Robert C.

Brears
Water Resources Management
Also of Interest
Sustainable Utility Systems.
Modelling and Optimisation
Petar Sabev Varbanov, Jiří Škorpík, Jiří Pospíšil, Jiří Jaromír Klemeš,

ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----

Process Engineering.
Addressing the Gap between Study and Chemical Industry
Michael Kleiber, 
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----

Sustainable Process Integration and Intensification.

Saving Energy, Water and Resources
Jiří Jaromír Klemeš, Petar Sabev Varbanov, Sharifah Rafidah Wan
Alwi, Zainuddin Abdul Manan, 
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----

Product and Process Design.

Driving Innovation
Jan Harmsen, André B. de Haan, Pieter L. J. Swinkels, 
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----

Process Synthesis and Process Intensification.

Methodological Approaches
Ben-Guang Rong (Ed.), 
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----
Robert C. Brears

Water Resources
Management

Innovative and Green Solutions

Author
Robert C. Brears
Our Future Water
New Zealand
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-068559-6
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-068564-0
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-068577-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020952712

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: mariusFM77/E+/Getty Images
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Acknowledgements
I wish to first thank the team at De Gruyter who are visionaries and enable books
like mine to come to fruition. I wish to thank Mum, who has a great interest in the
environment and water-related issues and has supported me in this journey of writ-
ing the book.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-202
Contents
Acknowledgements V

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Notes 3
References 3

Chapter 2
Innovative water management 5
Introduction 5
2.1 Multiple challenges to the water sector 5
2.1.1 Climate change 5
2.1.2 Rapid population growth 7
2.1.3 Urbanisation 7
2.1.4 Economic growth and resource use 8
2.1.5 Rising demand for energy 8
2.1.6 Rising demand for food 9
2.1.7 Ageing infrastructure and deteriorating water quality 10
2.1.8 Greenhouse gas emissions 10
2.1.9 Environmental degradation and biodiversity loss 11
2.1.10 High customer expectations 11
2.2 Innovative water management 11
2.2.1 Innovation in the water sector 12
2.2.2 Innovative water management technologies 12
2.2.3 Stakeholder contributions to innovative water management
technologies 13
2.2.4 Barriers to innovative water management technologies 15
2.2.5 Overcoming barriers 17
Notes 18
References 21

Chapter 3
Conserving and recycling and reusing water 25
Introduction 25
3.1 Demand management 25
3.1.1 Demand management strategies 26
3.2 Water pricing 26
3.2.1 Common tariff structures 27
3.2.2 Irrigation tariff structures 27
VIII Contents

3.3 Water metering 29

3.4 Leak detection and water distribution network rehabilitation 30
3.5 Water restrictions 31
3.6 Water efficiency labelling 32
3.7 Education and awareness 33
3.8 Demonstration projects 35
3.9 Water recycling and reuse 36
3.9.1 Non-potable use 36
3.9.2 Potable reuse 38
Notes 40
References 42

Chapter 4
Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater 45
Introduction 45
4.1 Renewable energy generation technologies at wastewater
treatment facilities 45
4.1.1 Biogas from anaerobic digestion 46
4.1.2 Biomethane 46
4.1.3 Combined heat and power 47
4.1.4 Anaerobic co-digestion 48
4.1.5 Thermal conversion of biosolids 48
4.1.6 Thermal energy recovery from wastewater 49
4.2 Renewable energy activities on buildings and surrounding
lands 50
4.2.1 Solar energy 50
4.2.2 Wind power 51
4.2.3 Hydropower energy recovery 51
4.3 Energy efficiency 52
4.4 Benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency 53
4.5 Recovering resources 54
4.5.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus 54
4.5.2 Cellulose 56
4.5.3 Bioplastic 56
4.5.4 Bricks and tiles 57
4.5.5 Mining wastewater for metals 57
Notes 57
References 60
 Contents IX

Chapter 5
Greening of grey water infrastructure 63
Introduction 63
5.1 Rainwater harvesting 63
5.2 Rain gardens 65
5.3 Bioswales 67
5.3.1 Maintenance of bioswales 67
5.4 Floodwater detention and retention basins 68
5.5 Green roofs 69
5.6 Blue roofs 71
5.7 Permeable pavements 72
5.8 Green streets 74
5.8.1 Stormwater planters 74
5.8.2 Stormwater bump-outs 75
5.8.3 Stormwater tree 76
5.8.4 Stormwater tree trench 76
5.8.5 Green car parking lots 76
5.9 Multifunctional spaces 77
Notes 78
References 80

Chapter 6
Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins 85
Introduction 85
6.1 River basin planning to protect and restore water quality 85
6.1.1 Developing and implementing a successful river basin management
plan 86
6.2 Permits 89
6.2.1 Tradable permits 90
6.3 Best management practices 94
6.3.1 Agricultural best management practices for water quality
protection 94
6.3.2 Industrial best management practices for water quality
protection 96
6.3.3 Urban best management practices for water quality protection 99
6.4 Source water protection 100
Notes 101
References 103
X Contents

Chapter 7
Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future 107
Introduction 107
7.1 Smart digital water management 107
7.1.1 Categories of smart digital water management technologies 109
7.1.2 Smart digital water management system components 109
7.1.3 Smart water grids and smart water meters 113
7.1.4 Artificial intelligence and machine learning 114
7.2 Managing customers of the future 116
7.2.1 Customer participation 116
7.2.2 Enhancing customer experiences across the water distribution
network 121
Notes 124
References 127

Chapter 8
Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects 131
Introduction 131
8.1 Overcoming barriers to water financing 131
8.1.1 Economic and financial instruments 133
8.2 Water prices 133
8.3 Stormwater fee discounts 134
8.4 Stormwater volume credit trading 135
8.5 Environmental taxes 137
8.6 Subsidies 138
8.7 Tradable permits 139
8.7.1 Tradable water abstraction rights 139
8.7.2 Tradable water pollution rights 139
8.8 Payment for watershed ecosystem services 141
8.9 Green bonds 142
8.9.1 The Green Bond Principles 143
8.9.2 Labelling scheme for green bonds 143
8.10 Public-private partnerships 145
8.10.1 Public-private partnerships for ecosystem restoration 146
Notes 148
References 150

Chapter 9
Best practices and conclusion 153
Introduction 153
9.1 Conserving and recycling and reusing water 153
 Contents XI

9.2 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from

wastewater 155
9.3 Greening of grey water infrastructure 156
9.4 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins 157
9.5 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the
future 158
9.6 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water
projects 160
Conclusion 161

Index 163
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract: As the century progresses, the water sector is facing increasing pressure
from a wide range of climatic and non-climatic trends that challenge its ability to
provide sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related serv-
ices that meet customers’ expectations in the future. Traditionally, the water sector
has been typically slow to evolve and incorporate new innovative solutions into ex-
isting systems in response to various challenges due to a number of barriers.
Nonetheless, failure to implement innovations in water management will expose
the water sector to a variety of risks. This book provides new research on innovative
water management technologies that have been applied by leaders in the water sec-
tor to ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water
and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations in the future.

Keywords: Water Sector, Climate Change, Water Infrastructure, Innovation

As the century progresses, the water sector is facing increasing pressure from a
wide range of climatic and non-climatic trends that challenge its ability to provide
sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related services that
meet customers’ expectations in the future.1 Climate change will impact water re-
sources in many ways, including increasing demand for scarce water while water
supplies become limited, or variable, increasing the magnitude and frequency of
storms and flooding, and increasing illnesses from poor water quality. Rapid popu-
lation growth will increase the number of people living in water-scarce regions of
the world while at the same time exposing a greater number of people to floods.
Urbanisation is increasing demand for scarce water resources while at the same
time impacting water quality in source watersheds. Rapid economic growth is
placing significant demand on water for manufacturing and industrial processes.
Furthermore, water scarcity is arising from growing water-energy and water-food
nexus pressures. Ageing infrastructure is not only resulting in significant water
losses from leakage but also deteriorating water quality. At the same time, the
providing of water and wastewater-related services is contributing to rising green-
house gas emissions. Meanwhile land-use change is impacting waterways, lead-
ing to biodiversity loss. Finally, customer expectations are rising with regards to
the types of services they expect from water utilities, including greater emphasis
on environmental sustainability.
The term ‘water sector’ is divided by the UN World Water Assessment Programme
(WWAP) into three main functional categories: water resources management, which
includes integrated water resources management and ecosystem restoration and

