PUNIT 1 CONFUCIANISM

Contents

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Life of Confucius
1.3 Sacred Texts
1.4 Confucian Worldview
1.5 The Cult of Confucius, Temple and Worship
1.6 Sacrificial Rites and Feasts
1.7 The Nature of Human
1.8 Ethics
1.9 Confucius’ Social Philosophy
1.10 Confucius’ Political Philosophy
1.11 Confucius and Education
1.12 Let Us Sum Up
1.13 Key Words
1.14 Further Readings and References
1.15 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES

Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the
Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BC). It focuses on human morality and right action.
And it is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought
that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered
a state religion of some East Asian countries, because of governmental promotion of Confucian
values. By the end of this Unit you are expected to understand:

• the life of Confucius

• sacred texts of Confucianism
• Confucian worldview
• cult of Confucius

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 • sacrificial rites and feasts
• ethical teachings
• social philosophy
• political hilosophy
• views on education

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Confucianism along with the other two formal traditions, Taoism and Buddhism, has been one of
the most influential systems of thought in China for centuries and remains an important aspect of
Chinese civilization. Each of the three encompassed both a religion and a philosophy, centered
on the worship of ancestors, personal and local deities. The central purpose of Chinese religion
in general is to uphold the sacredness by maintaining harmony among human beings and
between humanity and nature. The focus of Confucius in particular was on creating harmony in
human society. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of
social relationships, justice and sincerity. Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system
of philosophy known as Confucianism. The teachings and philosophy of Confucius have deeply
influenced Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Taiwanese and Vietnamese thought and life. Several
names for Confucianism exist in Chinese:

• School of the scholars

• Teaching of the scholars
• Study of the scholars
• Teaching of Confucius

1.2 LIFE OF CONFUCIUS

Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher. According to
tradition, Confucius was born in 551 BC, in or near the city of Qufu, in the Chinese State of Lu
(now part of Shantung Province). Confucius is a Latinized name. His Chinese name was Kung
Fut-tzu, meaning Master Kong. He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha and lived just
before the time of Socrates and Plato.

Confucius came from an aristocratic but impoverished family. His father died when Confucius
was three years old, and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. Confucius married a young
girl named Qi Quan at 19 she gave birth to their first child Kong Li when he was 20. Confucius
is reported to have worked as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk and book-keeper. At twenty-two he
became a teacher. His mother died when Confucius was 23.

Soon became a renowned teacher. Many came to study under him. Moral education was the
backbone of his educational programme. He also taught his disciples how to serve as officials on
all levels in government.

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Confucius lived during the Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. to 256 B.C.). At this time, the land was
divided among feudal lords. The moral and social order was in a state of decay. Confucius
sought a way to restore the cultural-political order. He believed that reform would come through
educating the leaders in the classics and in his philosophy. He therefore sought a political
position of influence, from which he could implement his principles.

Confucius is said to have risen to the position of Chief magistrate in Lu and later Minister of
Justice when he was fifty years of age. According to the Historians, the neighboring state of Qi
was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful. Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending
100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the Duke of Lu. The Duke indulged himself in
pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was deeply disappointed at
the misbehavior and immoral life of the Duke of Lu. He resigned in protest the post as minister
of justice and left the state of Lu. According to tradition, after Confucius's resignation, he began
a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China. He
wandered for thirteen years from state to state, only to be disappointed and saddened everywhere
by a refusal to respond to his moral challenge. The Analects pictures him spending his last years
teaching disciples and transmitting the old wisdom. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his
favorite disciples he died at the age of 72 or 73.

1.3 SACRED TEXTS

The Confucian canon is almost exclusively attributed to human beings. It includes the work of
founding figures such as Confucius and Mencius, and covers subjects ranging from origin of
civilization and good government to the history and protocol of early dynasties. At heart of
Confucian tradition are its scriptures especially the “Five Classics” and the “Four Books”.

1. The Five Classics

a. The Classics of Changes (I Ching): is a collection of texts on divination based on a set

of sixty-four hexagrams that reflect the relationship between Yin and Yang in nature and
society
b. The Classics of documents (Shu Jing): is a record of historical event, some traditionally
dated to China’s remote past providing lessons in moral behavior and good government.
c. The Classic of Poetry (Shi Ching): is a collection of 305 poems and songs from early
Chou Dynasty (1027-402 BC)
d. The Record of Rites (Li Ching): consists of three books on the Li (Rites of Propriety),
which is the basis of Confucian self-cultivation
e. The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ching): extracts from the history of the state
of Lu 722-484, said to be compiled by Confucius.

