2002, 155-179.

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a whole, which became an important factor for assessing and developing work tools
as well as workflows.
In many of the tests conducted, studies of movement and grips stand out in
photographs as well as in diagrammatic representations. In the dishwashing study,
the arm movements were documented in relation to the placement of the sinks
and drying stands. Pots and pans were assessed in relation to how the handles
worked for different size hands, as well as how the grips worked when lifting or
pouring from, them. Images documented and explained the differences materials
and designs made for ease of handling objects from an ergonomic perspective.
As an example, we can take a closer look at the 1946 study of household
equipment. Around 100 different utensils categorised as “small tools”— spatulas,
potato peelers and can openers – were inventoried and investigated.115 The
survey studied the “main types” of each group of utensils, based on a systematic
analysis of what was available on the market. The different tests and comparisons
were structured so that the functions of each category were determined, and the
utensils were then tested in regard to their usability:

The material and construction has been determined and for each group a series
of practical functional tests have been made, all with the purpose to shed light
on the qualities that are essential to an assessment of the usability of each tool.116

The tests followed the same basic method, with slight variations where “one
has wanted to try different ways”. Durability and flexibility of the material in, for
example, spatulas were tested using established quantitative methods. While it is
relatively easy, the report stated, to make quantitative assessments of time used,
materials and construction, it is more difficult to assess more subjective aspects
of use, such as the form and suitability of grips. In order to address this challenge,
groups of people were engaged in tests where the ways of working with a utensil
in context could give insights into form and usability.117
Aspects of form and ergonomics when it came to grips and handles became
a central aspect of consideration in the evaluation of tools. Function requirements
were set up, sometimes in the form of flow charts, that then guided the evaluation
in the practical user testing. In a description of the testing of potato-peelers, the
function tests were accounted for in detail:

The method for the practical function tests has been the following. Batches of 0,5
kg (6 pcs.) mid-sized, well-washed potatoes of homogenous quality were peeled
and cleaned. The time consumed was measured, by which part-times were
noted for peeling and cleaning, motivated ty that these operations were carried
out with different parts of the utensil. The test batches were first peeled and
then cleaned in context. The scale is in one hundreds of a minute. The peeled
and polished potatoes were weighed with an accuracy of 5 g and the peeling Kitchens for ‘disabled housewives’. HFI-meddelanden
loss has been calculated in percent of the weight of the starting material. Four 1951:5.
test batches were peeled with each utensil and medians of time consumed and

115 Undersökning av småredskap. Stekspadar, potatisskalare,

konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4.
116 Undersökning av småredskap. Stekspadar, potatisskalare,
konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4, 3.
117 Undersökning av småredskap. Stekspadar, potatisskalare,
konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4, 3-4.

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peeling loss have been calculated. These tests were carried out by a test person
accustomed to household work, that during the test gave their assessment of
the form of blade and handle from a perspective of work and of ease of cleaning.
These qualities were tested by another two test persons, that each peeled and
cleaned four batches with each utensil.118

Bringing in the voices and experiences of users into the work with assessing things
and environments was something that happened from the early years. These users
were brought in not only as subjects of study in time or motion studies but in their
roles of being experts of their experiences, whether interviewed in a home or a lab
environment. Working together with physiotherapists and with other HFI experts,
the users’ comments and suggestions on how equipment could be improved were
taken into account and reported in the HFI publications.
The conclusions in regard to the design and production of household
equipment thus took into consideration not only materials and construction but
also form and use as factors determining what a usable and appropriate design
would be. In the 1946 report, for example, it was stated that for spatulas “[t]he handle
should be formed so that it lies well in the hand and have an adequate length to that Study of small tools: can openers,
the fingers do not come into contact with the, under use, hot blade.”119 spatulas, and potato peelers. HFI-
This attention to ergonomics, to grips, postures and movement in relation to meddelanden 1946:4.
work in the home contributed to bringing these considerations into the designing
Designing at the HFI
of household equipment. It could be possible that these studies also were
The HFI had, in its first three years set up an extensive research practice, and
foundational for the later practices of similar design methods in the 1960s and
developed new methods for investigating work and life in the home. The initial
1970s Sweden. By the end of 1947, the HFI annual report stated that the methods
focus on quantitative methods was quite strong but always set in relation to
developed at the institute had now reached a level of maturity that would allow for
both considerations and attempts to find methods to probe the less quantitively
a closer collaboration with other stakeholders, nationally as well as internationally:
measurable aspects of home life and domestic work. The explicit aims of the HFI
were to influence the production of household goods and have an impact on the
The methods for the investigation and the reporting of results have stabilised.
The time of preparatory experiments has passed and the institute can now f.ex. things and tools used in the households, and on developing ways of understanding
when it comes to taking up a new area fairly well overview the test that need to and investigating the use and the users of these.
be made and the different methods that should come into use. Simplifications As seen in the methods development activities sketched above, this is where
of the methods have gradually been able to be bade without diminishing the we possibly can discern the early roots of a user-centered design process that
demands on versatility and exactitude. The institute believes that it is desirable incorporated ergonomics, ethnography, iterative prototyping, user testing and
to bring about methods discussions with researchers from other areas and with user experience considerations. Already in 1950, a study focusing only on work
those who in other countries earlier than us have picked up on home research posture and ergonomics in different types of housework was inspired by the latest
according to the same guidelines. One area where one above all is interested in research and developments in industry-focused occupational science.121 And a
increased methodical efficiency is in regard to the collaboration between the
year later, a similar study was made of how homes and equipment would need to
tests made at the research institute and the tests and trials that housewives and
be designed to accommodate the needs of disabled housewives’ in carrying out
teachers make in their respective workplaces.120
different types of work.122
In the HFI studies of objects, the materials, production, use and function
were all investigated. HFI mapped work methods and equipment relating to the
processes (conservation, food preparation) and tools (knives, whisks, spatulas,
tin openers etc.) relating to cooking, laundry, cleaning and so on. In all cases,
there were precise advice and guidelines given both about which tools were
118 Undersökning av småredskap. Stekspadar, potatisskalare, preferable, and also which improvements should be made to existing objects.
konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4, 16. Testing included user studies, ergonomic evaluations and often also prototyping
119 Undersökning av småredskap. Stekspadar, potatisskalare, other solutions for design and production. Suggestions for improvements were
konservöppnare. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4, 15.
120 “Styrelsens protokoll nr 19 fört vid sammanträde den 26 maj kl
10 å HFI. Årsberättelse 1947 bilaga 1”. Riksarkivet, Hemmens 121 HFI-meddelanden 1950:4, 52-58.
forskningsinstituts arkiv, AI:1 Styrelsens protokoll 1944-1957 122 “Kök för invalidiserade husmödrar”, HFI-meddelanden 1951:5, 13.

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Study of a variety of spatulas. HFI-meddelanden 1946:4.

mainly communicated in the technical committees, directly to the manufacturers,

but sometimes also more publicly made evident in the HFI publications. At times,
the HFI also prototyped and proposed designs of their own of different tools and
equipment. The design could be either openly published in their reports, or The four different grips tested when prototyping different
proposed to all producers engaged in a technical committee. knife handles. HFI-meddelanden 1947:2, 119.
In a study initiated in 1944, kitchen knives were evaluated in terms of construction
and materials, as well as in use. Around 100 categories of knives were available on the
market, and the 300 different designs of knives from various categories assessed in
the study were of very varied quality. The user tests showed that none of the knives
was satisfactory from an ergonomic perspective of use. In a later article describing the
study, the authors note that “there was at that time very little literature that treated grip
functions, but a few German work science studies that gave impulses”.123
Methods for studying the ergonomics of knife handles in use situations, therefore,
had to be developed at the HFI. Women with varying degrees of experience in domestic
work were enrolled to take part in user testing of different knife grips in order to

define the traits of the hand amongst others by taking imprints of the hands to
determine the hand size. [---] In order to study the grips during work with cutting
knives the test persons were asked to perform a number of ordinary kitchen tasks,
like cutting meat in slices, fileting fish, cutting root vegetables. One could discern
four main types of operations: 1) cutting straight slices vertically 2) cutting slanted
slices vertically, 3) cutting horizontally – fileting 4) dicing or slivering.124

123 Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 173.

124 Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 173.

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The 24 users were asked to give their comments on the knife grips, assigning scores
from 1 to 5 and to also during the tests give “specified assessments about the form
and dimensions of the knife shafts, which have been noted in the protocols and after
that summarised.”125 At the same time, the grips that the users applied were studied
by the HFI experts, who noted similarities and differences between test persons and
types of cutting, in order to try to define the design space for a new type of handle.
Based on these studies, seven new forms for handles were prototyped in
plastic clay and tested together with the users. These clay prototypes were adjusted
so that the dimensions were increased, the edges more rounded, and the back of
the shaft dented to make a support for the fingers. The manufacturers represented
in the technical committee were asked to create a set of wood prototypes and send
back to HFI for a new round of user testing in the HFI test kitchen.126
After a new round of testing, three refined models of kitchen knife handles
were decided upon. A new round of testing took place to define the materials
most suited for the handles, as well as the methods for fastening the blade. After
different tests, including 300 rounds of dishwashing, the recommendation was to
use the densest wood possible for the handles – ebony, bubinga, rosewood – and
possibly, in the future, birch or beech if the development of synthetic dyes would
eventually allow colouring processes that dyed the wood entirely through.
This iterative prototyping, with alternating qualitative user studies and more
quantitative tests in which prototypes were increasingly refined in terms of both form
and materials, resulted in the design of new kitchen knives that came into production
the year after the HFI report was published. But besides the design of the physical
tools, what was also designed at the institute was a new type of process for designing
based on evaluating and developing form and usability in an iterative process.
The process of designing was itself also iterated immediately after defining
the types of kitchen knives to take to production, this time prototyping smaller
types of kitchen knives for peeling and trimming. The process with testing grips in
relation to cutting techniques, blade length, materials, and prototyping different
handles, led to that also two new models of smaller knives came into production.127
Another early HFI product design that built on extensive testing, both of ma-
terials, production methods and prototyping with users, was the launch of new
types of pots and pans for cooking. That study was also initiated in 1944, based on
the centrality and frequency of use in the kitchens of these products. The function-
al demands set as criteria for the study were formulated in terms resembling those
of a function analysis set-up:

125 HFI-meddelanden 1947, 118.

126 “Protokoll fört vid tekniska sektionens konferens den 27 maj
1946”. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv, AIII:1
Fullmäktiges protokoll, Övriga protokoll 1943-1956.
127 Knives were manufactured by at least two companies; Berg
manufaktur, and Karlsson & Nilsson knivfabrik (examples of
these are, since 2017, part of the collection of industrial design
artefacts at the Swedish national museum, Nationalmuseum:
NMK 65/2017). However, in order to describe and analyse
the details around the manufacturing of these knives more in
detail, more extensive archival studies would be needed than Prototype of frying pan tested for grip and weight. HFI-
have been made here. meddelanden 1950:1-2.