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2 Chapter 1 Introduction

remediation and is aimed at ensuring the protection, sustainable use, and regenera-
tion of water resources by protecting ecosystems, rivers, lakes, and wetlands, and
building the necessary infrastructure, such as dams and aqueducts, to store water
and regulate its flow; water infrastructure, which includes the construction, opera-
tion, and maintenance of water-related infrastructure, both human and natural, for
the management of the resource as well as for the provision of water-related services,
including the management of floods and droughts; and water services, which com-
prises the provision of services such as water supply, sanitation and hygiene, and
wastewater management for domestic use as well as water-related services for eco-
nomic use, for example, in energy, agriculture, and industrial sectors.2
Traditionally, the water sector has been typically slow to evolve and incorporate
new innovative solutions into existing systems in response to various challenges due
to a number of barriers.3 Nonetheless, a failure to implement innovations in water
management will expose the water sector to a variety of risks including environmen-
tal degradation, public health risks from poor quality water, damage to people and
infrastructure from extreme weather events, and reductions in the level of service
customers have come to expect.4,5
This book provides new research on innovative water management technologies
that have been applied by leaders in the water sector to ensure the provision of sus-
tainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related services that meet
customers’ expectations in the future. In particular, the book provides readers with
knowledge of how leaders in the water sector are implementing innovative technolo-
gies to conserve and recycle and reuse water, produce renewable energy and recover
valuable nutrients from wastewater, protect and restore water quality at various
scales, and improve the overall management of water resources. It also provides
knowledge on the various innovative financial instruments and approaches available
to meet water resources management challenges globally.
The synopsis of the book is as follows:
Chapter 2 discusses the various climatic and non-climatic challenges to the water
sector before defining innovation. It will then discuss the various barriers to innovation
before providing an overview of the strategies to overcome barriers to innovation.
Chapter 3 discusses how demand management utilises existing water supplies
before plans are made to further increase supply before discussing water recycling
and reuse innovations.
Chapter 4 discusses how wastewater treatment plants are water resource recov-
ery facilities that produce clean water, reduce dependence on fossil fuels through
the use and production of renewable energy, and recover nutrients.
Chapter 5 discusses the various green infrastructure solutions available to man-
age stormwater while utilising natural processes to improve water quality.
Chapter 6 provides an understanding of how river basin planning can protect
and restore water quality before discussing how permit systems, best management
practices, and source water protection can improve water quality.
 References 3

Chapter 7 will first discuss the concept of smart digital water management fol-
lowed by its components before discussing managing customers of the future.
Chapter 8 provides an overview of the various innovative financial instruments
and approaches available to ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient,
and affordable water and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations
in the future.
Chapter 9 provides an overview of best practices followed by the conclusion.

Notes

1 UKWIR, “Research and Innovation Mapping Study for the UK Water Research and Innovation
Framework.,” (2011), https://www.theukwaterpartnership.org/research-and-innovation-mapping-
study-for-the-uk-water-research-and-innovation-framework/.
2 United Nations World Water Assessment Programme, “Water and Jobs,” (2016).
3 R.C. Brears, Urban Water Security (Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016).
4 Vanessa L. Speight, “Innovation in the Water Industry: Barriers and Opportunities for US and
UK Utilities,” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 2, no. 4 (2015).
5 R.C. Brears, Climate Resilient Water Resources Management (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2018).

References

Brears, R.C. Climate Resilient Water Resources Management. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2018.
———. Urban Water Security. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Speight, Vanessa L. “Innovation in the Water Industry: Barriers and Opportunities for US and UK
Utilities.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 2, no. 4 (2015/07/01 2015): 301–13.
UKWIR. “Research and Innovation Mapping Study for the UK Water Research and Innovation
Framework.” (2011). https://www.theukwaterpartnership.org/research-and-innovation-
mapping-study-for-the-uk-water-research-and-innovation-framework/.
United Nations World Water Assessment Programme. “Water and Jobs.” (2016).
Chapter 2
Innovative water management

Abstract: The water sector is faced with multiple challenges in ensuring sustain-
able, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related services that meet
customers’ expectations in the future. This chapter will first discuss the various
challenges to the water sector before defining innovation and the multiple benefits
of change to the water sector. The chapter will then survey the numerous barriers to
innovation before providing an overview of the strategies the water sector can em-
ploy to overcome obstacles to change.

Keywords: Water Sector, Climate change, Water-Energy, Water-Food, Environmental

Degradation, Innovation

Introduction

The water sector is faced with multiple challenges in ensuring sustainable, reliable,
resilient, and affordable water and water-related services that meet customers’ ex-
pectations in the future. This chapter will first discuss the various challenges to the
water sector before defining innovation and the multiple benefits of change to the
water sector. The chapter will then survey the numerous barriers to innovation be-
fore providing an overview of the strategies the water sector can employ to over-
come obstacles to change.

2.1 Multiple challenges to the water sector

The water sector is faced with multiple challenges in ensuring sustainable, reliable,
resilient, and affordable water and water-related services that meet customers’ ex-
pectations in the future, including the following.

2.1.1 Climate change

Climate change is projected to reduce renewable surface water and groundwater

significantly. For each degree of global warming, around seven percent of the
world’s population is expected to be exposed to a decrease in renewable water re-
sources of at least 20 percent. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency of
meteorological droughts (less rainfall) and agricultural droughts (less soil moisture)
in presently dry regions. The result is an increased frequency of short hydrological

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6 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

droughts (less surface water and groundwater). Meanwhile, by the end of the century,
around three times as many people will be exposed annually to the equivalent of a
20th-century 100-year river flood under a high emissions scenario (Representative
Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5)) than for a low emissions scenario (RCP2.6).1
Climate change will impact water resources in many ways, including:
– Increased demand for scarce water: In many areas, climate change is likely to
increase demand for water, while water supplies become limited, or variable.
The result is water managers will need to simultaneously meet the needs of
growing communities, sensitive ecosystems, farmers, energy producers, and
manufacturers. In some areas, increased precipitation events and flooding will
become more frequent, impacting the quality of water, and potentially leading
to damage of infrastructure used to transport and deliver water
– Increased storms and flooding: More frequent and intense storms will over-
whelm stormwater management systems, causing localised flooding and in-
creasing runoff of contaminants, such as rubbish, nutrients, sediment, or
bacteria, into local waterways. In urban centres with combined stormwater and
wastewater drainage systems, more frequent and intense downpours can lead
to combined sewer overflows into waterways, reducing water quality and mak-
ing it difficult for cities to meet water quality standards
– Increased illnesses from poor water quality: Increased stormwater runoff into
surface water bodies, indicated by increased turbidity from suspended solid
particles eroded from the landscape, are associated with elevated levels of bac-
teria and other microorganisms. Small increases in the turbidity of drinking
water have been linked to increased occurrence of acute gastrointestinal ill-
nesses among children and the elderly
– Eutrophication and algal blooms: In lakes and reservoirs, there will be more in-
tense eutrophication and algal blooms at higher temperatures, or shorter hy-
draulic retention times. During a harmful algal bloom, people can get exposed
to toxins from fish they catch and eat, swimming in or drinking the water, and
from the air they breathe. Depending on the type of algae, harmful algal
blooms can cause serious health effects and even death, for example, eating
seafood contaminated by toxins from algae called Alexandrium can lead to par-
alytic shellfish poisoning
– Saltwater intrusion: Sea level rise, together with increased groundwater pumping,
can increase saltwater intrusion in groundwater aquifers. This can increase treat-
ment costs for drinking water facilities or render groundwater wells unusable.
Regarding surface water, sea-level rise may result in the ‘salt front’ (location of
the freshwater-saltwater line) progressing further upstream. Saltwater intrusion
of this nature can result in increased water treatment, relocation of water intakes,
or the development of alternative sources of freshwater. Also, water infrastructure
in coastal cities, including sewer systems and wastewater treatment facilities, are
at risk from rising sea levels and the damaging impacts of storm surges2–9
 2.1 Multiple challenges to the water sector 7

2.1.2 Rapid population growth

The world’s population is expected to increase from 7.7 billion currently to 9.7 bil-
lion in 2050, and potentially nearly 11 billion by 2100. The world’s population will
increase, but at varying rates globally. Nine countries will make up more than half
the projected growth of the global population between now and 2050: India,
Nigeria, Pakistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, the United Republic
of Tanzania, Indonesia, Egypt, and the United States of America (in descending
order of the expected increase). Regionally, the population of sub-Saharan Africa is
estimated to more than double by 2050 (a 99 percent increase), while other regions
will experience slower population growth: Oceania, excluding Australia/New Zealand
(56 percent), Northern Africa and Western Asia (46 percent), Australia/New Zealand
(28 percent), Central and Southern Asia (25 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean
(18 percent), Eastern and South-eastern Asia (three percent), and Europe and Northern
America (two percent).10
Already, around 3.6 billion people live in areas that experience water shortages
for at least one month per year. By 2050, this could reach nearly six billion. Global
demand for water has been increasing by around one percent per annum since the
1980s. Global demand for water is expected to continue rising at a similar rate until
mid-century, accounting for an increase of 20 to 30 percent above the current level
of water use, mainly due to increasing demand for water from the industrial and
domestic sectors. At the same time, the number of people exposed to floods is ex-
pected to increase from 1.2 billion today to 1.6 billion in 2050.11,12

