GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES:

Methods used by biologist to study macro and and micro-organsisms.

MICROSCOPY: Provides magnified image of organisms or cells.

 Ocular lens: found inside the eyepiece; usually has magnification of 10x or 15x.
 Objective lens: attached to the nose piece; magnification from x4 up to x1000 or more.
 Condenser and diaphragm: responsible for the regulation of light for brightness and contrast
adjustment.

STAINING TECHNIQUES:

1. Simple stain: determines the cell shapes, size, and arrangement. Uses only one kind of
stain.
2. Differential stain: uses 2 or more chemical stains. Used to highlight different cell material.

EXAMPLES OF MICROSCOPES
1. Compound Microscope
 Makes use of light to view sectioned specimen up to 2000x magnification.

2. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

 Makes use of a stream of electrons to study the internal structures of sectioned specimen.
3. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
 Makes use of a stream of electrons to study the 3-D surface of a specimen
4. Stereomicroscope
 Makes use angled light to view 3-D structures of specimen

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Used by a scientist to collect information and information and provide scientific explanation.

Methods of Reasoning
1. Inductive Reasoning/ Bottom-up Approach – specific to general

2. Deductive reasoning/Top-down-approach – general specific

 Experimental Designs
 A controlled observation to test a hypothesis.
True Experimental Research Design
 Experiments where there is complete control over all extraneous variables to predict the effect of the
manipulated independent variable.

Quasi-experimental Research Design

 Experiments wherein the independent variable is manipulated to see its effect on the dependent
variable.

Pre-experimental Research Design

 Experiments wherein there is little to no control over extraneous variables.

Origins of the Study of Life

Theory of Abiogenesis (aka Spontaneous Theory), states that life originates from non-living matter.

Theory of Biogenesis, states that life originates from pre-existing life.

THE CELL THEORY

1. Cells are the smallest and basic unit of structure and function of organisms.
2. All organisms are composed of cells.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

CELLS IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

 first record of seeing a cell and identifying belongs to Robert Hooke

STRUCTURAL FEATURES

1. Cell/plasma membrane - the outer boundary of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm - a gel-like substance that constitutes the cells internal environment and holds all of the
structural components of the cell.
3.Genetic material- Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material
which holds information for cell activities and function.
4. Ribosomes - manufacture proteins which are needed for
cell functions.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Earliest and most primitive cells
 Smaller
 For Structure
Capsule The outermost layer

Cell wall A rigid case that encloses the entire For Genetic Material
cell and gives it shape. For Nucleoid Region of the cell where DNA is present.
Bacteria: Peptidoglycans are present, Prokaryotes do not have an enclosed
while for Archaea: No peptidoglycans structure for its genetic material such as
are present. a nucleus. Ribosomes and enzymes are
Plasma A semipermeable membrane that seen near this region
membrane encloses the internal structures of the Plasmid Small independent loops of DNA which
cell that regulates the passage of are separate from the chromosomal DNA
molecules into and out of the cell. found in the nucleoid. This is important
for
the genetic advantages of prokaryotes.
 Consists of organisms from the Domain Archaea and Bacteria

For Activities and Function

Ribosome Small structures that are scattered
Mesosome Folds of the plasma membrane that
throughout the cytoplasm
enter the area of the cytoplasm. This
Pili Tubular structures present in the cell
is where the electron transport
surface for cell-to-cell communication
system for the creation of cell energy
and passing of genetic material.
is located.
Flagellum A tail-like appendage anchored to the
Cytoplasm & The gel-like substance that fills the
Cytosol cell membrane and wall that allows a
interior of the cell.
prokaryote locomotion through a
circular motion.

Fimbriae Additional small and bristle-like fibers

scattered throughout the cell surface.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 larger size compared to prokaryotes

 Cell structures can be categorized as either for:
1. Structures for protection
2. Genetic control organelles
3. Manufacturing, Storing, Distributing, and Breakdown organelles
4. Energy processing organelles
 5. 5.Organelles for structural support, movement, and communication between cells

STRUCTURES FOR PROTECTION

CELL MEMBRANE

 Functions as a barrier to separate the environment and the internal structures of the cell
Also regulates the passage of molecules to and from the cell
Structures Embedded in Cell Membrane Composed of two (2) sheets:
Transport Create passageways for ions
Phospholipids are organic molecules that exhibit both polar
Proteins and non-polar molecules
(hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) ends