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They shall have a mechanical solidity and resist high temperatures and quick
temperature changes. They shall further be resistant from a chemical point of
view and not be affected by different ingredients used in cooking. They shall not
either discolour the food or tinge the taste or contain poisonous substances that
can precipitate. It must not be easy to burn the food in them and they shall be
effective and economical from a heating perspective. The cooking vessels shall
further be easy to lift and carry and easy to pour from. It shall be easy to stir in
them and easy to flip when frying and baking. It shall be easy to clean them.128

Extensive material testing and inventories of the current production were done
together with the HFI technical committee for cooking vessels and a committee for
standardisation of cooking vessels appointed by the Swedish workshop industries
(SMS), the Swedish electrical companies testing unit (KPA) and the Institute
for public health. Together, these all developed methods for how to go about
conducting the actual material testing, and made proposals for standards for how
to test vessels for resistance to outer force, to chemicals and so on. Methods for
how to assess criteria such as how easily food was burnt, led to descriptions of the
methods for how to boil milk and flour in such a way that the whole bottom of the
pan was burnt, and then methods for analysing the degree of burns on a scale:

in each study a thorough inspection and assessment of the bottom surface was
done after a 7-step scale produced with colour crayons. In each test, the bottom
was drawn on white paper, the burnt area measured, drawn up and coloured
with the according to the colour scale appropriate colour, after which it was
numbered.129

From the user testing, it was concluded that the placement of handles on
all available pots and pans was generally dissatisfactory from an ergonomic
perspective. In the redesign of the cooking vessels, and in the material that also
came to be proposed as standards for cooking vessels, the placement of the
handles was moved lower on the pans and the sizes and shapes of the handle in
relation to the size and function of the vessel specified. Additionally, to facilitate
pouring from the pots, a new design for a fold or lining of the opening was
designed, to ease the movement as well as to reduce dripping. In 1953, many of
these innovations were established as the Swedish national standard (SMS 1536
66), and the studies subsequently also formed the bases for national standards of
cooking utensils in both Finland, in 1967, and Denmark, in 1972.130

Yet another example of a prototyping-based design process was the redesign of a

Prototyping different knife handles in clay at HFI, based on
series of cutlery that was used in the military and in health care. Together with the
user testing. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv.
technical committee on cutlery, a process was initiated in 1947, aiming to further
improve the cutlery from both usability and manufacturing points of view. In a
series of iterations – where the prototypes were produced by the Gense cutlery
manufacturer – grip studies were made, as well as studies of which type of fork
teething was most suitable for different sorts of foods, and ease of cleaning.

128 Quoted in Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 170.

129 Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 171.
130 Åkerman, Kunskap för vår vardag, 172.

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Clay knife handle prototypes. HFI-meddelanden 1947:2.

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Whose design?
Already in 1945, the question if the HFI should take credit for innovations and
new designs had surfaced during a board meeting. An engineer had contacted
the HFI, proposing that they should hire him to assist with innovation and patent
processes, so that the HFI could begin producing designed objects and gain
income from these.132 After a few weeks of discussion, the conclusion from the
HFI board came to be that the institute needed to be clear about how to handle
any inventions that would be made by staff within the HFI:

It was emphasised that the HFI should not seek patents, but publish developed
proposals. Improvements that one wishes to suggest in tools or machines, which
have been handed in by individual firms should be notified to said firms.133

The policy for the HFI was thereby set: There should be no individual claims to
designs made by HFI staff, and any designs that were not specifically previously
linked to a specific company should be openly published according to a sort of
open access policy, for anyone to make use of. This reluctancy to credit individuals
as designers of products at the HFI is not expanded on further in the archival
material. Still, it might possibly have something to do with the strong emphasis
on collective processes at the institute.
The work at the HFI was conducted in team constellations covering diverse
Old knives, HFI-designed knives, and clay handle disciplines and expertise. Methods for testing and developing tools thus came
prototypes. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv. together from different fields and disciplines, and many times also further
developed or re-invented in the iterative processes of testing and designing at the
When the results of the redesign were presented in the HFI-meddelanden in HFI. Quantitative methods were brought in from science and engineering, and
1950, these were compared to the newly launched Gense series “Facette” designed qualitative methods from sociology and physiotherapy. These investigations, and
by Folke Ahrström. In the comparison, the article stated that from a usability point the development of methods, took time. In the archival material, the board and
of view, the two series were both very well designed. Still, while Ahrström’s cutlery steering group of HFI quite frequently discuss how to respond to the increasing
probably was “the most aesthetically pleasing cutlery to have been produced in demands from different stakeholders in the women’s organisations to provide
Sweden”, it was found lacking in comparison to the standard cutlery design when clear recommendations and advice on best practices in regard to methods for
it came to the ergonomics of the grips.131 carrying out housework.
This comparison of on the one hand design as something “aesthetic”, and on From notations in meeting minutes, it seems that the issue of publications
the other as something to do with usability and ergonomics, points to the shift in in the HFI report series were up for discussion now and then. It seems these
design process and foundations established at the HFI. The methods developed were considered to be much too academic, too scientific, and too extensive, to
for defining functional requirements, the methods for assessing different aspects be accessible for the general public. For the purpose of spreading information, a
from a user perspective, and the collaborative processes in research as well as press function was established that could translate the scientific findings into more
in developing the final designs were something else than that which was usually accessible formats, providing articles for print and radio. Similarly, producers of
considered to be “design” at the time. different tools and equipment meant that the publications were too extensive, and
asked that the HFI would launch a clear and straightforward system of approval,
so that producers then could apply a statement of “approved by the HFI” to their
products as part of their marketing work.

132 Arbetsutskottets protokoll nr 21 fört vid sammanträde den 1

februari 1945. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv,
AII:1 Arbetsutskottets protokoll, Arbetsutskottets protokoll
19-45 1945.
133 Arbetsutskottets protokoll nr 26 fört vid sammanträde den 5
april 1945. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv,
AII:1 Arbetsutskottets protokoll, Arbetsutskottets protokoll
131 HFI-meddelanden 1950:2, 1p. 03. 19-45 1945.

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While similar discussions seem to have surfaced now and then, the HFI
continued to resist invitations from manufacturers to provide some sort of label
of recommendation. In the case of the HFI designed kitchen knives that came into
production, the issue of recommendations is again surfaced at an internal HFI
meeting when the manufacturer E.A. Berg had sent over their latest production
examples of the knife design: “In the knife packaging had been placed a note with
the following text ‘Tried and recommended by the Hemmens forskningsinstitut’.
Decision to discuss this item further with the technical committee for knives and
raise it with the industry collaboration committee.”134
While some of the designs for new tools and utensils developed by the HFI
did come into production, several other proposals for new designs made at the
HFI did not. In the HFI-meddelanden, reports on studies conducted, there were
several examples of quite specific suggestions for new designs of different things
that the HFI shared in an open-access format in the publication. The aim with
this was to provide both inspiration – and in some cases also technical drawings
and material specifications – that would allow producers to pick up on the item
and start producing it. In the report on tools for mashing, for example, there were
two different “HFI-types” of mashers designed and described, with the hope that
someone would produce them. However, the companies were often reluctant to do
this, which caused the HFI to also raise this issue during a meeting with the industry
collaboration committee in 1948.
In the discussion that followed, the lead of the HFI technical section Carin Boalt
raised the question of why the producers often did not readily alter their existing
manufacture according to the results presented by the HFI. She took the example of
the potato peelers studied early on by the HFI, and pointed to that the ones that had
been deemed the best in the study were still hard to find on the market, and that none
of the suggested improvements on the others had seemed to have been made.
The industry representatives pointed to that one problem was that any
changes in design and production of for example a potato peeler would need to be
renegotiated with the state price control committee, to adjust the price range that
the company could place it in sales-wise. This committee, active between 1940
and 1956, was tasked with regulating the level of costs and prices for goods and
services in Sweden. Negotiations were held with companies and organisations,
but it was the committee that ultimately decided the reasonable price ranges for
different products. From 1942 and for the duration of the war, there was a cap on
almost all increases in prices.
This led to that any changes to existing designs that would make production
more expensive, could often not result in the manufacturer increasing the price for
HFI-designed cutlery. HFI-meddelanden 1950 1-2. the item unless the redesign was so substantial that it could be argued to be a new
design altogether, which then could allow setting a higher price.135 Making changes

134 “Arbetsutskottets protokoll nr 107 fört vid sammanträde den

20 januari 1948”. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts
arkiv, AII:1 Arbetsutskottets protokoll, Arbetsutskottets
protokoll 19-45 1945.
135 “Protokoll fört vid sammanträde med Samarbetskommittén
mellan industrin och Hemmens forskningsinstitut
onsdagen den 4 februari 1948.” Riksarkivet, Hemmens
forskningsinstituts arkiv, AIII:1 Fullmäktiges protokoll, Övriga
protokoll 1943-1956

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in existing production, therefore, seemed more difficult for the companies than
working together with the HFI on developing new designs. For the HFI, already
from the experiences gathered after the first year of its running research, it was the
focus on developing new designs in collaboration with industry that seemed the
most interesting and strategic route, rather than only comparing, assessing and
approving existing products.136
Despite this close collaboration with industry, and the aims to engage in design
for commercial production of goods, the institute aimed towards finding ways to
balance this against its free-standing character. Being an independent research
institute was important to the HFI, and any recommendations or suggestions that
would lead consumers towards a particular brand or producer in the situation of
acquisition had to be based on very objective criteria and evaluations, so as not to
be seen as a bias from HFI towards a particular manufacturer. Instead, it was the
independent work, with support and contacts with the manufacturers that the HFI
believed would bring about better quality goods for people to buy and to use.
So, while the information shared through the HFI publications to a great
extent focused comparisons of existing goods on the market, with as unbiased
information as possible about strengths and weaknesses, the overarching
ambitions with the work at HFI went well beyond providing a basis for a decision
of what to buy. The main goal was to effect change on a level of production, so
that tools provided were of better quality in general, and to change the position
of women in society through professionalising housework. As the aim was to
improve the overall work conditions in the home, through both repositioning the HFI designs suggesting improved potato mashers. HFI-
value of housework and the status of women’s work through providing adequate meddelanden 1948-49:1.
tools and environments, the HFI wished that a range of producers would widely
adopt the design suggestions or innovations developed in their processes.
However, these ambitions came to a halt in the mid-1950s. Due to changes Making design methods
in leadership, organisation and funding, the experimental practices were
discontinued. In 1954, the HFI and Aktiv Hushållning merged into a single unit, The aim with the brief history prototyped above has been to exemplify what a design
which led to a restructuring of internal organisation as well as of work tasks. The history of design methods could look like when the development of methods for
staff of HFI was no longer allowed to continue designing products but were instead researching everyday life, and for designing products for the home at the Hemmens
tasked to provide information for consumers. forskningsinstitut in the 1940s are approached as design. That these activities have
The HFI was instructed to only work with the objective comparison and not previously been included in mainstream histories of Scandinavian design – nor
assessment of existing goods as a service to consumers to make informed choices in broader sketches of histories of user-centered design inevitably brings up the
of products. For this work, the institute was instructed by its new management question of what it is that qualifies as ‘design’, and what as its history.
to only use methods that had already been developed and proven efficient, and When we search for histories of design, we tend to look in places where others
discontinue the development of any new methods or expansions into non-tangible have looked before, and those places often seem very similar to those in which
areas of investigation. The once continuous exploration of methods thereby came ‘designing’ takes place today. Much of design history has been narrated in formats
to a halt and fossilised into defined assessment techniques and evaluation tools. and traditions close to art history, applying perspectives from material or visual
When the HFI in 1957 once again was transformed and became the state-funded culture. Design histories have come to have a relatively strong focus on design
Konsumentinstitutet (Consumers’ Institute), most of the team members who had understood as outcomes, whether as design authorship and design objects or as the
been active in establishing the institute and developing its methods of working cultures and meanings these form and are a part of. Discussions of what qualifies as
had by then either left or been fired. activities and things important to include in design history have expanded the areas
in which to search for what could be important to understand in terms of histories.
Still, in terms of highlighting different possibilities, these histories have often been
136 “Protokoll 5 25 oktober 1945, på byggnadsföreningen approached as complementary or additive.
Norrlandsgatan 11. Bilaga 2 PM rörande forsknings- In histories where the work carried out at the HFI does surface, it is usually
och undersökningsverksamheten inom HFI 1945 och
from the perspective of consumer perspectives. Feminist historians of technology
1946 utarbetad i oktober 1945”. Riksarkivet, Hemmens
forskningsinstituts arkiv, AI:1 Styrelsens protokoll 1944-57.
have discussed HFI and similar women’s organisations as significant for