2.1.3 Urbanisation

Currently, 55 percent of the world’s population reside in urban areas. By 2050, it is

estimated that this will increase to 68 percent. Urbanisation is increasing in all re-
gions of the world, but with a variation. Latin America and the Caribbean and
North America are heavily urbanised, with over 80 percent of their population esti-
mated to live in urban areas, rising to nearly 90 percent in 2050. Almost 75 percent
of Europe’s population is urban, and this is expected to rise to 85 percent by mid-
century. Africa and Asia are urbanising more rapidly, with the percentage of
Africa’s and Asia’s urban population likely to increase from approximately 40 per-
cent and 50 percent respectively in 2018 to 59 percent and 66 percent in 2050.
While nearly an additional one billion persons will be added to today’s urban
population by 2030, more than half of the world’s urban population will still be liv-
ing in urban settlements with less than one million inhabitants, growing from 2.4 to
2.8 billion. The numbers of people living in medium-sized cities (1–5 million inhab-
itants) are expected to increase by 28 percent between now and 2030, growing from
926 million to 1.2 billion. Meanwhile, the number of megacities (cities with more
8 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

than 10 million inhabitants) currently stands at 18. By 2030, the world is projected
to have 43 megacities.13
Urbanisation is increasing demand for water resources with large cities esti-
mated to obtain around 78 percent of their water from surface sources, some of
which are far away. Cumulatively, large cities move 504 billion litres a day a dis-
tance of 27,000 ± 3,800 kilometres, and the upstream contributing area of urban
water sources is 41 percent of the global land surface. Despite this infrastructure,
one in four cities, containing $4.8 ± 0.7 trillion in economic activity, remain water
stressed due to geographical and financial constraints.14 Meanwhile, urbanisation
is having an impact on water quality in urban source watersheds, with 90 percent
of these watersheds having some level of degradation, with the average pollutant
yield of municipal source watersheds increasing by 40 percent for sediment, 47 per-
cent for phosphorus, and 119 percent for nitrogen. It is estimated that the degrada-
tion of watersheds has impacted treatment costs for 29 percent of cities globally,
with operation and maintenance costs for affected cities increasing on average by
around 53 percent and replacement capital costs rising by about 44 percent.15

2.1.4 Economic growth and resource use

Population growth, along with rising income levels, will drive a substantial increase in
global demand for goods and services. Gross domestic product (GDP) is projected to
quadruple between 2011 and 2060. By 2060, the global average per capita income is
estimated to reach the current OECD level of around $40,000. Global materials use is
projected to more than double from 79 gigatonnes (Gt) in 2011 to 167 Gt in 2060.16
Between now and 2050, global demand for water is expected to increase for all major
water use sectors: manufacturing (400 percent), thermal electricity generation (140 per-
cent), and domestic use (130 percent). The most significant proportion of this growth
in water demand is expected to occur in countries with developing or emerging econo-
mies, for example, in Africa water demand for industry will increase by 800 percent.
In comparison, it will increase by 250 percent in Asia.17,18 A failure to secure adequate
and reliable supplies of water will result in the loss or disappearance of jobs. It is esti-
mated that more than 1.4 billion jobs, or 42 percent of the world’s total active work-
force, are heavily dependent on water. Furthermore, it is estimated that 1.2 billion
jobs, or 36 percent of the world’s entire active workforce, are moderately water depen-
dent. Overall, 78 percent of all jobs globally are dependent on water.19

2.1.5 Rising demand for energy

Energy is vital for a range of water processes, including water distribution, waste-
water treatment, and desalination. Meanwhile, water is essential for all phases of
 2.1 Multiple challenges to the water sector 9

energy production, including fossil fuels, biofuels, and power generation. In 2014,
around four percent of global electricity consumption was used to extract, distrib-
ute, and treat water and wastewater, along with 50 million tonnes of oil equivalent
of thermal energy, mostly diesel, used for irrigation pumps and gas in desalination
plants. By 2040, the amount of energy used in the water sector is projected to more
than double. The most substantial increase will come from desalination, followed
by large-scale water transfer, and increasing demand for wastewater treatment and
higher levels of treatment. For example, following a business-as-usual approach to
centralised wastewater management, electricity consumption for urban municipal
wastewater treatment could increase by over 600 terawatt-hours over the period to
2030.20 Globally, the energy sector accounts for around 10 percent of total water
withdrawals (the amount of water withdrawn from a source) and three percent of
total water consumption (the volume of water withdrawn but not returned to the
source). By 2040, it is projected that water withdrawals from the energy sector will
increase by two percent to reach over 400 billion cubic metres (bcm). At the same
time, the amount of water consumed is projected to increase by almost 60 percent
to over 75 bcm, mainly due to a switch to advanced cooling technologies in the
power sector that withdraw less water but consume more.21

2.1.6 Rising demand for food

Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of global freshwater withdrawals (surface and

groundwater). Forty percent of irrigation uses groundwater sources, some of them
non-renewable at the human time scale. It is estimated that food production will
need to increase by 60 percent by 2050 to feed a population of over nine billion.
Increased demand for food will result in irrigated food production growing by more
than 50 percent by 2050. However, the amount of water withdrawn by agriculture
can only increase by 10 percent, provided irrigation practices improve and yields
rise. Furthermore, rising incomes and economic development are increasing de-
mand for meat, fish, and dairy products, in addition to coarse grains and protein
meals, impacting water resources with beef and dairy products being more water-
intensive than cereals.22,23
The use of nitrogen and phosphorous, along with insecticides, herbicides,
fungicides, and bactericides, in agricultural production is the leading cause of in-
land and coastal eutrophication. The result is algal blooms, loss of habitat and
biodiversity, and long-term reduction or loss of fish catches. The runoff of farm
and agro-processing chemicals into waterways and their seepage into aquifers
poses risks to human health and the environment. Pollution reduces the availabil-
ity of water for beneficial use and increases the cost of water treatment. Polluted
water also has a high cost to human health with one-tenth of global disease attrib-
uted to water. Other pollution costs include clean-up and damage to fisheries,
10 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

ecosystems, and recreation.24 Furthermore, the current food production system

relies on constant inputs of phosphorus to meet the growing demand for food.
Phosphate rock, which is the dominant source of phosphorus for phosphate fertil-
isers, is a limited resource with current world reserves estimated to last between
30 and 300 years.25

2.1.7 Ageing infrastructure and deteriorating water quality

In many cities around the world, a large portion of the water infrastructure is ap-
proaching or has already reached the end of its useful life, with ageing infrastruc-
ture often resulting in high water loss from physical leakage.26 In an earlier World
Bank study, it was estimated that around 32 billion cubic metres of treated water
physically leaks from urban water supply systems around the world each year.27
Also, sewage, as well as contaminated groundwater surrounding pipes, can enter
leaking pipes and travel throughout the water distribution network causing public
health concerns, for example, outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness.28,29 The re-
quired investment to rebuild these networks has to come on top of other water
investment needs, including investments needed to comply with standards for
drinking water quality. In the United States, it is estimated that repairing and ex-
panding the country’s drinking water infrastructure would top $1 trillion over 25
years and with increasing capital needs and potential funding shortfalls, many
water utilities are increasing their rates they charge for water services in the im-
mediate future.30 However, there is evidence that customers’ willingness to pay
for any infrastructure upgrade is negatively affected by the cost of the proposed
improvement.31

2.1.8 Greenhouse gas emissions

Water utilities are faced with climate change leading to increased water scarcity, lower
water quality, and flooding challenges. At the same time, water utilities contribute to
global emissions from energy consumption as well as nitrous oxide emissions and
methane emissions from wastewater management. Water utilities collectively influence
up to 12 percent of regional total primary energy consumption, with energy mainly
used for water heating. Urban water utilities themselves typically account for one to
two percent of aggregate global primary energy use and at times up to six percent of
regional electricity use. The result is that the amount of regional greenhouse gas emis-
sions contributed by urban water management is up to 17 percent.32 It is estimated that
58 percent of emissions from urban water utilities comes from energy use while 40 per-
cent is attributed to treatment processes and two percent from chemical use.33
 2.2 Innovative water management 11