2. The Four Books

a. The Analects (Lun Yü): which formed part of the canon from the Han dynasty onward,
is a record of Confucius’ own prescriptions for an ideal society.

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 b. Mencius (Meng Tzu ): is the work of Confucius’ eponymous follower, expands the
Confucius’ teaching in the Analects.
c. The Great Learning (Hsueh): teaches that the first step in bringing the world into
harmony is the cultivation of the individual.
d. The Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung): asserts that cosmos and humanity form a
unity through sincere effort.

1.4 CONFUCIAN WORLDVIEW

Confucius believed, however, in the Great Ultimate (Tao), which manifests itself in the I, or
change. Tao is the cause of I, and generates Yang (energy) and Yin (a passive form). Together,
Yin and Yang are seen as complementary symbols of the energy and tension in a system of
counter forces. Tao, or the Great Ultimate, is the first-cause of the universe, a force that flows
through all life, but is not a personal being. Confucians believe that Tai Chi is the Ultimate, an
integrated energy of Yin and Yang, which is evolved from Wu Chi (Void energy) and can be
transformed into various forms. The ultimate source of all energy and knowledge is called Tao,
which is a continuum without boundaries in time and space, infinite, formless, and luminous (I –
Ching).

In Confucianism, the system of Yin and Yang was conceived as a way of explaining the
universe. It is purely relative system; any one thing is either Yin or Yang in relation to some
other object or phenomena, and all things can be described only in relation to each other. The
Yin and Yang are the negative and positive principles of universal force. The Yin and Yang
together constitute the Tao, the eternal principle of heaven and earth, the origin of all things
human and divine. The Tao produced the Chi (Qi, energy or life force). Because of Tao change
is possible. Change is a transforming process due to the dynamics of Yin and Yang. Change has
the notion of constancy – the change itself is unchanging.

Check your progress I

Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.

1. How does Confucius explain the universe?

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1.5 THE CULT OF CONFUCIUS, TEMPLE AND WORSHIP

Confucianism has had the most enduring and profound effect over Chinese culture. As time went
on, Confucius became respected as a sage, and the temples to Confucius were built as a landmark
for all of China. Among them, the Temple in Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, is the most
famous and the largest. It was established in 478 BC, one year after Confucius's death, at the
order of the Duke Ai of the State of Lu, who commanded that the Confucian residence should be

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used to worship and offer sacrifice to Confucius. The temple was expanded repeatedly over a
period of more than 2,000 years until it became the huge complex currently standing.

The development of state temples devoted to the cult of Confucius was an outcome of his
gradual canonisation. In 195 BC, Han Gao Zu, founder of the Han Dynasty (r. 206–195 BCE),
offered a sacrifice to the spirit of Confucius at his tomb in Qufu. Sacrifices to the spirit of
Confucius and that of Yan Hui, his most prominent disciple, began in the Imperial University
(Biyong) as early as 241.

The state cult of Confucius centered upon offering sacrifices to Confucius's spirit in the
Confucian temple. In addition to worshipping Confucius, Confucian temples also honored the
"Four Correlates", the "Twelve Philosophers", and other disciples and Confucian scholars
through history. The composition and number of figures worshipped changed and grew through
time.

1.6 SACRIFICIAL RITES AND FEASTS

Confucianism is a man-centered religion. It focuses on rites more than prayer or divination. Of

the rituals of Confucianism, the sacrificial ritual is the most fundamental because all the others
are based on it. The Confucians devote sacrificial rites to those divine beings that have a
beneficial relationship with human life. These divine being includes above all Heaven and Earth.
The Sun, the Moon, and the Stars are also included for they give light; the wind, clouds,
lightning, mountains, rivers and the sea for they support in the production food and other
commodities; parents and ancestors for they bore and reared the current generation of humans;
and sages and kings for they designed the model for the spiritual life of human. Communion
feast is normally the integral part of the sacrificial rites that are devoted to those divine beings.