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establishing women as consumers, linking technological expertise to traditions of New methods cannot force us to do good, nothing can, but they do change the
craft and domesticity. HFI has been seen either as a consumer rights organisation context of designing. There is a morality in widening the scope of life; what was
or as a social engineering initiative towards professionalising domestic work and before inevitable becomes now a conscious choice. And once this widening,
a housewife ideal, rather than as an entity having to do with designing. this prior liberation, has occurred it is no longer realistic but insulting to refuse
the ideals and purposes that are now possible. Industrial life HAS changed its
A recent general overview of Swedish modern history describes, with an
nature in recent years and thus includes the means of pursuing aims never tried
ironically dismissive twist, the purpose of HFI as mainly aiming to rationalise before. Of course the enlargement of what is possible includes the enlargement
domestic work, and that it “[d]uring its heyday, the end of the 1940s, research reports of what is bad as well as good, that is the risk, unavoidable. A new responsibility
published shared important results, such as that the height of the kitchen sink affects for which the institutions and professions and roles we inherit are surely unable
the time consumed when baking sponge cake.”137 Swedish design historian Lasse by their form and nature to respond.139
Brunnström does point to the importance of HFI for developing standards, and
quality tested approvals of domestic consumer goods. He mentions that the institute Returning to the question of what design histories that take a starting point in
also designed certain objects, but seems to characterise the HFI products as “lacking methods might bring to designing, one question is what ‘design’ is understood to
aesthetic refinement” in comparison to the later ergonomic user-centered Swedish be, and where it is expected to take place. A reason why the HFI so far has not been
design of the 1960s and 1970s.138 foregrounded in design history, is probably that it has been considered as a place
However, since the aims of the design practices at the institute were not where designed things were evaluated rather than one where designing took place.
founded in exploring or developing form from an aesthetic foundation, this is
hardly something that would make the HFI less interesting to include in histories During the 1940s and 1950s, the work done at HFI was not spoken of as ‘design’
of design. Rather the contrary: the work at the HFI explicitly aimed towards finding as such, so when looking for instances of that which is labelled ‘design’, it would
other foundations, and other methods, for the development of everyday tools for the not stand out. In Swedish, up until the mid-1940s, the term used was formgivning,
home. It was precisely through the adoption of scientific methods and procedures ‘form-giving’. And clearly, what the HFI focused on was something different than
that the HFI sought both foundations and legitimacy for their design work. that. Designing understood as form-giving was mainly considered an individual
The HFI, during its first 8-10 years, worked according to an overall programmatic artistic endeavour. Such a design process would begin with sketching and with
ambition, proposing that systematic research into everyday life in the home could considering qualities of material form and expression, rather than with user
provide a means for thinking differently about women’s possibilities in society through studies or a scientific questioning of why certain work was carried out in a certain
reforming work practices in the home. The projects set in motion to explore if this way. The collaborative and investigative work at HFI was something different
could be the case, consisted of a series of explorations and experiments that took a than that. The methods adopted, and invented, at the HFI came about through a
starting point in tools, equipment, materials, leading to proposals of new designs for systematic quest for knowledge and a desire to change socio-political situations
products, as a result of the projects, but also to suggestions for changes in practice. through designing things as well as behaviours.
But the explorations also led to suggestions for changes in practices that These methods, recognisable in later methodological descriptions of user-
spoke to the establishment of other conceptual spaces, different ways of thinking, centered design, including both ergonomic studies and methods for probing
that in turn could re-shape what was considered as given or taken for granted. Was user experience and expertise, have historically been attributed to a much
it really reasonable that women’s time mainly was spent on cooking meals and later incorporation in design. In the 1950s, several industrial designers began
doing dishes, hindering women from taking part in education, in salaried work advocating the inclusion of ergonomic and anthropometric studies in designing.140
outside the home? How could legislation, social services and public bodies provide Since the early design methods conferences of the 1960s, the origins of ergonomics
ways of solving certain of these things on a collective level, opening the potential in design has been traced to military contexts and American industrial designers.
for women and men to lead lives in different ways than before? The development Notably, Henry Dreyfuss has been highlighted as the first to bring human factors
of new methods for understanding everyday life, and the development of design into design in the post-war years of the 1940s.141 In one of the conference papers
methods that followed at the HFI, fundamentally aimed towards changing the
foundations for making things, in the context of an understanding of things as
139 John Chris Jones [1977], “now we are numerous. introduction
carriers of the potential for societal change. to the Spanish edition of Design Methods” in John Chris
The striving towards continuous development of methods, based on industrial Jones, Designing Designing (Architecture design and
and societal changes and a conscious approach towards not taking the current technology press: London, 1991), 33.
state of things for granted, was, therefore, an integral part of the HFI agenda. This 140 John Chris Jones, “Ergonomics, human data for design”,
approach can be compared to the statements regarding design methods, made by Design 1954:66, 13-17; John Chris Jones, “Handles: The
John Chris Jones in the foreword to the 1980s Spanish edition of Design Methods: Ergonomic Approach”, Design 1954:72, 34-38; Henry Dreyfuss,
Designing for People (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955)
137 Yvonne Hirdman, Jenny Björkman & Urban Lundberg, Sveriges 141 Russell Flinchum, “Dreyfuss, design and human factors”,
historia 1920-1965: Välfärdens tid (Nordstedt: Stockholm), 2012, 580. Ergonomics in Design 2000:1 (vol.8), 18-24; B. Shackel,
138 Lasse Brunnström, Swedish Design. A History (Bloomsbury: “Ergonomics and Design” in (ed.) S.A. Gregory, The Design
London, 2019), 172. Method (Butterworths: London, 1966), 50.

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at the 1964 DRS conference on design method, for example, the relevance of The new design methods proposed in the 1960s and 1970s aimed towards
ergonomic methods to design was introduced as a novel approach. making visible and understandable the practices of designing that had until then
The studies made as part of home and housework rationalisation, such been considered individual, experientially based, and difficult to formulate.
as movement studies or the methods developed by the HFI, have rarely been Similar ambitions lay behind the attempts to develop objective methods for
mentioned in terms of potential connections to the design methods movement, researching – and designing – everyday life in the 1940s. The introduction of
or to the emergence of user-centered design and usability. While not dismissing systematic methods for describing, and understanding, at least certain stages of
these situations as important for bringing about user-centered ways of designing, these processes did not only serve purposes of evaluating or defining opportunities
it also seems plausible that the appearance of user-centeredd design methods for design or for improvement of methods for conducting housework. Ultimately,
in a Scandinavian context were more likely to be linked to research and design the goals with the practices developed at the Hemmens forskningsinstitut were
contexts revolving around everyday life settings in the 1940s. founded in a feminist agenda of radical societal change, that aimed at changing
The emerging user-centered practices of designing at HFI did not resonate ways of thinking and societal norms.
as something defined as ‘design’ neither then, nor in the later histories of Swedish User-centered design tends to entail applying different methods and tools to
design. However, when the term “industrial design” was introduced in a Swedish understand various aspects of peoples’ behaviours, actions, experiences, hopes and
context, in the SSF journal Form in the mid-1940s, it is telling that objects in focus dreams. This is based on upholding a difference between ‘designer’ and ‘user’, where
for the collaborative and iterative practices at HFI were included as examples of the agency and responsibility for designing lies with the ‘designer’. Methods developed
industrial design – and ‘expert housewives’ invited to discuss design in terms of in contexts of participatory design question the distribution of responsibility and
form and function.142 Linked to this newly emerging discipline of industrial design agency between ‘designer’ and ‘user’ and aim to propose different ways to support,
in Sweden, then, were not only ideas of a different type of process but also an enhance and collaborative and participatory practices in which designers and non-
inclusion of attention to user perspectives and an expanded notion of what (and designers come together in different ways in design situations.
who) could count as a designer. So, in a 1940s context, at least some of the work While there is continuously a vast amount of development work going on
carried out by HFI could have been understood as “design”. in the fields of user-centered and participatory design practices, considering
In our contemporary outlooks, we might ask ourselves in which contexts new the conceptual foundations of what a ‘method’ is and where it stems from might
ways of designing are currently being developed, that we will not easily identify contribute to highlighting invisible assumptions embedded in the ways designing
as ‘design’ given the ways we – both consciously and unconsciously – define what happens. In relation to how methods stabilise as core practices in certain ways of
we consider designing to be. How could we go about recognising design when designing, we could perhaps question what happens if we begin to use certain
we quite literally may not even see it? Making design histories of designing, that methods as tools, or techniques, in design without asking what it then is that
highlight other narratives of what design could have been might also contribute becomes cemented in terms of the perspectives and historicity built into these? As
to opening up conceptual spaces for thinking differently about what design might John Chris Jones pointed to, in relation to the developments in the design methods
presently be becoming. movement when ‘methods’ in many cases became used as ‘tools’:

From the perspectives of what ‘counts’ as design in contemporary practices, So the fault in method-making was that we made methods as ‘products’ and
and which types of histories that leads to, we might then consider what this handed them on to the designers expecting them to use them, as ‘tools’, as
does for views on what might be possible trajectories for design to take towards means to an end. Which became a logical trap, turning the idea of process into
future practices. Would it make a difference to thinking and doing design in a its opposite?143
Scandinavian user-centered and participatory ‘tradition’, if we understood some
of its foundational methods and tools as emanating from a historical situation How and why methods are developed and applied in design differs in regard
of feminist activism aimed towards rethinking societal norms through design to what we expect the methods to be able to support. What is the difference
interventions in the home rather than as coming from a trade-union driven context between developing methods for participation, versus methods for designing
of agonistic power negotiations at work? Histories like these could contribute to together? What is the difference between developing methods for designing, in
raising awareness of the historical situations in which methods have come about, relation to developing methods for thinking differently, or for designing changes
and what that has also meant in terms of the aims are with designing. in societal norms? What happens if we consider methods developed in one
If we compare this to the approaches within the 1960s design methods context and historical situation in another time, as tools that can be put to work a
movement where the ambition was to apply scientific methods to open up the design contemporary time and context, with a different aim? Or without recognising how
process to as broadly as possible bring in a variety of perspectives and information different levels of designing, for example, products, systems, and ontologies are
from which to draw design trajectories, the similarities are quite substantial. entangled, and that what is done on one level also affects the others.