2.1.9 Environmental degradation and biodiversity loss

Around the world, nature has been significantly altered by multiple human drivers
with most indicators of ecosystems and biodiversity showing a rapid decline. Seventy-
five percent of the land surface is changed substantially, 66 percent of the ocean is
experiencing cumulative impacts, and over 85 percent of wetland areas have been lost.
The average abundance of native species in most major terrestrial habitats have de-
clined by at least 20 percent. Human actions threaten more species with global extinc-
tion now than ever before, with around 25 percent of species in the assessed animal
and plant groups threatened. In total, approximately one million species are already
facing extinction within decades unless action is taken to reduce the intensity of driv-
ers of biodiversity loss. The main drivers of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem degra-
dation have been land-use change followed by the overexploitation of animals, plants,
and other organisms mainly via harvesting, logging, hunting, and fishing.34 The im-
pacts of land-use change on water quantity and water quality include increased
groundwater use from expanding human settlements; lower streamflow from land res-
toration activities; increased runoff resulting in increased sediment yield and higher
nutrient loading of waterways from agricultural activities; increased total runoff and
peak flow and a decrease in the baseflow; and evapotranspiration as a result of defor-
estation activities.35–37

2.1.10 High customer expectations

Water utilities are under increasing pressure to show customers the value for the rates
paid and to enhance customer engagement and participation in various programmes.38
The result is end-users of water services transitioning from being captive consumers of
a uniform product delivered under fixed circumstances to end users that demand they
be able to choose different products and services, for example, purchasing rainwater
harvesting systems. Customers then turn from being consumers into co-constructors of
new water infrastructure, helping to support water innovations while at the same time
demanding these systems to be delivered and subsidised by the water utility or munic-
ipal agencies. Furthermore, water users are demanding that global water-using practi-
ces become more sustainable, which in turn provides support to water conservation
initiatives developed by their local providers.39

2.2 Innovative water management

With challenges to the water sector increasing over the course of the century, there
is an expectation that demand for innovative water management solutions will in-
crease, in particular, solutions that enable the more efficient use of available water
12 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

resources, enhance the quality of water for humans and nature, improve water re-
source planning to balance rising demand with limited, and often variable, supplies
of water, and enhance resilience to extreme weather events.40,41

2.2.1 Innovation in the water sector

In the context of the water sector, innovation can be defined as “the creation, devel-
opment and implementation of a new product, technology, service, tariff design or
process of production with the aim of improving efficiency, effectiveness or competi-
tive advantage. It includes new ways of acquiring or deploying inputs, such as finan-
cial resources. The change may be incremental or fundamental.”42 It should be noted
that the definition includes the following:
– It deals with both products and processes
– It refers to the creation, development, implementation of a new product/pro-
cess developed either in-house or by other companies and sectors
– All products and processes to be new or novel
– The aim must be to improve efficiency, effectiveness or increase competitive
advantage43

2.2.1.1 Degree of novelty

A vital aspect of the definition of innovation is that it must contain a degree of nov-
elty, specifically one or more of the following:
– New to the firm: The innovation must be new to the firm. Other firms may have
already implemented a product, process, marketing method or organisational
method, but if it is new to the firm (or in the context of products and processes
it is significantly improved), then it is an innovation for that firm
– New to the market: Innovations are new to the market when the firm is the first
to introduce the innovation to the market, where a market is defined as the
firm and its competitors, and it can include a geographic region or product line
– New to the country: An innovation is new to the country when the firm is the
first to introduce the innovation for all domestic markets and industries
– New to the world: An innovation is new to the world when the firm is the first to
introduce the innovation for all markets and industries internationally44

2.2.2 Innovative water management technologies

The term ‘technology’ is comprised of hardware, software, and orgware. Hardware

includes physical infrastructure and technical equipment while software includes
approaches, processes, and methodologies, for example, planning and decision
 2.2 Innovative water management 13

support systems, models, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and capacity building.

Orgware includes organisational and institutional arrangements as well as owner-
ship models. There are four main categories of innovative water management tech-
nologies available to water managers in response to water sector challenges:
– Supply enhancement: Traditionally, water managers have met rising demand
for water by increasing supply. However, with significant economic and envi-
ronmental costs associated with supply-side management, water managers are
increasingly focussing on innovations that create more drought-resilient water
supplies, such as recycled water. Water managers are also focussing on decen-
tralised systems such as rainwater and stormwater harvesting and on-site pota-
ble reuse systems. Furthermore, they are focusing on technologies that reduce
energy use, such as extracting energy from wastewater, which in turn reduces
water-energy nexus pressures
– Demand management: As water managers transition towards demand manage-
ment, the focus will be increasingly on innovations that encourage or enable
water conservation or water efficiency. Such innovations can decrease demand
for new water supplies, increase water reliability, and decrease the costs and
pollution associated with wastewater disposal. Innovations range from smart
irrigation controllers to smart meters that encourage behaviour change
– Green infrastructure: Water managers can utilise natural processes to improve
water quality and manage water quantity by restoring the hydrologic function
of the landscape. Specifically, water managers can implement green infrastruc-
ture solutions at various scales to manage water quality and water quantity.
Green infrastructure is defined as a strategically planned network of high-
quality natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features,
which, in addition to managing water, is designed and managed to deliver a
wide range of ecosystem services and protect biodiversity
– Governance improvements: Innovations can improve overall water governance,
which is essential to securing access to reliable water supply and reducing de-
mand. A wide range of innovations are available at various scales to reduce in-
efficiencies in the governance system, for example, smart grids can enable
water utilities to quickly identify leaks in the distribution system while moni-
toring customer demand through smart meters can improve resource planning
and management.45–48

2.2.3 Stakeholder contributions to innovative water management technologies

In addition to government entities at the local, state, and national level, many
stakeholders within the water sector contribute to an innovative ecosystem includ-
ing private sector companies and entrepreneurs, foundations, research centres, and
trade associations. Through a variety of models, these actors can make progress
14 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

towards developing and commercialising innovative water management technolo-

gies. The models include:
– Public-private partnerships: Partnerships with the private sector are an under-
utilised tool in the water sector for meeting regulatory demands, making
system improvements, and bringing new efficiencies and technologies to
system operations. Public-private partnerships (PPP) can take many forms,
including:
– Civil works and service contracts: Utilities commonly source goods and serv-
ices from private sector third parties, whether to purchase spare parts or to
procure public works such as laying pipes. Utilities may also contract out a
service, such as customer service. The utility will often purchase goods
based on the provider’s standard terms and conditions
– Management and operation and maintenance contracts: These contracts gov-
ern the type of PPP agreement, which can range from technical assistance
contracts to full-scale operation and maintenance agreements. Typically, the
awarding authority engages the contractor to manage a range of activities
for a relatively short period
– Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) and Design-Build-Operate (DBO) projects: A
BOT project is typically used to develop a discrete asset rather than a whole
network and is generally entirely new, or greenfield in nature, with the proj-
ect company or operator obtaining its revenue through a fee charged to the
utility/government. In a DBO project, the public sector owns and finances
the construction of new assets while the private sector designs, builds, and
operates the assets to meet certain agreed outputs
– Public programmes: At various levels of government, policymakers regularly
reshape institutions to meet interests, such as enhancing community wellbe-
ing. Governmental actors may develop public policies to promote innovation
to advance these interests, such as subsidising research and development, de-
signing innovation prizes and challenges, creating publicly funded research
laboratories, or providing marketplaces to foster strong collaborations and ac-
tive networks
– Regional collaboration: Creating regional-wide water system collaborations
can help provide the economies of scale and the technical, managerial, and
financial capacity necessary for the development and adoption of water inno-
vations. To reduce the fragmentation in the water sector and accelerate the
adoption of innovative technologies, regional collaboration can be fostered
by aligning technical experts, research institutions, and innovators regionally
through non-profit organisations in the water sector that promote innovation
through research, workshops, and collaboration as well as developing re-
gional water clusters that connect water utilities with private partners and
entrepreneurs.49–51
 2.2 Innovative water management 15