1.7 NATURE OF HUMAN

The Confucian philosophy is built on the foundational belief that human is basically good. The
Analects state, "The Master said, 'Is goodness indeed so far away? If we really wanted goodness,
we should find that it was at our side.'" Confucian disciple Mencius further develops this, stating,
"Man's nature is naturally good just as water naturally flows downward." This innate goodness
could be developed and actualized through education, self-reflection, and discipline. Study in the
six arts, which include ceremony, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics would
develop one's character.

However, despite human's natural goodness, Confucius faced reality honestly. He questioned if it
was possible to ever truly attain the level of the true gentleman. Confucius stated, "I for my part
have never yet seen one who really cared for goodness, nor one who really abhorred
wickedness." He said of himself, "As to being a divine sage or even a good man, far be it from
me to make any such claim." "The Master said, 'The Ways of the true gentleman are three. I

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myself have met with success in none of them.'" However, if man by nature is good, why can we
not attain what should be natural to us?

1.8 ETHICS

Three key principles are emphasized in Confucius' teachings: the principles of Lǐ, Yi and Ren,

Li.
The term Li has several meanings, often translated as propriety, reverence, courtesy, ritual or the
ideal standard of conduct. It is what Confucius believed to be the ideal standard of religious,
moral, and social conduct. Lǐ is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies
associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions,
and the etiquette of daily behavior. According to Confucius, Li is defined as proprietary rites or
good manners. The concept of Li determines how you act in a given relationship. In other words,
Li can be viewed as a person’s morality. A person’s morality is responsible how they act or react
to certain situations as well as how they view the world. Confucius advocates the necessity of Li
as a stepping stone to social harmony.

Li is interpreted quite differently throughout Confucian philosophy. The founder of Confucian

philosophy believes that before Li can be achieved, a person must have a sense of sincerity and
be true to oneself (Cheng). This belief that virtue is the backbone of morality spreads even
further, all the way to the social scope. Confucius’ teachings reveal that a simple, secular, and
unsassuming attitude toward life is the root of morality. Starting from being sincere to oneself
(cheng). Lǐ: The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in li was believed by some that lǐ
originated from the heavens. Confucius's view was more nuanced. His approach stressed the
development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history, with less emphasis on its
connection with heaven. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions
committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with
canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ, though still linked to
traditional forms of action, came to point towards the balance between maintaining these norms
so as to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical
good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time, and are connected to
the belief that training in the lǐ that past sages have devised cultivates in people virtues that
include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

Yì

In early Confucianism, yì and lǐ are closely linked terms. Yì can be translated as righteousness,
though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts
with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily
bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one based one's life upon following a path
designed to enhance the greater good, an outcome of yì. This is doing the right thing for the right
reason. More ofen this term is used in opposition to personal advantages or profit. It means the
right principle of behavior, in contrast to egoism. It is something like a principle of justice or
what action one should follow or conform it. Yì is based upon reciprocity.

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Rén
Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so
yì is linked to the core value of rén. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities
toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness" or “goodness” and other
translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's
moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained
rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively
was even better than living by the rules of yì. To cultivate one's attentiveness to rén one used
another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: one must always treat others just as one would
want others to treat oneself. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other
people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests
of self and other.

In this regard, Confucius articulated an early version of the Golden Rule:

"What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one
recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others."

The word rén employed in the Book of Poetry to describe noble huntsmen. Of various utterances
recorded in his Analects, two remarks characterizing rén are fundamental: “to love humanity”
and “to return to Li.” Confucius sometimes views rén as a particular quality, along with
cleverness, trustworthiness, forth righteousness, courage and so on.

Rén as love is based on the feeling one has toward one’s own parents and brothers. “Filial Piety
and brotherly love are the roots of rén. Filial love is crucial because Confucius believes that
gratitude and affection towards one’s parents enables one willingly to accept parental authority
and hierarchical relation between parent and child. Rén as love is the expansion of the roots of
filial love. This expansion consists in the transferring of the family’s relation of hierarchy and
fraternity to the larger society. As a good father makes a good ruler, a good son makes a good
subject. A man of rén starts loving parents, and then gradually expands circle of love. Hence,
the determination that rén is to love humanity serves to justify the inner basis of returning to li.