143 John Chris Jones [1978], “opus one, number two” in John
142 “Bättre och vackrare men inte dyrare: Husmödrar diskuterar Chris Jones, Designing Designing (Architecture design and
funktion och form”, Form 1946:3, 65-67. technology press: London, 1991), 163.

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Viewing design processes as a series of steps in which methods support things to the foundational concepts that govern what becomes possible in, and
divergence and convergence in a specific flow, has hitherto rested on an understood as, designing, it follows that making new methods for designing
understanding of design as governed by a structure where collaborative work differently today also will need to address the complexities of constantly shifting
builds on designers bringing in expertise – other disciplines, users, stakeholders perspectives in order to see how designing dish brushes has something to do with
– from the ‘outside’ and ‘into’ the design situation. This is something more or less rethinking civilisations.
built into several of the participatory and user-centered methods commonly in
use in designing.144
In an internalised understanding of design as something run by designers,
whether as ‘leaders’ or ‘coordinators’ in a design process, the ways of thinking
embedded in how the process comes to be and plays out perpetuates the very
thing that many design research methods are trying to address: how people come
together in other ways than before to take meaningful action through design. What
is taken for granted, and what might be invisible to us in the ways we design, can
be highlighted and brought into question through an attention to the historicity
of design methods.
For the HFI, making new methods for researching everyday life ultimately
aimed at changes that spanned the spectrum from designing dish brushes to
changing the foundational understandings and structures of what society could
be. As feminist debater Elin Wägner stated in her 1945 speech on the occasion of
being elected member of the Royal Swedish Academy:

It might seem insignificant, but one can begin with rejecting a dishbrush and
end with liberating oneself from a whole form of civilisation.145

For change to become possible, there must be methods developed to support One of the inventoried and tested dish brushes at HFI in
thinking in new ways about things that seemed so natural, and so embedded in 1944. Riksarkivet, Hemmens forskningsinstituts arkiv.
everyday practice that they otherwise would be almost impossible to imagine
being in any other way. At the core of the social design project that HFI was part of
stood the making change in seemingly small and insignificant everyday material
things. However, these changes were envisioned to promote different behaviours
that would lead to shifting power relations in society, which in turn could open up
for thinking differently about what society and civilisation could be.
In a current eco-political situation, with increasing attention to what it will
take for the redirection of designing towards sustainable futures that will continue
to include human civilisations, histories such as the one sketched here might not
only contribute to questioning and expanding the conceptual spaces of designing.
Histories of methods, rather than of things, can contribute to highlighting why
certain ways of designing have come about – thus also contributing to the critical
discussions of why, what, and how different ways of present-day design make or
unmake possible futures. Making present the historicity of design also means
recalling that many of the socio-material structures that we now take for granted
or given, once seemed completely unrealistic or even unimaginable – and yet, we
once brought them into being.
Making systemic change happens gradually, slowly, and with great effort,
since it requires a constant movement between thinking differently and doing
differently. If we view design as something that spans a spectrum ranging from
Dishbrushes as ‘design objects’ in the Nationalmuseum gift
144 Monica Lindh Karlsson & Johan Redström, “Design shop, Stockholm 2019.
Togetherness” in Nordes 2015: Design Ecologies (2015), no 6.
145 Elin Wägner quoted in Åkerman, 88 år på 1900-talet, 148.

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7. Pasts/Presents

Returning to the program of transitional design histories, in light of the prototypical

explorations presented in this thesis: what could its implications be for design,
and for design history? After discussing what emerges in this first iteration of
prototyping transitional design histories, I point to some potential trajectories for
the continued exploration of how design and history could be made to matter
more to each other. The prototyping of design histories for design is linked to
the prototyping of practices in design, considering what activating aspects of
temporality and historicity might mean for what design could become.

Program
The program of transitional design histories is formulated on the proposal that if
design aims to develop new approaches and methods for responding to issues of
complexity and sustainment, the historicity of designing must be made present in
design.1 In the opening chapter, I made the case that bringing history more actively
into design can allow a reframing of the spaces in which to explore possibilities for
how to go about designing differently.2 This reframing has to do with how design
sees its world and understands itself in processes of proposing changes in the
present that aim towards certain futures. Recalling, again, the passage by Donna
Haraway that I quoted in the opening chapter: this is about the things we think with
in design, and about approaching design histories as stories that make worlds.3
In this thesis, I have presented a suggestion for how history could be made to
matter more to design. Pointing to the a-historicity of design practice, and lack of
practice-based outlooks in design history, I proposed that design history should
be approached differently and that design practice should open up towards
awareness of its historicity.4 For design history to not only matter more to design,

1 Clive Dilnot ”History, Design, Futures: Contending with what

we have made” in Tony Fry, Clive Dilnot & Susan C. Stewart
Design and the Question of History (Bloomsbury: London &
New York, 2015), 149.
2 Eva Brandt and Thomas Binder, ”Experimental Design
Research: Genealogy – Intervention – Argument”, Proceedings
of International Association of Societies of Design Research
Conference (Hong Kong, 2007).
3 “It matters what matters we use to think other matters with;
it matters what stories we tell to tell other stories with; it
matters what knots knot knots, what thoughts think thoughts,
what descriptions describe descriptions, what ties tie ties. It
matters what stories make worlds, what worlds make stories.”
Donna Haraway, Staying with the trouble: Making kin in the
Chthulucene, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2016), 12.
4 Clive Dilnot, “Some Futures for Design History?” Journal of
Design History 2009:4 (vol. 22).

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but for it to also become a matter in designing, it is not enough to only bridge the That design histories made from a position of designing do become different,
current gap between design and design history. Closing the gap between design and make visible other contexts relevant to design, is quite easy to see – which will
history and design requires that the outlook of design histories moves closer to be more elaborated here below. What is more difficult to say something about,
that of contemporary issues in design, and from there make design histories that and that in the following will need to be approached more in terms of speculation
are positioned in designing. and potentiality, is if these types of histories can bring about different ways of
Transitional design histories are histories for design, not histories of design. approaching design. How would one know if different historical narratives could
I have argued that such design histories should be made experimentally as bring about individual or collective self-reflection in terms of what ‘designing’ or
prototypes, addressing the historicity of designing rather than telling histories of ‘being a designer’ might mean in terms of identity and historicity? Or if bringing
design’s past outcomes. In the design history prototypes presented in this thesis, forth historically formed instabilities in design concepts would make an impact
I have sought to contribute to different ways of seeing and doing design through on design situations and design methodologies? Although it is hard, perhaps
presenting – making present – the historicity of design concepts and methods. even impossible, based on the prototypes presented here, to test or evaluate if
The intent with these histories was to shift perspectives on what design could be, people begin to think and do design differently after reading these historical
by making visible the instability and historicity of things that are often taken for representations, I will at least speculate about this, and point to some tendencies
granted in designing. These transitional design histories thus aimed to present – to that could be discerned.
make present – historical tensions and assumptions embedded in the foundational
concepts that form the frameworks for methods, outlooks, and approaches in
contemporary designing. Seeing things differently
Design does not only make and propose things that could make a difference;
it also inherently makes and proposes ways that design itself could be different.5 The design histories presented in this thesis are made from an outlook of present-
The transitional character of design typically is at its most visible in instances where day designing, though positioning the studies in design practices related to
established ways of doing design no longer suffice for handling the situations at Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design.6 This shift in outlook is not
hand. Design histories that can speak to changes in designing therefore need about moving away from a focus on design outcomes, such as products or things,
to support fluid and transitional understandings of design. I have proposed that to a focus on the physical places where those things are designed and made – like
such design histories would be made to offer re-positionings of how design can be consultancies, design offices, or production lines. These are already phenomena
understood as a changing practice that makes a difference, rather than aiming to well researched in design history, which also build on histories made from the
provide explanatory narratives that consolidate specific definitions of what design point of view of design as outcome. The move made in these prototypes is instead
and designing is, has been, or should be. one that builds on seeing design as becoming defined in moves along a spectrum
From this follows that transitional design histories would not only shift position that spans from what ‘a design’ is, to what ‘designing’ is.7
from where they are made, but also continuously change in outlook, content, and
narrative in response to changes in design’s contexts and practices. I have suggested
a methodology for the making of design histories as prototypes, that combines a
programmatic approach from practice-based design research with research methods

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in history that focus on analysing concepts and ideas. Going on to explore the making

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of such prototypical design histories, I positioned the outlook for this exploration in

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practices of Scandinavian user-centered and participatory design.
Probing the historicity of concepts and internal world views that this type What a design is What designing is
of designing is based on, I presented three prototypes of transitional design
histories. Coming back to the questions that these prototypes set out to explore,
what implications for design and for design history might we see emerging in the
prototyping of transitional design histories? In the following, the design histories
made and presented in this thesis are discussed in light of how they work, what
becomes visible, and what is possible to say in terms of evaluating what they do for
design, after this first iteration of prototyping. Considering the ways these histories 6 Jesper Simonsen & Toni Robertson (eds.), Routledge
work, some things are relatively easy to see, and to test, while others are more elusive International Handbook of Participatory Design (Routledge:
and not easily evaluated at this point. London & New York, 2013); Pelle Ehn, “Learning in
Participatory Design as I Found It (1970–2015)”, in Betsy
5 Søren Rosenbak, The science of imagining solutions: Design DiSalvo, Jason Yip, Elizabeth Bonsignore & Carl DiSalvo
becoming conscious of itself through design (Umeå, 2019); (eds.), Participatory Design for Learning: Perspectives from
Johan Redström, Making Design Theory, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Practice and Research (New York & London: Routledge, 2017).
Press, 2017) 129-130. 7 Redström, Making Design Theory, 126-130.