2.2.4 Barriers to innovative water management technologies

While water innovation provides many tangible benefits, including creating effi-
ciencies, helping water systems meet regulatory requirements, and enabling better
adaption to emerging pressures, there are many barriers to innovative water man-
agement technologies being developed, including:
– Economic: Water pricing is often not reflective of the costs of obtaining and trans-
porting water. In many locations, water users are either charged a flat rate for
water usage regardless of the volume used or a volumetric rate where the amount
users pay is strictly based on the volume of water consumed, with neither pricing
structure reflecting the rising costs of delivering higher amounts of water. The
result is that revenue is often insufficient to cover the costs of infrastructure
maintenance as well as investments in new water management technologies.
Furthermore, water prices seldom reflect the costs of environmental damage
– Financial: The mainly public nature of the water sector is an initial barrier to
available capital. Public entities commonly rely on bonds, issued at low-
interest rates, to fund new projects. They are typically paid back using new rev-
enue generated from the project or tapping into existing funds. However, rising
operational and maintenance costs, as well as declining revenue from reduced
demand from conservation efforts as well as leaks and inefficiencies in the
water delivery system, threaten these funding sources. They can even affect
bond ratings, further increasing the costs of new projects. This is particularly
challenging for locations considering new technologies that might already
present riskier rates of return than established technologies
– Cultural and perception: Change in regulations does not necessarily equate to
innovation if other practices, norms, or cultural perceptions are not aligned.
Substantial social and cultural barriers can inhibit current, proven technolo-
gies from being adopted, such as recycled water for direct potable reuse.
Furthermore, the water sector is perceived to be less innovative than other sec-
tors, resulting in less research and development investments being made as
compared to other sectors
– Institutional: Institutions are broadly defined as the rules, norms, and practices
that govern decision-making. This definition can include formal institutions,
such as laws and regulations, as well as factors that shape water systems such
as behaviour and cultural factors. Institutions may be a barrier to the uptake
and utilisation of new technologies, for instance, there is often a reluctance to
support unique/novel ‘soft’, sustainable technologies over traditional hard-
engineering grey approaches
– Infrastructure: A lack of appropriate infrastructure can impede the develop-
ment of innovations with current infrastructure being unable to support alter-
native practices. Often this is due to relying on conservative, highly visible
infrastructure solutions rather than attempting to do new things. In addition,
16 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

new technology may not fit well into the existing system. In particular, new
technologies may require complementary technologies that may not be avail-
able or are expensive or difficult to use
– Lack of knowledge: It is difficult for policymakers to keep up with science and
technology relating to water management as the breadth and depth of water
sector science and technology is significant. Furthermore, there are increasing
research demands on limited available funds. Therefore, there is a lack of time
and funds for policy and decision-makers to be familiar with the latest research
findings and technology advancements
– Risks adverse: Water utilities are naturally risk-averse. As a water provider, the
most considerable risk of applying new, innovative methods or technologies is
creating an inadvertent disruption to the treatment or distribution of water. For
example, with government agencies regulating the quality of water by setting
baseline standards, violation of those standards will result in penalties from
environmental agencies. Therefore, utilities are reluctant to try new approaches
to treatment unless they are confident that the new technology will achieve the
desired goals
– Regulations: Regulatory barriers are commonly cited as being one of the main
barriers to water innovation, locking organisations into existing technologies.
Regulatory regimes often develop around existing technologies and may clash
with the characteristics of innovations. At times, manufacturers of existing tech-
nologies or other vested interests may use regulations as a market barrier. New
technologies often face administrative costs stemming from the need for permits
or other forms of regulatory approval that existing technologies do not face
– Fragmentation: In many countries, water management, infrastructure funding,
and regulatory policies can differ within states and even within the same region
or county. The result is a disjointed network that frequently prevents companies
from establishing or spreading a new innovative technology. Also, with water
utilities often operating autonomously, without an overarching and unifying
body, any innovation must be independently tailored for each utility. For exam-
ple, in the United States there are 3,200 electric utilities compared to 7,450
stormwater systems, over 16,000 publicly owned wastewater treatment systems,
and more than 50,300 community water systems: therefore, achieving wide-
spread adoption of any innovation in the water sector is a challenging task
– Political: Institutions often create barriers to the uptake of innovations due to
lack of leadership or political will to initiate and sustain a transition towards
new technology. For instance, water utility managers may lack significant sup-
port from superiors to initiate water conservation technology programmes with
customers. Lack of political leadership or political will is often due to the lack
of defined responsibility for decision‐making or leadership lacking quality
(skill set), integrity, transparency and accountability, coordination/interaction
between government bodies, or capacity (financial and technical).52–67
 2.2 Innovative water management 17

2.2.5 Overcoming barriers

To overcome these barriers to innovation, the water sector’s various actors can
promote:
– Cultural change: Innovation is about creating a culture and environment that
allows changes to take hold and work in practice. It can also apply to the appli-
cation of existing methods or technologies, in new ways or to new fields
– Collaboration: Collaboration is essential for inspiring new ideas and applica-
tions, allowing for insights to develop, which in turn, spurs innovation. As well
as collaborating with external stakeholders, water sector actors can collaborate
within their organisations, with other organisations, and with partners outside
of the sector
– Technology: Technology, when paired with the right culture, processes, and
people, is a powerful enabler of innovation. In addition to technology, such as
smart meters and water-efficient appliances giving more control to water users
over their consumption levels, technology can be applied to help water manag-
ers understand their systems and networks, helping them prevent interruptions
to services and respond to and recover from service delivery challenges
– Innovative regulatory frameworks: Regulatory frameworks can be designed to
challenge various actors in the water sector to improve innovation for the bene-
fit of customers, the environment, and broader society. Regulatory frameworks
can encourage innovation by:
– Reconciling regulations that are inconsistent between government agen-
cies and levels of government
– Coordinating regulations across sectors, for example, water and wastewa-
ter and water and energy, to ensure consistent treatment of new technolo-
gies and to reduce obstacles to the development and adoption of new
technologies
– Shaping regulations to encourage utilities and various regulated water sec-
tor actors to meet performance standards, rather than force them to adopt
fixed technology mandates
– Creating markets and competition in the water sector that encourages inno-
vation through water trading, greater third-party involvement in large proj-
ects, and markets for ecosystem services
– Developing market-based instruments to recover the full cost of providing
water and related services and encourage research and development in in-
novative projects in areas including water efficiency, resource recovery,
and protection of ecosystems68,69
18 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

Notes

1 B.E. Jiménez Cisneros, T. Oki, N.W. Arnell, G. Benito, J.G. Cogley, P. Döll, T. Jiang, and
S.S. Mwakalila, Freshwater Resources, (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2014), https://
www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap3_FINAL.pdf.
2 R.C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban
Water Resources (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018).
3 Stephen J. Gaffield et al., “Public Health Effects of Inadequately Managed Stormwater Runoff,”
American journal of public health 93, no. 9 (2003).
4 National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Harmful Algal Blooms,” https://www.
niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/algal-blooms/index.cfm.
5 Bryony L. Townhill et al., “Harmful Algal Blooms and Climate Change: Exploring Future Distribution
Changes,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 75, no. 6 (2018).
6 US EPA, “Climate Adaptation and Saltwater Intrusion,” https://www.epa.gov/arc-x/climate-
adaptation-and-saltwater-intrusion.
7 A. Safi et al., “Synergy of Climate Change and Local Pressures on Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal
Urban Areas: Effective Adaptation for Policy Planning,” Water International 43, no. 2 (2018).
8 US EPA, “Climate Impacts on Water Resources,” https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/cli
mate-impacts/climate-impacts-water-resources_.html
9 Thomas R. Allen et al., “Linking Water Infrastructure, Public Health, and Sea Level Rise:
Integrated Assessment of Flood Resilience in Coastal Cities,” Public Works Management & Policy 24,
no. 1 (2018).
10 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Population Prospects 2019:
Highlights,” (2019), https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf.
11 UN Water, “World Water Development Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind,” (2019), https://
knowledge.unccd.int/publications/world-water-development-report-2019-leaving-no-one-behind.
12 OECD, “Oecd Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction Highlights,” (2012),
https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/energy-environment-green-growth/oecdenvironmentaloutlook
to2050theconsequencesofinaction.htm.
13 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “World Urbanization Prospects: The
2018 Revision,” (2019), https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf.
14 Robert I. McDonald et al., “Water on an Urban Planet: Urbanization and the Reach of Urban
Water Infrastructure,” Global Environmental Change 27 (2014).
15 Robert I. McDonald et al., “Estimating Watershed Degradation over the Last Century and Its
Impact on Water-Treatment Costs for the World’s Large Cities,” Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences 113, no. 32 (2016).
16 OECD, “Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060: Economic Drivers and Environmental
Consequences,” (2019), https://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/highlights-global-material-
resources-outlook-to-2060.pdf.
17 UN-Water, “The United Nations World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-Based Solutions
for Water,” (2018), https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261424.
18 Alberto Boretti and Lorenzo Rosa, “Reassessing the Projections of the World Water Development
Report,” npj Clean Water 2, no. 1 (2019).
19 UN-Water, “Water and Jobs,” (2016), https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000244040/
PDF/244040eng.pdf.multi.
20 IEA, “Water-Energy Nexus: World Energy Outlook Special Report,” (2017), https://www.iea.
org/reports/water-energy-nexus.
21 Ibid.
 Notes 19