When Confucius claims that rén is to return to li, he is asking each agent to act in conformity
with social values, and thereby become accepted and respected by the society or tradition he or
she is in. To be a person of rén is first of all to be a social person, equipped with ethical virtues.

The principle of rén is closely associated with another important concept: Chun-Tzu, the idea of
the true gentleman. It is the man who lives according to the highest ethical standards. The
gentleman displays five virtues: self-respect, generosity, sincerity, persistence, and benevolence.
His relationships are described as the following: as a son, he is always loyal; as a father, he is
just and kind; as an official, he is loyal and faithful; as a husband, he is righteous and just; and as
a friend, he is faithful and tactful.

The five Relationships

Confusianism speaks of five basic human relationships. The influence of the theory of the five
elements gave the impression that there should be "five relationships," “Wu lun”. Confucius

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believed that everyone had their role to play based on their relationship to others. If everyone
fulfilled their duties and kept their place then society would be stable and harmonious. Confucius
saw that five major human relationships should be governed by li, or propriety. Those
relationships are:
1. Ruler and subject
2. Father and son
3. Husband and wife
4. Elder brother to younger brother
5. Friend to friend.
a. Reciprocity
Shu, or reciprocity, is seen in the five relationships as follows:
1. Benevolence in rulers, loyalty in ministers and subjects
2. Kindness in the father, filial piety in the son
3. Righteous behavior in the husband, obedience in the wife
4. Gentleness in the oldest son, humility and respect in the younger siblings
5. Humane consideration in each other.
In each of the relationships, the superior member (father, husband, etc.) has the duty of
benevolence and care for the subordinate member (son, wife, etc.). The subordinate member has
the duty of obedience. The only exception might be the relationship between friend and friend,
which may actually involve equality -- unless, of course, one is older than the other, which
would turn it into a relationship like that between older and younger brother. Confucianism also
speaks of The "Six Relationships" or "Six Relations," “liù lún.” They are supposed to be the
basis of all social connections between persons, and all six are based on the fundamental
relationship between parents and children. Thus they are all variations of "filial piety" the
religious respect that children owe to their parents. The reverential attitude toward the teacher is
highly emphasized in this version of six relations. Confucius says: When a man has been your
teacher for a single day, you should treat him as your father for the rest of his life.

The six relations are as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6
Superior Father Husband Elder brother Ruler Friend Teacher
Subordinate Son Wife Younger brothers Subject Friend Student

b. Filial Piety
For Confucius and his followers, the relationship between father and son was the most important.
“filial piety'' - it is the important virtue. Confucius also incorporated the notion of the four
classes: the scholar, the peasants, the artisans (a.k.a. craftsmen), and the lowest of the low, the
merchant. Notice two things, the place of the peasant and the absence of warriors. Confucianism
had no need of war, because if everyone is following their proper role then there should be no
war. If there is war, then Confucianism is out the window anyway. China never glorified the

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warrior as much as Japan and Europe did. Also, the class order put peasants second since they
provided the food that everyone else needed to live. Artisans at least make useful things, but
merchants were viewed as parasites whose only purpose was to live (and get rich) off the sweat
of others' labor.

Check your progress II

Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.

1. Whom did the people worship in the temples?

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2. How will the society be harmonious and stable.?
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1.9 CONFUCIUS’ SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

Confucius’ social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of ren, “compassion” or
“loving others.” Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating oneself.
This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false
impression and lead to self-aggrandizement. Those who have cultivated ren are, on the contrary,
“simple in manner and slow of speech.” For Confucius, such concern for others is demonstrated
through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do
to others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help others achieve it, since you yourself
desire success then help others attain it.” He regards devotion to parents and older siblings as the
most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own and teaches that such
altruism can be accomplished only by those who have learned self-discipline.

Learning self-restraint involves studying and mastering li, the ritual forms and rules of propriety
through which one expresses respect for superiors and enacts his role in society in such a way
that he himself is worthy of respect and admiration. A concern for propriety should inform
everything that one says and does:

Look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing in
defiance or ritual, never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual.