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Working with a more fluid understanding of how definitions of ‘design’ are made, Design history from the outlook of what ‘a design’ is has undoubtedly brought
making design histories from a vantage point of ‘designing’ does not mean that about a broad design historical knowledge base, relating to design as not only
outcomes or products would be irrelevant or uninteresting. It means that ‘design’ products or outcomes, but as processes of production, consumption and
is understood as defined not only through what it makes – products or outcomes mediation.9 From the perspective of design historians, this has of course in many
– but through how and why, in which settings, with which ways of working, and instances intended to be – and indeed also been – a contribution to design as a
with which understandings of the world designing takes place. One question field today. In terms of addressing the a-historicity within design itself, however,
guiding this research was: would this shift in outlook bring about other histories, this type of design history seems not to have made the difference it could or
and make visible other contexts and actors than previously have been visible in would have needed to make in presenting openings towards the historicity of
design history? contemporary designing. Also, while many of these histories indeed do bridge
the divide between history and design in many areas, the fundamental disconnect
in outlook has remained. This means that things that are important from the point
Position
of view of design have remained invisible in design history – and vice versa.
Re-positioning design history and bringing it closer to designing entailed more
The prototypes presented in this thesis have called out this gap and the lack
than an idea of merely bridging the gap between these two fields of practice.
of connection between design and design history. Within present and emerging
Such bridging has frequently been attempted before, at least from the side of
design practices that refer to their lineage in terms of belonging to a ‘Scandinavian
design history. This usually consists of providing studies into different versions of
tradition’ of user-centered and participatory design, the reference to ‘tradition’
‘histories of […]’. The examples are many: this could, for example, be a history of
points towards a claim towards a historical continuity between a particular,
a particular design subject (e.g. history of graphic design), a specific object (e.g.
current practice and what is perceived as its historical origins and foundations.
history of chairs), a certain material (e.g. history of steel), a geographical context
Given that this way of referring to a ‘Scandinavian tradition’ is quite common in
(e.g. history of Scandinavian design) and so on, with an aim to explain or question
design research and practice building on collaborative ways of designing, often socio-
outcomes in and meanings of design.8
politically oriented rather than commercial, it seems that this historical linkage is held
as important from the viewpoint of design. From the point of view of design history, on
‘a design’ the other hand, this practice of design has gone relatively unnoticed. In positioning a
design historical outlook from the perspective of practices of designing, the prototypes
t

in this thesis have made visible a blind spot in design history when it comes to histories
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of, and for, user-centered and participatory design.

pr

DESIGN HISTORY In taking Swedish design history as an example (chapter 3), participatory
practices of designing are seldom mentioned. If user-centered design is present, it is
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mainly described in terms of its outcomes. One could argue, of course, that the strong
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past present future presence in design history of themes such as consumption and consumer practices,
could point to certain aspects of user-centered design. But the idea of ‘users’ is quite
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different from that of ‘consumers’, as are design practices primarily oriented towards
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‘use’ versus design practices primarily targeting ‘consumption’. However, going into
plausible distinctions and analyses of ideas of use in relation to ideas of consumption is not the
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topic here. What is the topic is the question of whether a shift in perspective towards
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designing would bring other things, other practices, and other issues, into view when
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making design histories? Moreover, as I would argue is quite evident from what
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DESIGN emerged in these first studies, this is the case in relation to participatory and user-
di

centered design practices, at least in the examples presented here.

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Making histories of participatory and user-centered design in this thesis did

not, however, primarily aim to fill a gap in Swedish design history. Though that
‘designing’ was, indeed, one of the potential workings envisioned with such a repositioning of
the design historical outlook, the main mechanism intended with these prototypes
8 Philip B. Meggs, A History of Graphic Design, 3. ed. (New York: was to activate other ways of seeing within design practice.
John Wiley, 1998); Charlotte Fiell & Peter Fiell, 1000 chairs The prototypes in this thesis were made with the primary aim of being histories
(Köln: Taschen, 1997); Tony Fry & Anne-Marie Willis, Steel: A for design practices identifying with a Scandinavian user-centered and participatory
Design, Cultural, and Ecological History (London & New York: tradition. Through applying different conceptual lenses from a perspective of
Bloomsbury Academic, 2015); Charlotte Ashby, Modernism
in Scandinavia: Art, Architecture and Design (London: 9 Grace Lees-Maffei, “The Production–Consumption–Mediation
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017). Paradigm”, Journal of Design History 2009:4(22), 351–376.

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participatory and user-centered designing, three different but partially overlapping Contexts and actors
design histories were presented as potentially relevant for making other things One of the questions probed in relation to the positioning of design historical
visible in this type of design practice. Each of the three histories took a different inquiries in designing was if an outlook from contemporary design practice
trajectory towards the past, depending on the concept it set out to explore, and would make other contexts and actors visible and relevant to consider in histories
depending on what became visible along the way of making the prototypes. of design. In the three examples probed here, the shift in outlook resulted in
In the case of the study revolving around ‘methods’ (chapter 6), for example, an bringing new perspectives on well-known phenomena in design history, as well
opening towards the search for ideas and practices that might have had to do with as directing attention towards contexts previously not visible in histories of design.
design methods carried over from the prototyping a design history of ‘use’. In the One reason for making these prototypes based on printed and archival
texts and material studied in the ‘use’ prototype (chapter 5), something that came material was specifically to test what a different perspective would bring to a well-
into view when applying the conceptual lens of ‘use’ was that there already in the known material and context. Thus, the material studied in the prototype on ‘use’,
1930s and 1940s seemed to exist both experimentations and formulations aiming to for example, sprang from a well-known context in Swedish design history. This
establish new methods for designing. It stood out clearly that a search for methods prototype (chapter 5) revolved around design initiatives associated with home and
with which to systematically investigate everyday life directly had to do with a search housing reform in the years following the 1930 Stockholm exhibition, described in
for methods for bringing insights from ‘ordinary people’ as well as from ‘experts’ Swedish design histories as a watershed moment in introducing modernist design
and ‘designers’ into practices of designing. And this, in turn, was aimed towards theory and practice in Sweden.
making changes that would follow trajectories towards preferable futures that in These are thoroughly researched topics and contexts in Swedish art and
their historical context might sometimes have seemed more or less utopian. design history in particular, and in Swedish history in general. Since modernist
These three different historical prototypes began from the same position approaches to housing and domesticity was a central aspect of the socio-political,
– Scandinavian user-centered and participatory designing – and resulted in as well as material, constructions of the Swedish welfare state, the Folkhem, there
proposals of what might be relevant histories for these design practices. Through are many accounts already existing of these phenomena. The organisations I
an outlook towards the past from a position in present-day designing, the design selected to study here were undoubtedly situated in contexts that, in the 1930s
histories that take shape do not aim to cover a coherent ‘whole’ in describing the and 1940, already were closely associated with understandings of where design
history of collaborative and user-centered designing. As in the schematic visual ordinarily would take place. As representatives for interests in design and
below, the views that these perspectives open up towards overlap in some places, architecture, the Svenska slöjdföreningen (SSF, still existing as Svensk Form) and
and diverge in others. the National Association of Swedish Architects (SAR, still existing merged with
What they have in common is that they revolve around different aspects of other architects’ associations) would be expected to engage in questions of what
design’s conceptual foundations, thus making different contexts, relations, activities, design is, and how it should be done. This remains true in the present-day, as
and actors come into view. Even if the connections between these concepts are not these contexts still are those where one would go looking for instances of ‘design’.
explicitly accounted for here, they have over time come together and given shape to It would not, therefore, be surprising to find discussions on design methodology
design practices. These concepts and their histories are related, even if it is maybe arising at some point in time in these contexts.
not clear exactly how, historically, those connections came to be. What might be slightly more surprising, in terms of initiatives directed towards
developing new ways of designing to meet new contextual challenges, would be what
‘a design’ came into view in the prototypes presented here. When applying the conceptual
lenses of, respectively, ‘users’ and ‘methods’ to the known contexts of SSF and SAR,
it became clear that the methodologies that these organisations began applying in
studying the relationships between use and design were not invented or formulated
there. Instead, they were directly brought into the SAR and SSF from contexts of
past present future
women’s organised initiatives to reform housework and redefine the roles of women
ble in the home, as part of an agenda of gaining access to and influence in political
possi and social arenas. In this, the Home Research Institute, HFI, stood out as a context
plausible that had not previously been directly considered as one where design would take
place, but as one of importance for consumer-related influence on the production of
probable

DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN

‘designing’

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everyday things.10 However, that the impetus towards searching for and formulating more egalitarian, more equal, more just – through designing everyday things and
ways of use- and user-centered designing actually was developed methodologically environments differently.
in the realm of inquiries into (women’s) domestic work at the Home Research The methodological stance of moving design history’s outlook to that of
Institute (HFI) had not previously been clearly visible. In applying a perspective of contemporary designing, then, has led to contributions also to histories of design.
‘methods’, the historical inquiry yielded insight into the work conducted at HFI as In terms of where we would go looking for histories of design, taking a perspective
directly connected to developing what later became considered as ‘design methods’, that is positioned in designing does open up for other possible contexts, other
in the endeavour of both investigating and reshaping the conditions for everyday actors, and other forms of agency than is otherwise often the case in design history.
work in the home. With a more fluid definition of design, along a spectrum spanning from what ‘a
design’ is to what ‘designing’ is, moving design history towards the designing end
In making prototypical design histories, based on contextual readings of material of the spectrum allows for seeing other things in the past that can be relevant both
with conceptual lenses and perspectives positioned in designing, somewhat for design history and for design.
different histories than the ones usually provided about 20th-century Swedish These design history prototypes do not aim to give accurate and definitive
design have appeared. To give another example: previous design histories of Ellen descriptions of the history of participatory and user-centered design but are
Key’s thinking have focused on specific publications of advice and examples on explorations of how histories of central concepts and methods in this field could
how to distinguish objects of ‘good taste’, in which the aesthetic ideas and ideals speak to matters of concern in current design practices. What is in focus are
advocated are described as normative and prescriptive.11 The design history why and how these ideas and concepts have come about in specific historical
proposed here was shaped through the attention to participatory perspectives, situations and what it might mean that these have transitioned into methods and
placing more of an emphasis on Key’s concern for issues of design reform and approaches perceived as foundational for doing design. This takes us back to the
aesthetics against a context of programmatic ambitions to propose other possible main objective with making transitional design histories: that of activating an
ways of living. An understanding of the principles for creating new understandings awareness of the historicity of design, and exploring whether prototypes such as
of what would be a harmonious material environment – in the home as well as these could expand understandings of core concepts in design.
in public arenas in society – became an integral part of the ambition to activate
design in making socio-political reform. New class relations, new means for
influencing society, and new forms of democratic governance called for other Doing things differently
material expressions and social behaviours.
Initiatives such as these called for practices that we might think of as a sort of After establishing that shifting and making design histories from a perspective of
infrastructuring:12 providing situations for learning, through folkbildning, as well designing did indeed in these prototypes bring forth other histories, it is, however,
as initiatives such as Tolfterna (chapter 4) aimed at building relational foundations much more challenging to know if these histories could somehow support
of mutual understanding that could lead towards collaborative efforts towards changes towards designing differently. Saying something more precise about
societal – and aesthetic – change. Without fully taking into account Key’s and how transitional design histories could be put to work in design, and potentially
others’ calls for domestic and production-directed material reform as situated have an impact on redirecting or expanding contemporary design practice, is not
within this broader programmatic socio-political design ambition, the normative possible after the prototyping carried out so far. Even if these design histories have
aesthetic aspects easily tend to overshadow the basic proposal made at the time: been explicitly made for design, the ways in which they could be activated more
that there was a real emancipatory potential in making life and society different – directly in designing have not been tested.
It is not very straightforward to envision how these prototypical narratives
would translate into actions leading to the activating of the historicity of design
10 Ulrika Torell, Jenny Lee & Roger Qvarsell (eds.), Köket. in actual design situations. Making history a matter for designing, one could
Rum för drömmar, ideal och vardagsliv under det långa
speculate, could be something that happens as part of a design education, but it
1900-talet, Nordiska museets handlingar 143 (Stockholm:
Nordiska museet, 2018); Britta Lövgren, Hemarbete som
could also entail processes or methods introduced into design practices.
politik: diskussioner om hemarbete, Sverige 1930-40-talen, och Perhaps, with time, design history might actually become an integrated
tillkomsten av Hemmens forskningsinstitut, diss. (Stockholm: part of designing, contributing with methodologies in design as well as with
Almqvist & Wiksell, 1993). perspectives on design. Considering, for example, how the processes of gradually
11 For example Zandra Ahl & Emma Olsson, Svensk smak: introducing of ethnographic perspectives and methodologies into design over the
Myter om den moderna formen (Stockholm: Ordfront, 2001); last thirty years have both formed and informed designing, as well as the field of
Gunnela Ivanov, Vackrare vardagsvara - design för alla? Gregor design anthropology, perhaps the contributions of design histories made from
Paulsson och Svenska slöjdföreningen 1915-1925, diss. (Umeå:
Institutionen för historiska studier, 2004), 64-68.
12 Christopher A Le Dantec & Carl DiSalvo, “Infrastructuring
and the formation of publics in participatory design” Social
Studies of Science 2013:2 (vol.43), 241–264.