Channel Form tunnels for the import Hydrophilic- loves

water Hydrophobic- ayaw sa water
Proteins and export of materials and MEMBRANE PROTEINS
wastes  The cell membrane is also composed of proteins and
Cell Enable cells to distinguish other molecules which are randomly scattered.
Recognition own cells from that of
 The presence of membrane proteins and other
Proteins other
molecules is why the cell membrane is termed
organisms
Junction Assist in cell-to-cell adhesion as Fluid Mosaic (model of plasma memberane)
Proteins and communication between
cells
Receptor Facilitate exchange of signals CYTOPLASM It is the jellylike substance contained within

Proteins between cells by changing its the cell membrane.

shape to allow specific Cytosol is the liquid component of the cytoplasm and is
molecules (ligands) to bind to largely composed of water
it Organelles are compartmentalized structures which offer
Enzymatic Participate in metabolic efficiency and provides the cell the ability to do different
Proteins reactions such as degradation
complex metabolic reactions in localized areas
and synthesis to sustain life in
the cell
Carbohydrate Serve as identification tags for GENETIC CONTROL ORGANELLES
Chains the cell recognition proteins
NUCLEUS
Cholesterol Strengthens the cell
membrane by making it more  The storehouse of genetic information (DNA).
 nucleus has specialized structures to facilitate their
flexible but less fluid.
entry:
 Nuclear envelope- A two membrane structure that encloses the nucleus and separates it
from the cytoplasm.
 Perinuclear space - The space between the two (2) membranes of the nuclear envelope.
 Nucleoplasm – the semi fluid substance inside the nucleus.
  Nuclear pores- perforations in the nuclear envelops that regulate the passage of materials
 Nucleolus- Condensed region of the nucleus where synthesis of ribosomal RNA (or rRNA) and
ribosomal subunits are centralized rRNA is combined with imported proteins to form the large
and small ribosomal subunits. These subunits exit through the nuclear pores and combine once
within the cytoplasm.

DNA

 The long-chain molecule of inheritance made of segmented portions called genes which
contains the information needed for cell activities (such as protein synthesis)
 The molecule is compacted by proteins called histones which form a condense structure called
chromatin and condenses further into chromosomes when cell division is occurring.
2 TYPES OF CHROMATIN SEEN IN THE NUCLEULOS
Euchromatin- Contains active DNA, stains lightly when viewed under the microscope.
Heterochromatin- Contains inactive DNA, stains deeply when viewed under the microscope.

MANUFACTURING, STORING, DISTRIBUTING, AND BREAKDOWN ORGANELLES

ENDOPLAMIC RETICULUM- An extensive folded membrane that occupies a large space in the cytoplasm.

 Rough ER- Region closest to the nucleus; with ribosomes

 Smooth ER- Region adjacent to the RER; no ribosomes are present

GOLGI APARATUS/BODY - acts as a processing system that sorts, modifies, and packages products from the ER.

 Golgi has specialized regions that interact with the ER, the rest of the cell, and with each other through
vesicles budding off from the Golgi cisternae.
1. Cis-face – the receiving end of the golgi.
2. Dictysome/medial-face- bulk or main stacks of cisternae.
3. Trans-face- the shipping end of the golgi.

Peroxisome
o Structurally identical to lysosomes however, the enzymes present are from the Golgi body and have
much higher concentrations than lysosomes.

RIBOSOMES
- Sites of protein synthesis
- consists of 70 proteins and several rRNA
- Proteins synthesized by free ribosomes function as enzymes or structural proteins
- Proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes function as secretory proteins or hormones
ENERGY PROCESSING ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIA
 Double membranous structures that supply energy to the cell by means of cellular respiration
two membranes of the mitochondria that allows it to perform functions for cellular respiration:
Outer Membrane- Smooth continuous boundary that encapsulates all the contents of the mitochondria.
Inner Membrane- Has intricately folded structures called cristae where enzymes responsible for cellular respiration
are located.
 Mitochondria are the sites of energy production where adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s source
of chemical energy, is synthesized
 The process of converting energy-rich molecules is known as the Kreb’s Cycle
 Mitochondria are considered semi-autonomous organelles
PLASTIDS - A group of large organelles only found in plant cells and not animal cells. Can be divided into 3 groups:
1. Chloroplasts
Green colored plastids due to the green pigments: chlorophyll and Chloroplasts are the sites of energy production
in plants because this is where photosynthesis occurs.
Chloroplasts are parallel to mitochondrion. Has specialized structure:
 Outer membrane - thylakoid – separates the stroma and the grana
 Inner membrane - Granum – stacks of thylakoids
 Stroma- an enzyme rich gel like matrix found inside the chloroplast.
2. Chromoplast
Colored plastids rich in pigments such as carotenoids instead of chlorophyll which give fruits, flowers, and leaves
their orange, yellow, and red colors.
Chromoplasts can arise from chloroplasts that have lost their chlorophyll.