Subjecting oneself to ritual does not, however, mean suppressing one's desires but instead
learning how to reconcile one's own desires with the needs of one's family and community.
Confucius and many of his followers teach that it is by experiencing desires that we learn the
value of social structures that make an ordered society possible. Nor does Confucius' emphasis
on ritual mean that he was a punctilious ceremonialist who thought that the rites of worship and
of social exchange had to be practiced correctly at all costs. Confucius taught, on the contrary,

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that if one did not possess a keen sense of the well-being and interests of others his ceremonial
manners signified nothing. Equally important was Confucius' insistence that the rites not be
regarded as mere forms, but that they be practiced with complete devotion and sincerity. “He
[i.e., Confucius] sacrificed to the dead as if they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits as if the
spirits were present. The Master said, ‘I consider my not being present at the sacrifice as though
there were no sacrifice.”

While ritual forms often have to do with the more narrow relations of family and clan, ren,
however, is to be practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius
warns those in power that they should not oppress or take for granted even the lowliest of their
subjects. “You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the
humblest peasant of his opinion.” Confucius regards loving others as a calling and a mission for
which one should be ready to die.

1.10 CONFUCIUS' POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Confucius' political philosophy is also rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline,
should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and concern. “If
the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to
escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought
among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come
to you of their own accord.”

Most troubling to Confucius was his perception that the political institutions of his day had
completely broken down. He attributed this collapse to the fact that those who wielded power as
well as those who occupied subordinate positions did so by making claim to titles for which they
were not worthy. In the words of Confucius “Good government consists in the ruler being a
ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son. If I claim
for myself a title and attempt to participate in the various hierarchical relationships to which I
would be entitled by virtue of that title, then I should live up to the meaning of the title that I
claim for myself. The attitude and behavior of the ruler is very important for good government.
In a conversation with Ji Kangzi (who had usurped power in Lu), Confucius advised: “If your
desire is for good, the people will be good. The moral character of the ruler is the wind; the
moral character of those beneath him is the grass. When the wind blows, the grass bends.”

For Confucius, what characterized superior governing was the possession of ‘virtue.’ Conceived
of as a kind of moral power that allows one to win a following without recourse to physical
force, such ‘virtue’ also enabled the ruler to maintain good order in his state without troubling
himself and by relying on loyal and effective deputies. Confucius claimed that, “He who governs
by means of his virtue is, to use an analogy, like the pole-star: it remains in its place while all the
lesser stars do homage to it.” The way to maintain and cultivate such royal ‘virtue’ was through
the practice and enactment of li or ‘rituals’—the ceremonies that defined and punctuated the
lives of the ancient Chinese aristocracy.

1.11 CONFUCIUS AND EDUCATION

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A hallmark of Confucius' thought is his emphasis on education and study. He disparages those
who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues that the only real understanding
of a subject comes from long and careful study. Study, for Confucius, means finding a good
teacher and imitating his words and deeds. A good teacher is someone older who is familiar with
the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients. While he sometimes warns against
excessive reflection and meditation, Confucius' position appears to be a middle course between
studying and reflecting on what one has learned. “He who learns but does not think is lost. He
who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.” Confucius, himself, is credited by the tradition
with having taught altogether three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have truly
mastered the arts he cherished. Confucius is willing to teach anyone, whatever their social
standing, as long as they are eager and tireless. He taught his students morality, proper speech,
government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasizes the “Six Arts” -- ritual, music,
archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation -- it is clear that he regards morality the
most important subject. Confucius' pedagogical methods are striking. He never discourses at
length on a subject. Instead he poses questions, cites passages from the classics, or uses apt
analogies, and waits for his students to arrive at the right answers. “I only instruct the eager and
enlighten the fervent. If I hold up one corner and a student cannot come back to me with the
other three, I do not go on with the lesson.”

Check your progress III

Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.

1. What is Rén?
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2. What is the basis of Political philosophy of Confucianism?