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within design might take similar trajectories.13 But how might this look, and what middle class rather than eradicating it. Middle-class women were structurally
would be needed for bringing about other understandings of design’s conceptual in the position of holding knowledge that was to considered important to share
frameworks? How would one know if history had become a matter for design? with working-class women. Thus, the practices of ‘inviting’ working-class women
These are all aspects that remain to be probed. Nevertheless, some projections for to take part in pre-defined cultural and learning activities, was based in an
how this could be done, or at least begin to be explored, can be gleaned already. imbalance of power already embedded in the setting up of situations intended
to be egalitarian and participatory. While the overall vision, on a programmatic
Prototypes and practices level, was the creation of an egalitarian society where class would not matter, the
The program of transitional design histories merges methodologies and situation on project level – in Tolfterna – was still unequal and highly conditioned
approaches from practice-based design research and historical research. I have by the social structures of its time.
proposed that design histories can be made and handled as prototypes, in a way This example made visible that ideas embedded in concepts fundamental
similar to how prototyping is applied in design and design research. Following to design can carry historical tensions that would need more consideration in
this, histories made as prototypes should be open, possible to adjust and change contemporary design practices. The core concept of ‘participation’, for example,
after trying them out, but still solid enough to be able to provide a certain carries both emancipatory ideas of equal say in processes, as well as ideas
functionality or experience that allows for specific aspects of an idea or a proposal of making difference based on knowledge, expertise, and skill. Making these
to be investigated. historical tensions more present in designing could contribute to other possible
Prototypes can be made in different degrees of fidelity and finish, choosing entry points for questioning the set-ups, processes and methods chosen in
materials and assemblies to make them look or work similarly or the same as a participatory design projects.
finished version would. The prototypes made in this study were made to look Practices in participatory design do already acknowledge issues of
and work as histories, as historical representations. That these prototypes have conceptually embedded aspects of power and agonism in negotiating co-design
worked as histories seems reasonable enough, but the question is if they work as situations and explicitly aim to develop methods and approaches to support
transitional design histories? For that to be the case, these histories would have handling such issues in designing.14 However, perhaps transitional design
activated an awareness of design’s historicity in designing, provided openings histories might support emerging practices in begining with intentional attempts
towards thinking and doing design differently, and also themselves be open to to reshape and shift understandings of concepts, rather than aiming to make tools
shifting and changing as designing changes. and methods based on existing conceptual frameworks?
With the examples presented here, trajectories have been drawn beyond Similarly, probing where ideas of ‘use’ spring from, and how they once came
the points in time when concepts such as ‘use’ and ‘participation’ at first glance into designing speaks to inherent tensions between intended use and actual use that,
might seem to have appeared in design. In the case of ‘participation’, which is in the design histories presented here, were noticeable already in the 1940s (chapter
usually taken to have entered design in the 1960s and 1970s and become more 5). For participatory and user-centered design, activating the historicity of design
established from the 1990s onwards, the search for the ideas and practices that through pointing to tensions embedded in the concept of ‘users’ does not propose to
made it possible for this concept to come into designing were drawn to the turn of bring solutions that could resolve complicated issues in contemporary collaborative
the century 1900 and a context of Swedish socio-political transformation. design practices. There will still be many different ways one can go about prototyping
In relation to practices of participation (chapter 4), I pointed to ideas and practices of somehow finding ways for ‘users’ and ‘designers’ to come together in
practices that emerged in and around folkbildning (adult learning) as central to processes of designing, or to consider what ‘use’ could be in relation to ‘design’. What
creating new material as well as intellectual spaces that could support new types transitional design histories can bring are widenings of the conceptual design spaces
of participatory engagements aimed at setting up infrastructures for democratic in which ‘use’ is considered as a stable foundation for designing.
reform. The emancipatory potential was linked to the conscious appropriation Acknowledging the historicity of the concept of ‘use’, and its embedded tensions
and sharing of different types of knowledge and experiences in situations that between ideal and real use might open up for ways of approaching designing
brought people of different backgrounds and social strata together. Nevertheless, differently through questioning what the concept in its current understanding
while the aims explicitly were to empower people – defined as working-class actually allows for making and doing, and what it possibly counteracts, in situations
women and men – these interventions also led to establishing frameworks and of designing. An awareness of the historicity of how design practices have formed
power relations founded in the middle class’ normative and prescriptive ideas in relation to ‘use’ might then contribute to explorations of new ways of coming
of propriety and education. This manifested difference between workers and together in designing that could aim to question the conceptual division between
‘use’ and ‘design’ as a foundational starting point.
13 Alison J. Clarke, Design Anthropology: Object Cultures in
Transition, revised edition (London: Bloomsbury, 2017);
Rachel Charlotte Smith (ed.), Design Anthropological Futures:
Exploring Emergence, Intervention and Formation (London:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2016); Wendy Gunn, Ton Otto, and
Rachel Charlotte Smith, Design Anthropology: Theory and 14 Thomas Binder et al., “What is the object of design”, CHI
Practice (London: Bloomsbury, 2013). conference proceedings 2012, (ACM, 2012), 21–30.

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Making methods how to find methods that could support making change – material and ideal – in
In design, exploring and proposing the development of new design methods to everyday life, at the HFI, resonate strongly with how much of methods-oriented
support different ways of designing is closely related to changes in the contexts development work in design and design research takes place today.
and situations where design takes place. In the ‘methods’ prototype (chapter 6), In this example, it is also clear that what is retrospectively perhaps considered
I explored how new practices developed at the Home Research Institute (HFI) a peripheral design actor or context (HFI) in relation to what is generally defined
already in the 1940s can be understood as proposals of user-centered design as central actors or contexts (SSF & SAR) might at a certain point have been the
methods, responding to intended interventions into material and social practices more influential and central agent in terms of rethinking and making changes in
in everyday life. From a perspective of designing, we saw that practices at the HFI how designing is done. From a contemporary perspective, what became visible
included many of the methods that today are at the core of user-centered designing: in these prototypes, then, could support thinking around how to possibly reframe
ethnographic studies, user testing, iterative prototyping, etc. The development of outlooks in contemporary initiatives that aim to develop new ways of designing.
these methods was actively pursued at the HFI as a feminist project of reforming If radically new ways of user-centered designing once emerged in contexts that, at
women’s conditions in the home, as well as in socio-political contexts. that time, were not identified as places where designers work or where designing
This design history prototype was perhaps the one of the three presented here is the core activity, where could one imagine to go looking in order to find the
that most clearly can be identified as supporting – or pushing for – the most significant unexpected places for where new design approaches and methods might be
shift in regard to understandings of user-centered design’s conceptual foundations. taking shape today?
In making visible the work of developing user-centered design methods at the HFI, Positioning the outlook in core concepts central to participatory and user-
it stands to reason that many of the ideas underpinning the methods and concepts centered design, the main aim was to draw forth and critically explore the historicity
launched there were based in a feminist agenda for making change. of its conceptual foundations: situations of participatory practices, concepts of use
This is a radical re-positioning of outlook towards where the historical and users, the making of methods. These were chosen on basis of being foundational
foundations of methods in user-centered design are usually sought. Whether to practices of designing in the sense that they, as concepts, in some ways are more
one before has perceived user-centered designing as emerging in the early 1980s, or less taken for granted, and in other ways conceived as deeply difficult.
attributing the formation of the concept to the introduction of ethnographic The studies into the concepts of ‘participation’ and ‘users’ in prototypes
approaches in to commercial design research contexts,15 or if one has seen it presented here have traced some of the historical ideas that have been
as originating from ergonomic usability and performance research in military instrumental in forming these as foundations for doing design, highlighting that
contexts of the 1940s and 1950s,16 the situated emergence of these methods in a these methods and concepts do come from ‘somewhere’, and not from ‘nowhere’.
feminist, domestic-research-oriented project in 1940s Sweden is something that If, and how, this awareness of the historicity of methods and concepts would
brings quite different ideas to the table. bring about differences to how designing is done is hard to say. But what is made
Understanding user-centered design methods as springing from a context reasonably clear is that methods and concepts in design are not neutral. The
fundamentally questioning norms and knowledge-making from a feminist and ways in which design is thought, and done, carry ideas that are still connected
gender-critical foundation gives a different perspective than an understanding to the contexts in which they came about. Activating the historicity of concepts
of user-centered design as emerging from aiming to improve the performance of and methods in design, on the one hand means that these historical layerings
military fighter-plane pilots through designing cockpit environments and controls will become visible and possible to address, but also that the changing nature
based on studies in cognitive psychology and ergonomics. The mere fact that the of concepts will be actualised, opening up for broader understandings of what
conceptual foundations of developing user-centered design methods expand design’s conceptual spaces might become.
towards a radically different context of feminist activism opens up for thinking
differently about ideas embedded in these design methods, and what these origins
could mean for considering how these practices are conducted today. Historicity and possibility
The ways that methods were brought into designing at HFI built on
experimentation, and borrowing or importing methods and approaches from With the shift in position to making design histories from what ‘designing’ is,
different areas of practice and different fields of scientific study. Methods for rather than what ‘a design’ is, the question to begin with is not what design makes,
investigating and designing the context of everyday housework did not exist, but but what it is that makes design. Taking historical perspectives on concepts and
were identified as needed for making solid foundations on which to base decisions methods at the core of designing today, it becomes clear that design’s foundations
for interventions into everyday practices. The processes of experimenting with are not all that stable as they sometimes might seem to be. What also comes
across, is that ideas and practices have come into design at certain points in time
that have contributed to forming embedded concepts and methods that design
15 Lucy A. Suchman, Plans and Situated Actions. The Problem
of Human-Machine Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge
still uses, but without there being an awareness of what this historical layering
Univ. Press, 1987). implies for designing.
16 David Meister, The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics The prototypes that were made as part of this thesis project have investigated
(Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). how to make design histories through inquiries into ideas and practices that have