22 FAO, “Water for Sustainable Food and Agriculture: A Report Produced for the G20 Presidency
of Germany,” (2017), http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7959e.pdf.
23 HLPE, “Water for Food Security and Nutrition. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on
Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security,” (2015), http://www.fao.
org/3/a-av045e.pdf.
24 FAO, “Water for Sustainable Food and Agriculture: A Report Produced for the G20 Presidency
of Germany“.
25 Jessica G. Shepherd, Saran P. Sohi, and Kate V. Heal, “Optimising the Recovery and Re-Use of
Phosphorus from Wastewater Effluent for Sustainable Fertiliser Development,” Water Research 94
(2016).
26 Ka Leung Lam, Steven J. Kenway, and Paul A. Lant, “Energy Use for Water Provision in Cities,”
Journal of Cleaner Production 143 (2017).
27 World Bank, “The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (Nrw) in Developing Countries:
How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-Based Service Contracting,” (2006),
https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/WSS8fin4.pdf.
28 Sam Fox et al., “Experimental Quantification of Contaminant Ingress into a Buried Leaking
Pipe During Transient Events,” Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 142, no. 1 (2016).
29 Melle Säve-Söderbergh et al., “Gastrointestinal Illness Linked to Incidents in Drinking Water
Distribution Networks in Sweden,” Water Research 122 (2017).
30 AWWA, “Awwa’s 2019 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey Reveals Increasing Utility Costs
Boosting Rates,” https://www.awwa.org/AWWA-Articles/awwas-2019-water-and-wastewater-rate-
survey-reveals-increasing-utility-costs-boosting-rates.
31 Eftila Tanellari et al., “On Consumers’ Attitudes and Willingness to Pay for Improved Drinking
Water Quality and Infrastructure,” Water Resources Research 51, no. 1 (2015).
32 WaCCLim, “The Roadmap to a Low-Carbon Urban Water Utility,” (2018), http://wacclim.org/
wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_WaCCliM_Roadmap_EN_SCREEN.pdf.
33 Qian Zhang et al., “Hidden Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Water Utilities in China’s Cities,”
Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017).
34 IPBES, “Summary for Policymakers of the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services,” (2019), https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/inline/files/ipbes_global_assessment_report_
summary_for_policymakers.pdf.
35 Pankaj Kumar et al., “Effect of Land Use Changes on Water Quality in an Ephemeral Coastal
Plain: Khambhat City, Gujarat, India,” Water 11, no. 4 (2019).
36 Srilert Chotpantarat and Satika Boonkaewwan, “Impacts of Land-Use Changes on Watershed
Discharge and Water Quality in a Large Intensive Agricultural Area in Thailand,” Hydrological
Sciences Journal 63, no. 9 (2018).
37 Vinícius Augusto de Oliveira et al., “Land-Use Change Impacts on the Hydrology of the Upper
Grande River Basin, Brazil,” CERNE 24 (2018).
38 NACWA, “Envisioning the Digital Utility of the Future,” (2017), http://www.nacwa.org/docs/de
fault-source/conferences-events/2017-summer/17ulc-digital-utility-r6.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
39 D. L. T. Hegger et al., “Consumer-Inclusive Innovation Strategies for the Dutch Water Supply
Sector: Opportunities for More Sustainable Products and Services,” NJAS – Wageningen Journal of
Life Sciences 58, no. 1 (2011).
40 Uta Wehn and Carlos Montalvo, “Exploring the Dynamics of Water Innovation: Foundations
for Water Innovation Studies,” Journal of Cleaner Production 171 (2018).
41 R.C. Brears, Climate Resilient Water Resources Management (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2018).
20 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

42 Vanessa L. Speight, “Innovation in the Water Industry: Barriers and Opportunities for Us and
Uk Utilities,” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 2, no. 4 (2015).
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 UNEP-DTU UNEP-DHI Partnership, CTCN, “Climate Change Adaptation Technologies for Water:
A Practitioner’s Guide to Adaptation Technologies for Increased Water Sector Resilience,” (2017),
https://www.ctc-n.org/resources/climate-change-adaptation-technologies-water-practitioner-s-guide-
adaptation-technologies.
46 Barton Thompson Newsha Ajami, and David Victor, The Path to Water Innovation, (2014),
https://www.hamiltonproject.org/papers/the_path_to_water_innovation.
47 R.C. Brears, Urban Water Security (Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016).
48 Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water Resources.
49 World Bank, “Ppp Arrangements / Types of Public-Private Partnership Agreements,” https://
ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/agreements.
50 Laura Diaz Anadon et al., “Making Technological Innovation Work for Sustainable Development,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 35 (2016).
51 Bipartisan Policy Center, “Increasing Innovation in America’s Water Systems,” (2017), https://
bipartisanpolicy.org/report/increasing-innovation-in-americas-water-systems/.
52 Steven Greenland, “Sustainable Innovation Adoption Barriers: Water Sustainability, Food
Production and Drip Irrigation in Australia,” Social Responsibility Journal 15, no. 6 (2019).
53 Michael Kiparsky et al., “Barriers to Innovation in Urban Wastewater Utilities: Attitudes of
Managers in California,” Environmental Management 57, no. 6 (2016).
54 E. C. O’Donnell, J. E. Lamond, and C. R. Thorne, “Recognising Barriers to Implementation of
Blue-Green Infrastructure: A Newcastle Case Study,” Urban Water Journal 14, no. 9 (2017).
55 Courtney Crosson, “Innovating the Urban Water System: Achieving a Net Zero Water Future
Beyond Current Regulation,” Technology|Architecture + Design 2, no. 1 (2018).
56 Kimberly Duong and Jean-Daniel M. Saphores, “Obstacles to Wastewater Reuse: An Overview,”
WIREs Water 2, no. 3 (2015).
57 Wehn and Montalvo, “Exploring the Dynamics of Water Innovation: Foundations for Water
Innovation Studies.”
58 Bipartisan Policy Center, “Increasing Innovation in America’s Water Systems”.
59 Mark F. Colosimo and Hyunook Kim, “Incorporating Innovative Water Management Science
and Technology into Water Management Policy,” Energy, Ecology and Environment 1, no. 1 (2016).
60 Newsha Ajami, The Path to Water Innovation.
61 Brears, Urban Water Security.
62 Fox et al., “Experimental Quantification of Contaminant Ingress into a Buried Leaking Pipe
During Transient Events.”
63 Säve-Söderbergh et al., “Gastrointestinal Illness Linked to Incidents in Drinking Water Distribution
Networks in Sweden.”
64 Tanellari et al., “On Consumers’ Attitudes and Willingness to Pay for Improved Drinking Water
Quality and Infrastructure.”
65 Lam, Kenway, and Lant, “Energy Use for Water Provision in Cities.”
66 Michael Kiparsky et al., “The Innovation Deficit in Urban Water: The Need for an Integrated
Perspective on Institutions, Organizations, and Technology,” Environmental Engineering Science 30,
no. 8 (2013).
67 Brears, Urban Water Security.
68 Ofwat, “Driving Innovation in Water,” (2017), https://www.ofwat.gov.uk/publication/driving-
innovation-water/.
69 Newsha Ajami, The Path to Water Innovation.
 References 21

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22 Chapter 2 Innovative water management

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Chapter 3
Conserving and recycling and reusing water

Abstract: Traditionally, water managers facing increased demand and variable lev-
els of supply have relied on large-scale, supply-side infrastructural projects to meet
increased demand for water. However, these projects are costly in both environ-
mental and economic terms. Also, since most water resources are transboundary,
supply-side projects can create political tensions. In contrast, demand management
involves the better use of existing water supplies before plans are made to increase
supply further. Meanwhile, water recycling and reuse water can increase supplies,
which reduces the economic and environmental costs related to establishing new
water supplies.

Keywords: Demand Management, Water Pricing, Water Metering, Water Restrictions,

Water Recycling

Introduction

Traditionally, water managers facing increased demand and variable levels of sup-
ply have relied on large-scale, supply-side infrastructural projects, such as dams
and reservoirs, to meet increased demand for water (supply-side management).
However, these projects are costly in both environmental and economic terms.
Environmental costs include disruptions of waterways that support aquatic ecosys-
tems. Economic costs stem from a reliance on more distant water supplies, often of
inferior quality, which increases not only the costs of transportation but also the
cost of treatment. Also, since the vast majority of water resources are transboun-
dary, supply-side projects can create political tensions because they rely on water
crossing both intra- and inter-state administrative and political boundaries. In con-
trast, demand management involves the better use of existing water supplies before
plans are made to increase supply further. Meanwhile, water recycling and reuse
can increase supplies, which reduces the economic and environmental costs related
to establishing new water supplies. This chapter provides an overview of the nu-
merous innovative demand management technologies available before discussing
water recycling and reuse.