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1.12 LET US SUM UP

Although Confucianism may include ancestor worship, sacrifice to ancestral spirits and an
abstract celestial deity, and the deification of ancient kings and even Confucius himself, all these
features can be traced back to non-Confucian Chinese beliefs established long before
Confucius.Generally speaking, Confucianism is not considered a religion by Chinese or other
East Asian people. Part of this attitude may be explained by the stigma placed on many
"religions" as being superstitious, illogical, or unable to deal with modernity. Many Buddhists
state that Buddhism is not a religion, but a philosophy, and this is partially a reaction to negative
popular views of religion. Similarly, Confucians maintain that Confucianism is not a religion, but

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rather a moral code or philosophic worldview. There is a much more blurred line between
religion and philosophy in non-Western thought. Most of the Western distinction is in fact a
relatively recent phenomenon, resulting from the Enlightenment period unique to Western
Europe. Most scholarly, comprehensive definitions of religion account for this cultural
difference. Therefore, it could be said that while Confucianism is not a religion by Western
standards (even according to Asian adherents), it is a religion in the East Asian sense of the
word. If religion is by definition worship of supernatural entities, the answer must be that
Confucianism is not a religion. If, on the other hand, a religion is defined as a belief system that
includes moral stances, guides for daily life, systematic views of humanity and its place in the
universe, etc., then Confucianism most definitely qualifies. As with many such important
concepts, the definition of religion is quite contentious.

1.13 KEY WORDS

Value: In ethics, value is a property of objects, including physical objects as well as abstract
objects (e.g. actions), representing their degree of importance.

Virtue and Values: Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Virtue is the core of
underlying values or fundamental value that contributes to our system of beliefs, ideas and / or
opinions.

1.14 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anderson, Norman Sir. Ed. The World’s Religions. London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1975.

Chan, Wing-Tsit. “Confucian Thought.” The Encyclopedia of Religion.Ed. Mircea Eliade.

New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987. Vol.4.

………………. “Neo-Confucianism.” The Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Mircea Eliade. New

York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987. Vol.4.

Moore, Jennifer Oldstone. Understanding Confucianism. London: Duncan Baird Publishers,

2003.

Shun, Kwong-Loi. “Confucianism.” Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed. Donald Borchert. Vol.2.

New York: Thomson Gale, 2006.

Smith, Howard D. Confucius and Confucianism. London: Paladin Books, 1985.

Waley, Arthur, Tr. The Analects of Confucius. London: Unwin Hyman, 1988.

Ware, James R., Tr. The Sayings of Confucius. New York: New American Library, 1955.

Viladesau, Richard and Massa, Mark. Eds. World Religions: A Sourcebook for Students of
Christian Theology. New York: Paulist Press, 1994.

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1.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your progress I

1. In Confucianism, the system of Yin and Yang was conceived as a way of explaining the
universe. It is purely relative system; any one thing is either Yin or Yang in relation to some
other object or phenomena, and all things can be described only in relation to each other. The
Yin and Yang are the negative and positive principles of universal force. The Yin and Yang
together constitute the Tao, the eternal principle of heaven and earth, the origin of all things
human and divine. The Tao produced the Chi (Qi, energy or life force). Because of Tao change
is possible. Change is a transforming process due to the dynamics of Yin and Yang. Change has
the notion of constancy – the change itself is unchanging.

Check your progress II

1. The state cult of Confucius centered upon offering sacrifices to Confucius's spirit in the
Confucian temple. In addition to worshipping Confucius, Confucian temples also honored the
"Four Correlates", the "Twelve Philosophers", and other disciples and Confucian scholars
through history. The composition and number of figures worshipped changed and grew through
time.

2. Confusianism speaks of five basic human relationships. The influence of the theory of the five
elements gave the impression that there should be "five relationships," “Wu lun”. Confucius
believed that everyone had their role to play based on their relationship to others. If everyone
fulfilled their duties and kept their place then society would be stable and harmonious. Confucius
saw that five major human relationships should be governed by li, or propriety.

Check your progress III

1. Confucius' social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of ren, “compassion” or
“loving others.” Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating oneself.
This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false
impression and lead to self-aggrandizement. Those who have cultivated ren are, on the contrary,
“simple in manner and slow of speech.” For Confucius, such concern for others is demonstrated
through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do
to others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help others achieve it, since you yourself
desire success then help others attain it.” He regards devotion to parents and older siblings as the
most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own and teaches that such
altruism can be accomplished only by those who have learned self-discipline.

2. Confucius' political philosophy is also rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-
discipline, should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and
concern. “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments,
they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and
uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense
of shame and come to you of their own accord.”

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