3. Leucoplasts
Non-colored plastids that do not contain pigments.

ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS

CYTOSKELETON

A flexible network of protein threads and fibers that provide mechanical and structural framework of support
throughout the cell.

3 Major proteins of cytoskeleton:

 Microtubule- The thickest and longest filament

 Intermediate filament- Smaller than microtubules and appears ropelike. Provides the cell tensile
strength.
  Microfilament- The thinnest filament composed of actin which is present in nearly all cell types
of eukaryotes

Centrosomes and Centrioles

A small dense region in the cytoplasm.

 centrosome are two hollow cylinders made of filaments.

 centriole is composed of 9 filaments arranged in a circular pattern.
 Centrosome division is crucial in preceding and stimulating cell division:
1. Division of Centriole
2. Formation of asters and spindle fibers
a. Cilia
b. Flagella

CELL SURFACE AND JUNCTIONS

Cells are joined to each other by structures called junctions

Animal cells have different types of junctions depending on their location and function:

1. Tight Junctions- Fuses cells together to form an impassable barrier.

2. Adhesion Junctions - Connects two neighboring cells together or a cell to the extracellular matrix.
3. Gap Junctions- Similar to plasmodesmata, wherein a channel protein links with the cytoplasm.

PLASMA MEMBRANE AND TRANSPORT MECHANISM

PLASMA MEMBRANE- Serves as the boundary between

STRUTURE AND ORGANIZATION

Phospholipid- The main body of the plasma membrane is composed of an amphipathic molecule
 Hydrophilic- water loving
 Hydrophobic- water fearing
Fluid mosaic – the plasma membrane model. (the plasma membrane is represented using a model
known as fluid mosaic)
STRUCTURES OF THE MEMBRANE
TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS - These are proteins that regulate the movement of molecules across the
membrane.
 Composed of carrier, channels, and receptor proteins
INTERIOR PROTEIN NETWORK- Determines and maintains the structure and form of the plasma membrane. They
are responsible for the shape of the cell.
CELL SURFACE MARKERS – Responsible responsible for the recognition of foreign and local (self) cells and tissues.
PROTEINS AND PROTEIN COMPLEXES
TRANSPORTERS (CHANNELS/CARRIERS)- These proteins are responsible for the movement of
molecules/solutes across the membrane.

ENZYMES- Chemical reactions needed by the cell for metabolic functions.

Cell-surface receptor – Detect chemical messages from the environment to elicit reactions.
CELL SURFACE IDENTITY MARKERS- Identity markers are combinations of surface proteins and protein complexes

that specify the type and origin of the cell.

CELL TO CELL ADHESION PROTEINS - These are the bonds and junctions between cells.

ATTACHMENT TO THE CYTOSKELETON- maintain shape, stability, and coordinate

chemical/mechanical changes.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS - allow the cell to regulate what solutes enter/exit the cell and the quantity being
transported.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT - relies on the concentration gradient of solutes to move them across the plasma
membrane.
 Simple diffusion - The movement of ions and molecules from high concentrations to low concentrations
is known as diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion - The movement of ions and molecules from high concentrations to low
concentrations is known as diffusion.
CHANNEL PROTEINS- provide a small, hydrophilic passageway for specific molecules and ions.
CARRIER PROTEINS- require the molecule being transported to attach itself to the carrier protein.
OSMOSIS - movement of water from high concentration of solutes to low concentration across membranes.

difference in osmotic concentration which leads to the movement of water is known as TONICITY.
 Hypertonic – high concentrations of solutes
 Hypotonic- low concentration
 Isotonic- No difference in osmotic concentation
AQUAPORINS- allows water molecule to move across the membrane in large quantities.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT - relies on the expense of cell energy.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT ACCORDING TO ENEGRY
- Primary active transport - intentional and uphill mode of transport
- Secondary active transport - usually seen as the aftermath of primary active transport.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT ACCORDING TO DIRECTION
- Coupled/co transport- when one protein shuttles two different molecules across the membrane in the same
direction.

- Counter transport - when one transporter moves two different molecules across the membrane in
different directions.