3.1 Demand management

Demand management promotes water conservation, during times of both normal

conditions and uncertainty, through changes in practices, cultures, and people’s

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-003
26 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

attitudes towards water resources. In addition to the environmental benefits of pre-

serving ecosystems and their habitats, demand management is cost-effective com-
pared to supply-side management because it allows the better allocation of scarce
financial resources, which would otherwise be required to build expensive dams,
water transfer schemes from one river basin to another, and desalination plants.
Overall, demand management aims to:
– Reduce loss and misuse in various water sectors (intra-sector efficiency),
– Optimise water use by ensuring reasonable allocation between various users
(cross-sectoral efficiency) while considering the supply needs of downstream
ecosystems and other water users and uses
– Facilitate significant financial and infrastructural savings by minimising the need
to meet increasing demand with new water supplies
– Reduce the stress on water resources by reducing or halting unsustainable ex-
ploitation of water resources

Demand management also involves developing alternative water supplies, which,

in addition to conserving groundwater and surface resources, decreases diversion
of freshwater from sensitive ecosystems, decreases discharge to sensitive water bod-
ies, and saves energy.1–3

3.1.1 Demand management strategies

Demand management involves communicating ideas, norms, and innovations for

water conservation across individuals and society, the purpose being to change peo-
ple’s culture, attitudes, and practices towards water resources and reduce consump-
tion patterns. Water managers can use two types of demand management strategies
to modify attitudes and behaviour towards water:
– Antecedent strategies attempt to influence the determinants of target behaviour
before the performance of the behaviour
– Consequential strategies attempt to influence the determinants of target behav-
iour after the performance of the behaviour. This assumes that feedback, both
positive and negative, of the consequences of that behaviour, will influence the
likelihood of the behaviour happening or not happening in the future

3.2 Water pricing

A water tariff is a price assigned to water supplied by a public or private utility through
a piped network to its customers. Water pricing is a long-used economic instrument to
promote water conservation by creating disincentives for overuse. Economic theory
suggests that water demand should behave like any other goods: as price increases,
 3.2 Water pricing 27

water use decreases. By serving as an incentive function, water pricing addresses

water scarcity problems by promoting conservation as well as encourages investments
in innovative, less water-intensive technologies. Also, water pricing can be used for
cost recovery, with the water pricing scheme recovering direct costs (water supply and
infrastructure costs) and indirect costs (environmental, social, and opportunity costs).
There are two approaches to cost recovery: Supply cost recovery is the recovery of fi-
nancial (internal) costs of water supply, including investments in infrastructure, oper-
ations and maintenance, and administrative costs. Full cost recovery is the recovery of
financial as well as water use-related environmental, social, and opportunity costs.
Overall, the meaning and level of cost recovery depend on what is considered to be
part of the ‘price’ of providing and using water.

3.2.1 Common tariff structures

Frequently, a flat rate is charged for water usage regardless of the volume used,
where typically the size of the charge is related to the customer’s property value. In
contrast, a volumetric rate is a charge based on the volume of water used at a con-
stant rate. An increasing block tariff rate contains different prices for two or more
pre-specified quantities (blocks) of water, with the price increasing with each suc-
cessive block. A two-part tariff system involves a fixed and variable component. In
the fixed component, water users pay one amount independent of consumption,
which usually covers the administrative and infrastructural costs of supplying the
water. Meanwhile, the variable amount is based on the quantity of water consumed
and covers the costs of providing water as well as encouraging conservation.4,5

3.2.2 Irrigation tariff structures

Irrigation services can be charged for in many ways (Table 3.1). Each type of tariff
provides different levels of incentive to irrigators to reduce consumption and differ-
ent structures of income to the service provider.6

Case 3.1: Irish Water’s new business charges

Ireland’s Commission for Regulation of Utilities held consultations on its proposed decision on future
water tariffs for business customers. The final decision was published on July 3rd, 2019 and set out a
national set of charges that will be transparent, cost-effective, and equitable for all businesses coun-
trywide. Previously, there was over 44 different business charging regimes with over 500 different
price levels across the country. As a result, customers with similar water services paid vastly different
amounts depending on their location. Irish Water’s new business charges will apply to both business
customers and mixed-use customers who use water services for both business and non-domestic
purposes, with the new charges reflecting the actual costs of providing water services to the busi-
ness sector. The new tariff classes and new metered tariff rates are listed in Table 3.2.7
28 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

Table 3.1: Irrigation Water Tariffs.

Type Description

Area-based A fixed rate per hectare of a farm, where the rate is not related to the area
irrigated, the crop grown, or the volume of water received. It is usually part of a
‘two-part’ tariff designed to cover the fixed costs of the service. Different tariffs
may be used for gravity and pumped supplies

A fixed rate per hectare irrigated. The charge is not related to farm size, type of
crop grown, or actual volume of water received (except that a larger irrigated
area implies a greater volume of irrigation water)

Crop-based A variable-rate per irrigated hectare of the crop, i.e. different charges for
different crops, where the charge is not related to the actual volume of water
received, although the type of crop and area irrigated serve as proxies for the
volume of water received

Volumetric A fixed rate per unit water received, where the charge is related directly to, and
proportional to, the volume of water received

A variable-rate per unit of water received, where the service charge is related
directly to the quantity of water received, but not proportionately (e.g. a certain
amount of water per hectare may be provided at a low unit cost, a further
defined quantity at a higher unit cost, and additional water above this further
quantity at a very high unit cost). This method is referred to as a rising block
tariff

Tradeable water The entitlements of users in an irrigation project, or more widely, other users,
rights are specified in accordance with the available water supply. Rights holders can
buy or sell rights in accordance with specified rules designed primarily to
protect the rights of third parties. Sales require authorisation by a licensing
authority or may require court approval without reference to any specified
authority

Table 3.2: Irish Water’s New Metered Business Charges.

Metered Tariffs Water Service Charge

Standing charge (€/year) Volumetric charge (€/m)

Band  class (<, m) . .

Band  class (,–, m) . .


Band  class (,–, m ) ,. .

Band  class (>, m ) ,. .
 3.3 Water metering 29

Case 3.2: San Diego County Water Authority’s Special Agricultural Water Rate
The San Diego County Water Authority’s (SDCWA) Board has approved a new and permanent Special
Agriculture Water Rate programme structure that offers lower water rates to farmers in exchange for
lower water supply reliability. The new programme, which will take effect on January 1st, 2021, will in-
volve farmers and growers to receive a lower level of water service during water shortages or emergen-
cies, allowing SDCWA to reallocate those supplies to commercial and industrial customers, who pay
for full reliability benefits. In exchange, participating farmers are exempt from fixed water shortage
and supply reliability charges. Currently, a temporary programme is in place with participants paying
$1,231 per acre-foot for treated water, while municipal and industrial users pay $1,686 per acre-foot.8

3.3 Water metering

Automated Meter Reading (AMR) involves the automated transfer of recorded water
consumption data via public or private radio to servers for the storage and subsequent
processing of data by the utility and/or a third party. This usually involves the manip-
ulation of existing manual meters, resulting in smart enabled meters. However, while
AMR improves timeliness and accuracy of data, it does not significantly increase data
density, for example, one read per month, although higher frequencies are possible.
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) allows for two-way communication between
the smart meter and the utility or other third party via the data logger as well as higher
data density. AMI creates a data stream that enables real-time monitoring and analysis
with high-resolution consumption data sent to the customer. This data can be used to
raise awareness of water consumption and allow customers to develop their strategies
to reduce water usage. From the water utility perspective, AMI meters provide multiple
benefits including leak detection, energy reduction, demand forecasting, enhanced
awareness campaigns, promotion of water-efficient appliances, and performance indi-
cators. From the customer’s perspective, smart meters provide information on when/
where water is being used, comparisons of their water use against other customers,
and quick leak detection. Water utilities can develop smart apps for customers to:
– Compare their water usage with neighbours in the same street or suburb
– Compare their consumption with standard profiles, such as consumers with
the same socio-demographic factors
– Compare their water consumption with the most efficient users in the city
– Forecast their next water bill9,10

Case 3.3: Yorkshire Water’s smart meter water leakage trial

Yorkshire Water is conducting a smart meter water leakage trial in Sheffield that could potentially save
up to 250,000 litres of water per burst. The smart meters will remotely send 15-minute water flow infor-
mation back to Yorkshire Water every 12 hours. The utility will then be able to use this data to identify
when increases in demand are due to leakage and respond quickly. The two-year pilot project is lo-
cated in Sheffield for geographical reasons: the hills in the city will test the capability of the wireless
30 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

solution for transferring flow data and the elevation and closeness to the Peak District means the area
faces harsh winters and the associated challenges with leakage during freeze-thaw events. Overall,
the trial is part of a broader project to create smart water networks in Sheffield and Hebden Bridge,
which will aim to reduce leakage and supply interruptions while improving water quality.11

3.4 Leak detection and water distribution network rehabilitation

In many distribution systems, up to half of the water supplied by the water treat-
ment plant is lost to leakage. A significant part of the leaks occurring in a water
distribution network does not reach the ground surface. These leaks can be de-
tected by applying a range of active leakage control strategies, including
– Analysing changes in night inlet volume over time
– Setting flat-line alarm levels at crucial monitoring locations in a water distribu-
tion network, allowing near real-time identification of, usually, large bursts
– Using hydraulic sensor technology with utilities deploying many pressure and
flow devices, with data coming from such devices. When used in combination
with predictions of the water distribution network behaviour by hydraulic model-
ling, it has the potential to enable fast detection and location of pipe bursts

A water utility can improve the management and rehabilitation of its water distribu-
tion network with a well-planned maintenance programme based on sound knowl-
edge of the distribution network. This knowledge is usually embodied in a distribution
system database that includes the following data:
– An inventory of the characteristics of the system components, including infor-
mation on their location, size, age, and the construction material(s) used in the
network
– A record of regular inspections of the network including the condition of the
mains and degree of corrosion
– An inventory of soil conditions and types, including the chemical characteris-
tics of the soils
– A record of the quality of the product water in the system
– A record of any high- or low-pressure problems in the network
– Operating records, such as pump and valve operations, failures, leaks, and of
maintenance and rehabilitation costs
– A file of customer complaints
– Metering data12–14

By monitoring these records, advanced warning of possible problems can be achieved.