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formed some of the core concepts in design. As much as these design histories futures possible than ones that are visible from our current perspective of practice,
were inquiries, made in the form of prototypes, they were also interventions.17 On design’s conceptual foundations will necessarily need to be different. In tackling
the one hand, they were interventions in design history, proposing other stories issues of living together, sharing resources and making decisions in ways different
than the usual. On the other hand, and perhaps more importantly in light of the from those that have been guided by the logics of industrial capitalism, not only
main aims of this thesis, they were interventions on a conceptual level in design, does design need to change, but the frameworks and world views governing how
calling out the instability and change inherent to the concepts and methods that it is understood and practiced also need to change. If an awareness of design’s
designing rests on. historicity can open up other understandings of what is made possible in design
The proposal that design histories should be made as prototypes that – in terms of proposing changes of how design could be done differently – could
are open and changing largely springs out of this attention to the conceptual this, then, in actuality bring about real change through design? And if so, what
foundations of designing and their inherent instabilities. Since design is directed would become different?
towards change, and based in conceptual foundations that themselves are In contemporary and emerging design practices that emphasise the need
fluid and unstable, design histories that aim to support such change must also for design-driven change towards more sustainable futures (eg. participatory
themselves be unstable and open to change. This means that transitional design design, transition design, design for social innovation), a foundational idea is that
histories will need to change in relation to designing, in response to what the power needs to be redistributed and renegotiated in collaborative designing. As
conceptual foundations seem to be and how activating an awareness of design’s transition design is formulated, for example, the basic premise that design must
historicity could open up for seeing certain situations and practices differently. play a substantial role in redirecting human practices towards sustainability on
systemic as well as individual scale.19 Transition design aims to change postures
and mindsets, activating participatory design practices in new ways of designing
Instabilities and possibilities
that can support behavioural change on individual levels as well as systemic and
Turning a historical attention towards designing, and using concepts as lenses
values-based changes in order to create conditions for a sustainable and resilient
for the analysis, central concepts in design come actively into view as not only
society. The perspectives applied in transition design bring together multiple
‘being there’, but actually ‘having become’ what they are at certain points in time,
disciplines and practices, emphasising that transitions towards sustainment are
and over time. With time, however, they change form and shift meaning, as ideas
complex processes that take time – and that fundamentally are about actively
proposing new understandings or practices play into defining the concept. These
changing ways of thinking and behaving.
changes tend to happen only slowly, which can lead us to believe that concepts
These formulations of what is expected of design in regard to making change
are more stable than they in practice are. Activating the historicity of designing
echo the programmatic stances of early design theorists’ calls for design’s central
thus also activates the instabilities that design necessarily has to work with, if
role in bringing about behavioural and societal change. In aiming to bring about
the ambition is to not only replicate the existing but to make possible something
ways of designing that take on the challenges of change on systemic societal levels,
different.
such as in transition design, negotiating issues of balancing prescriptive and
Approaching design histories as transitional aims to highlight what it
emancipatory stances in design are crucial.20 These are by no means easy things to
could mean for design that several of its core concepts – use, participation, and
address. Bringing the historicity of design concepts to the fore will not in any way
even the concept of ‘design’ itself – are anything but stable, temporally as well
resolve these difficulties. But what it can contribute is an awareness of how such
as situationally.18 In transitional design histories, what is emphasised is fluidity
negotiations between prescribing and making possible, such as in the contexts
rather than stability – both when it comes to the concepts studied, and to the
described in the prototypes presented here, have been handled historically: and
types of histories that can be made. Depending on what seems important, or
what that has meant in light of what sorts of futures – our current presents – those
difficult, to handle in design in the present, the design histories that could support
choices resulted in.
addressing core issues will vary over time. As design moves in different directions,
In the current situation, perhaps design interventions that prescribe certain
the outlooks from designing towards relevant histories also changes. In working
actions over others are what is needed to bring about the sort of transitional change
with instability rather than solidity, questions rather than definitions can support
in finding historical instances that shed light on why certain aspects of designing
are difficult to handle given the concepts and methods we have at hand.
Through histories that address the historicity of designing, values and world 19 Gideon Kossoff, Terry Irwin, & Anne-Marie Willis, “Transition
views embedded in design’s foundations can be questioned in terms of their Design”, Design Philosophy Papers: Transition Design 2015:1
(vol.13), 1–2; Terry Irwin, “The Emerging Transition Design
capacity to respond to issues at hand. To what extent can current conceptual
Approach”, Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y
foundations support the handling of and responses to emerging challenges and Comunicación 2019:73; Cameron Tonkinwise, “Design’s
complexities? In order to work towards doing design in ways that make other (Dis)orders: Mediating Systems-Level Transition Design”,
Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y Comunicación
17 Daniela K. Rosner, Critical Fabulations, Reworking the Methods 2019:73.
and Margins of Design (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2018) 124. 20 Cameron Tonkinwise, “Design for Transitions ‒ from and to
18 Redström, Making Design Theory, 134-135. What?”, Design Philosophy Papers 2015:1 (vol.13), 85-92.

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that can lead to more sustainable futures. However, bringing a prescriptive design But design is not only – or even primarily – about making things that take on
intent to situations of participatory designing – which seems to be an aim several material presence in our lives. Even more, design is about proposing that things
emerging design practices striving for sustainment – means bringing together could be otherwise. It is about proposing that we could do things differently: there
quite different conceptual foundations for designing. Different complex design could be other things that support us living our lives, but above all, there could be
decisions and programmatic ambitions will necessarily bring about conflicting different ways to think about what it means to live life. What we value as important,
agendas on both practical and project levels when we try to design differently. what relationships we make with others, and what that means for the environments
How to go about negotiating these cannot be easily resolved – and will surely we create is at the core of designing. The ways of living that we can envision are
sometimes be seen as both normative and reductive by future historians in light of dependent on where we stand, and what we can see from that point of view. If we are
perspectives that we today cannot predict. However, the historical perspectives on to make it possible to see other things, think other thoughts, propose other futures,
what types of negotiations and considerations different conceptual design spaces we need to move to other places that allow for other lines of sight.
allow for could probably contribute to seeing what needs to be part of the picture. The propositional potential of transitional design histories could perhaps
Over time, as other design practices emerge, the design histories that resonate lead towards places of sheer wonder at imagining that designing could be seen
with these will also need to change if they are to be meaningful for design. From otherwise. If this can contribute to laying new conceptual foundations for what
what we see and where we stand, then, practices of designing will probably call for designing could do for envisioning different futures, history would indeed
yet other histories. In some parts, they will build on previous design histories: in become a matter of design. Perhaps rethinking and remaking the past in relation
other aspects, the histories we make will need to be completely different in order to the historicity of designing could spark something similar to Michel Foucault’s
to contribute something for design – and also to the histories of what becomes reaction to a piece of literary fiction that, for him, opened up toward thinking
design. Activating historicity in design through the making of transitional design completely differently about exploring the historicity of becoming human:
histories aims towards opening up conceptual spaces for thinking and doing
design differently. If histories were made otherwise, the trajectories that lead from This book first arose out of a passage in [Jorge Luis] Borges, out of the laughter
the past to the present might take other routes, and help us find other points of that shattered, as I read the passage, all the familiar landmarks of my thought—
view that expand understandings of the present. our thought that bears the stamp of our age and our geography—breaking up
These other outlooks will in turn make it possible to think and see other all the ordered surfaces and all the planes with which we are accustomed to
tame the wild profusion of existing things, and continuing long afterwards to
potential futures. In this, prototypical design histories might also help us to
disturb and threaten with collapse our age-old distinction between the Same
understand how our present once might have been an unthinkable future, thus and the Other. This passage quotes a ‘certain Chinese encyclopaedia’ in which
opening up perspectives that could make a difference for how possibilities in it is written that ‘animals are divided into: (a) belonging to the Emperor, (b)
design are envisioned: what is reasonable to think of as possible, or as plausible; embalmed, (c) tame, (d) suckling pigs, (e) sirens, (f) fabulous, (g) stray dogs, (h)
what that means for what design is called upon to do; and what could be expected included in the present classification, (i) frenzied, (j) innumerable, (k) drawn
for it to achieve. with a very fine camelhair brush, (l) et cetera, (m) having just broken the water
pitcher, (n) that from a long way off look like flies’. In the wonderment of this
Pasts, presents, futures taxonomy, the thing we apprehend in one great leap, the thing that, by means of
the fable, is demonstrated as the exotic charm of another system of thought, is
History is made by people. We make it through the way we choose to remember
the limitation of our own, the stark impossibility of thinking that.22
the past, and how we choose to tell stories of it – which is often that which we think
of as ‘history’. But we make history in many more ways than that. Everything we
How to make forms of designing that could re-design the very concepts that
make and put in the world becomes history that shapes our ideas of the past as
set the limitations of our systems of thought require explorations of how to find
well as our understandings of the present. How we think, how we behave, how we
ways of thinking the impossible as probable. If design histories, transitional and
relate to each other – in short, how we live our everyday lives and how we make
propositional, could contribute to the wonderment of imagining that design could
sense of the world – is thoroughly conditioned by the historical materiality of what
be ‘that’ – then we might also open up the conceptual design spaces that allow for
we have around us.
designing different ways of being in the world.
In a time when humanity’s impact on the world has become so profound
Changing how and why design is done, then, is intrinsically linked to the
that we can speak of the world as completely artificial, we can also consider it as
enormous challenge of trying to think, and act, differently from within a framework
completely designed. As Clive Dilnot has pointed out, we now find ourselves in a
that is so intricately embedded in most aspects of our lives that we hardly even
situation where human activity has brought about a state where it is the artificial
notice its being there. Internalised categories and ways of thinking shape what
that conditions existence – human as well as non-human. Design thus becomes
is possible to envision through design. Purposely re-forming categories and
fundamental to approaching the artificial: the propositional is at the core of the
concepts that often are taken for granted could open up new conceptual spaces
artificial, and possibility is what conditions the world.21
for actually making different futures both visible and possible.

22 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Pantheon,

21 Dilnot, “History, Design, Futures”, 181. 1970), xv.

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With this, then, the proposals for what to take action on in the present, or reinforcing structures and attitudes that further ways of being we actually wish
given different trajectories possible to discern from the past to our ‘now’, would to leave behind. To not end up following trajectories that lead towards defuturing,
also be different. This view would also continue to change as design’s contexts, increased unsustainment, or continued inequity and inequality, the past
outlooks, practices and histories change in relation to each other. Different pasts trajectories that point in those directions need to be challenged through finding
lead to different presents, from which the perspectives on potential futures can other possible histories that point towards other potential ways of moving forward.
be turned in several different directions, depending on where we are able to find It matters from where, and with what outlook, we trace our histories, since they are
footing stable enough to provide a different outlook. Re-positioning the outlook of what make possible futures visible to us.
design history will also bring about a repositioning of the outlooks from presents
to futures.

‘a design’ ‘a design’
ble
o ssi
p
ble
a usi
past ‘now’ p future
l past ‘now’ future
le
bab possi
ble
pro
le?
erab
pref

preferable? plausible

DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN

prefer
able?
proba
‘designing’ ble
‘designing’

Design histories, therefore, need to be understood as multiple, situated, experiential, The futures possible to discern from situated understandings of the present,
relational and contingent. As time passes, and things change, the histories that once of the ‘now’, depend on where that ‘now’ comes from. The more places in the
were relevant from a certain point of view will no longer suffice to support probing present from where we can see different pasts, the broader and more divergent
questions and concerns in new contexts. the outlooks towards the future can be. Basically, if we find ways to see broader
This speaks to the similarities between making design and making history. possibilities of what design could become in terms of things and situations it could
Proposals of what might be, or of what might have been, are always dependant on engage with, the more we could articulate different preferable trajectories towards
a specific situation, and are responses to the conditions of that particular context. the future. Out of these ideas of what types of futures might be both possible and
A design proposal that becomes realised is only one of many potential things that preferable, we can prototype practices in the present that might take designing
could have been made, and a history is only one of many potential histories that in that direction. Of course, there would be not only one ‘preferable future’ that
could have been. Also, in making the choices that result in a certain design or a would open up through making transitional design histories. Depending on
certain history, what has once been made cannot easily be unmade. the outlook, the historical trajectories would point towards different potentially
In choosing to make histories and represent them, and in choosing to preferable trajectories that design could take towards the future. But at least there
make designs real, anything we make will inevitably affect other situations – will be perhaps be active decisions that include perspectives of historicity and
other people, other contexts – than we might have intended and were able to temporality in design, about what to aim for, to start with, and what to try to avoid.
perceive when making decisions. In activating design history in the drawing up of Activating different histories will expand and make a bigger ‘now’, needed to
trajectories towards possible futures for design comes responsibilities of ensuring propose plural potential ways of moving towards other design practices.
that the outlooks towards what could become encompass as many aspects as
possible of how the presently visible is conditioned by the past. Even if we cannot
unmake what has once been made, we can at least do our best to avoid repeating

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Activating awareness of the historicity in design means paying attention to

le? what it means to take action to make change not only in the world, but also in
erab
pref how we make it possible for us to think what the world is. Even if certain of the
foundational concepts in design might seem stable and constant, when they are
past ‘now’ future
more taken for granted in an a-historical view of designing, they do change – and
they can be changed. Through making present the assumptions and ideas that
le? form these conceptual spaces for designing, it is also possible to address aspects
erab
pref of historicity of the very ways of thinking that guide the choices of what to do, and
how to do it, in design.
preferable? What it is that we take for granted and what we challenge in design differs
DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN depending on the scale and scope of what we make visible in the process. If the
conceptual foundations on which design methods and processes are built begin to
increasingly be in conflict with emerging understandings governing situations in
which design takes place, it is precisely this that might call for the need to explore
this in terms of historicity, to potentially open up new understandings and call
new practices of design into being.24
pre
fera Unpacking the ideological contents and historical contexts embedded
ble
? in current designing could support a more conscious and critical approach in
rethinking and developing existing and emerging design practices. It is more
If ‘we’ who design, and who hold accountability for processes and potential than likely that the ways of doing design that have come about in accordance
outcomes, are only designers or if we are many and diverse, the ways designing with concepts and ideas linking design to binary solutionism, financial gain, and
happens necessarily change, as do the outlooks towards what could be relevant industrial mass production and mass consumption will not be able to address
histories for making preferable futures.23 And as design always takes place in the complex contexts from perspectives of justice, sustainment, and multiplicity.
present, in a ‘now’, the future previously envisioned will eventually become the If ways of designing are to be developed that can build on understandings of
present and the methods for designing that once were new will potentially be both the world different than the ones that brought design into being, it is crucial that an
questioned and changed. From there, what becomes visible – in the past, in the awareness of design’s historicity can support unlearning and unmaking some of
present, and as potential futures – as potentials for designing in other ways, will the methods, concepts and processes that designing historically has become built
lead to needs for other probing into the conceptual foundations of designing. around.25 This will unavoidably bring about other relationships, other priorities,
and thus other dilemmas in designing.
Though history seemingly is about the past, it always has to do with what
is relevant and meaningful in the present. The stories we make in the present
– the enacted narratives about who ‘we’ are, what ‘we’ expect in life, and what
futures ‘we’ aim for – are all shaped by the stories told about the past. Changing
the stories we tell about what ‘the present’ is and where it comes from can support
past ‘now’ ‘now’ future future changing how and on what we choose to take action. This is why there needs to be
a plurality of perspectives, of stories, and of understandings, that come together
in negotiating what design could actually be making possible now, and not only
in the future. Making things possible, however, is not the same as making things
become a reality. The actions and choices that are made based on what could be
possible are always anchored in particular ways of thinking and understanding the
DESIGN HISTORY DESIGN world – in certain concepts that guide our interpretations, that form our actions,
and that make certain paths more likely to be taken than others.

23 Kristina Lindström & Åsa Ståhl, “Becoming response-able

stakeholders: Participatory design in times of uncertainties”,
in Proceedings of the 14th Participatory Design Conference
(ACM, 2016), 41–44.
24 Joanna Boehnert, “Design vs. the Design Industry”, Design
Philosophy Papers 2104:2 (vol.12), 133.

304 305
Chapter 7 Pasts/Presents

Making different histories is one way of shifting perspectives not only on, but
in, the present. Making many, and other, potential futures come into sight requires
creating spaces for a more multi-faceted and diverse ‘now’. In making transitional
design histories, many potential pasts speak to many potential understandings
of what ‘now’ could be. This making of a bigger ‘now’ does not mean including as
many perspectives as possible. Going to the etymology of the word, to ‘include’
originally means ‘shutting in’ or ‘imprisoning’. Rather than shutting in diverse
perspectives in a position where their outlooks converge into one, the ambition
with prototyping multiple pasts is the drawing forth of many possible trajectories,
through multiple presents, towards divergent potential futures.

25 John Chris Jones (1980), ”…in the dimension of Time.” in

Jones, Designing Designing (London: Architecture design and
technology press, 1991), 172

306 307
Archives
Arkitekturmuseets arkiv Nordiska museets arkiv
ArkDes Archive The Nordiska Museet Archive
Svenska Slöjdföreningens arkiv Lena Larssons arkiv
A10 Redogörelse för Bostadsutredningen, föredrag, artiklar, skrivelser F3 Handlingar rörande Svenska slöjdföreningen 1933-1944
A50 Bostadsvaneundersökningen
A80 Andra utredningar I Svenska slöjdföreningens arkiv
A80II Andra utredningar II (Industriens utredningsinstitut) F5 Bostadsvaneundersökningar
Vol. 50 Andra utredningar. F6 Bäddundersökningen
Vol. 57 Plan för bostadsvaneundersökning
Vol. 62 SAR & SSF Bostadsutredning I: 100 fam i 100 läg: Familjer och lägenheter
Vol. 63 SAR & SSF Bostadsutredning I: 100 fam i 100 läg: Familjer och lägenheter Riksarkivet
Vol. 79 SAR & SSF bostadsutredning I: 100 familjer i 100 lägenheter. The Swedish National Archives
100 fam i 100 läg: Enkät 1-50 Hemmens forskningsinstitut
100 fam i 100 läg: Enkät 51-100 FI a Uppdragsprovningar registrerade 1944-1956
FII a Handlingar rörande hemarbetsundersökningar.
Gotthard Johanssons arkiv FII b Handlingar rörande barnundersökning
AM1969-03 Pressklipp FIV Handlingar rörande organisation
AM 1968-12 01 Klippböcker 1930-32 AI:1 Styrelsens protokoll 1944-1957
AM 1968-12 02 Klippböcker 1932-34 AII:1 Arbetsutskottets protokoll 1944-1952
A III:1 Fullmäktiges protokoll 1953-1957

Centrum för Näringslivshistoria Brita Åkermans arkiv [stray folder,

Centre for Business History kept at Umeå University Library for the time being]
Föreningen Svensk Form Vol.7. Ämnesordnade handlingar.
F1 Registraturen
F3 Övriga utställningar Digitalt Museum
F6 Handlingar rörande presstjänst digitaltmuseum.se
F9 Handlingar rörande kurser och konferenser Bohusläns museum
Grenna Museum– Andréexpeditionen Polarcenter
Nordiska museet
Kungliga biblioteket Stadsmuseet i Stockholm
National Library of Sweden Sundsvalls museum
J10 Tolfternas samkväm för kvinnor ifrån olika yrkesområden
J10:1 Brev från Ellen Key
J10:3 Protokollböcker 1892-1964.
J10:5 “Tolfterna” Program 1901-1964
J10:9 Jubileumsskrift för samkvämet Tolfterna

308 309
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Umeå Institute of Design Research Publications
001 Camille Moussette, Simple Haptics: Sketching Perspectives for the Design of
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002 Guido Hermans, Opening Up Design: Engaging the Layperson in the Design
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003 Tara Mullaney, Thinking beyond the cure: A constructive design research
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Typographical note
This book is set in Utopia and Futura.

Utopia is a transitional serif typeface, designed by Robert Slimbach for Adobe

in 1989. A transitional typeface is one that – stylistically – builds on typefaces
that carried over from the older renaissance style typefaces (such as Bembo,
Garamond or Caslon) to the more modern and high contrast typefaces (such as
Bodoni or Didot) designed towards the late 18th century.

Futura is a sans-serif typeface designed by Paul Renner in 1927 as part of

the New Frankfurt project, which aimed to propose rational and affordable
housing according to modernist ideas about design and everyday life. Futura
is based on geometrical forms – circles, triangles and squares – and was
presented as ‘the typeface of our time’.

334