For example, numerous complaints could be a warning sign of an impending break-
down in the system. This system should also include a regular programme of preventa-
tive maintenance to minimise the possibility of system failures.15
 3.5 Water restrictions 31

Overall, leak detection and water distribution network rehabilitation programmes

provide multiple benefits in addition to reducing water loss including:
– Increased revenue
– Reduced stress on the area’s water resources
– Reduced energy consumption for abstraction, treatment, and distribution
– Improved water quality due to optimised water distribution as chlorine content
in the distributed water will be better controlled and the risk of pollution re-
lated to bursts and periods with low pressure or vacuum will be reduced.16

Case 3.4: Anglian Water trialling fibre-optic cables to detect leaks

Anglian Water has an active leak detection policy, with the company reporting half as much leakage
per kilometre of pipeline as any other water company in the United Kingdom. Over the past five
years, the company has invested £120 million to reduce leakage, with the aim of a further reduction
of over 15 percent by 2025. To achieve this goal, Anglian Water has begun trialling the use of fibre
optic cables to detect leaks in its water pipe network. The trial is testing the endurance and capa-
bility of the fibre optics and allows the engineers to hone their skills in installing and removing the
fibre optics from the pipeline. Once the fibre optic sensor cable is fed into water pipes, the technol-
ogy can enable engineers to continually monitor the pipeline for leaks and other events in the net-
work by creating thousands of virtual sensors along the sections of the pipeline being monitored.
This information enables the company to see in real-time where new leaks are or the start of events
of interest. If the trial is successful, Anglian Water may consider progressing to full-scale opera-
tional trials in the live water network.17

3.5 Water restrictions

There are two types of water restrictions as follows:

– Temporary water conservation ordinances and regulations: These restrict certain
types of water use during specified times and/or restrict the level of water use
to a specified amount. Examples of water-use regulations include:
– Restrictions on non-essential water uses, for example, watering lawns,
washing cars, filling swimming pools, and washing driveways
– Restrictions on commercial use, for example, car washes, hotels, and other
large consumers of water
– Bans on using water of drinking quality for cooling purposes
– Permanent water conservation ordinances and regulations: These include amend-
ments to building codes or ordinances requiring the installation of water meters
and water-saving devices, for example:
– Plumbing codes ensuring that all new homes and offices meet the maximum
water-use standards for plumbing fixtures such as toilets, urinals, faucets,
and showers
– The requirement that low-flow toilets, showerheads, and faucets are installed
in all newly constructed or renovated homes and offices18
32 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

Case 3.5: Sydney’s water restrictions

On December 10th, 2019, the State of New South Wales applied Level 2 water restrictions to Sydney
and the wider region. With the area experiencing one of the most severe droughts on record, imple-
menting Level 2 restrictions would save 78.5 gigalitres of water per year. This follows the implemen-
tation of Level 1 restrictions on June 1st, 2019. The fines for not adhering to government-mandated
water restrictions are $220 for individuals and $550 for businesses. The Level 2 restrictions are sum-
marised in Table 3.3.19

Table 3.3: Sydney’s Water Restrictions.

Level  Level 

Garden – Hose must have a trigger nozzle – Water cans and buckets only
– No sprinklers or irrigation systems – No sprinklers or irrigation systems
– No watering between 10 am and 4 pm – No watering between 10 am and 4 pm

Cars – Hose must have a trigger nozzle – Buckets only

– High-pressure cleaning equipment is – Commercial car wash okay
okay
Paths No hosing of paths or driveways No hosing of paths or driveways

Pools Permit for filling of new or renovated pools – Permit for filling new or renovated pools
– Maximum 15 minutes per day for
topping
– Trigger nozzle must be used

3.6 Water efficiency labelling

Water managers can promote water efficiency product labelling schemes that cover
water-using devices such as taps, showers, and toilets. The labelling of household ap-
pliances according to their degree of water efficiency is essential in reducing household
water consumption by eliminating unsustainable products from the market, provided
the labelling scheme is clear and comprehensible and identifies both the private and
public benefits of conserving water. There are two main types of labelling schemes:
– Endorsement labels: The label indicates that a product has met a certain mini-
mum standard
– Rating labels: The label indicates the level of efficiency by rating the product
on a performance scale and/or by stating the product’s actual water consump-
tion or flow rate figures

Endorsement labels provide an easy tool for consumers to identify environmentally

friendly or water-efficient products while rating labels provide a greater incentive for
manufacturers to develop more efficient products and enable consumers to make
 3.7 Education and awareness 33

more informed purchasing decisions. Both types can be either voluntary or mandatory
and are often based on performance requirements and/or technical standards.20,21

Case 3.6: Australia’s Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards scheme

Australia’s Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme is an urban water savings
scheme. Managed and regulated by the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, the WELS
scheme aims to reduce demand for high-quality drinking water by informing consumers about water
efficiency at the point of sale.
By 2030, the WELS scheme has the potential to save more than $2 billion with 65 percent of sav-
ings from reduced electricity and gas costs from avoided water heating and 35 percent from reduced
water bills. The WELS scheme’s purpose is to conserve water supplies by reducing water consump-
tion, promote the adoption of efficient and effective water-using and water-saving technologies, and
provide information for purchasers of water-using and water-saving products. Products that are regu-
lated under the WELS scheme are plumbing products (taps, showers, flow controllers, toilets, and
urinals) and white goods (clothes washing machines and dishwashers). All products regulated under
the WELS scheme must be registered with the administrator and labelled with the correct water rat-
ing information. This includes displaying a water rating label or text advice with products in-store
and online. The label is comprised of a:
– Star rating: This allows consumers to quickly compare the water efficiency of different products
(the more stars, the more water-efficient the product is)
– Rate of water consumption: This can include flow rate, litres per flush or litres per wash,
enabling consumers to estimate how much water the product will use
– Registration and product details: This includes licence number and registration number and
for washing machines and dishwashers the model name and cycle used for testing

WELS is reviewed and evaluated every five years by an independent reviewer as required by the
Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards Act 2005.22

3.7 Education and awareness

Education and awareness tools aim to change behaviour through public awareness
campaigns around the need to conserve scarce water resources. Water utilities can
promote water conservation in schools to increase young people’s knowledge of the
water cycle and encourage the wise use of scarce water resources. Water utilities can
use a variety of strategies, including school presentations and distribution of water
conservation information and materials that can be used in the school curriculum.
Meanwhile, water utilities can use public education to persuade individuals and com-
munities to conserve water resources. Water utilities can influence an individual’s at-
titudes and behaviours towards water resources by increasing their knowledge and
awareness of environmental problems associated with water scarcity. There are mul-
tiple tools and formats that water utilities can use to increase environmental aware-
ness and water conservation, including:
– Public information such as television commercials, newspaper articles and
advertisements
34 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

– Internet and social media campaigns

– Public events such as conservation workshops, public exhibitions
– Information included in water utility bills, such as leaflets on water conserva-
tion tips

Education and awareness campaigns can also involve the distribution of water con-
servation kits and providing of rebates to encourage physical water savings. Overall,
a variety of best practices can be followed to ensure education and awareness cam-
paigns are successful:
– Campaigns are most effective when they use a well-targeted range of media
– The use of existing networks can lower the cost of campaigns and increase
their impact
– The provision of information needs careful management to ensure it is relevant
and credible
– The impact of a water campaign can be magnified if it is followed by tangible
action23–28

Case 3.7: San Diego County Water Authority’s outreach and education programme
SDCWA offers a wide array of programmes to help the community learn about and understand the
county’s water supplies, infrastructure, and related issues. Programmes available include:
– Speaker’s Bureau: This is a free service to the community and covers topics including water
reliability, water transfers, legislation, and construction projects. Examples of organisations the
SDCWA has made presentations to include Rotary clubs, Chambers of Commerce, Community
college classes, and professional associations
– Community fairs and expos: Informing the community about the issues that affect their water
supply, as well as important projects and programmes, helps fulfil the mission of providing a
safe and reliable water supply to the region. SDCWA provides a calendar of events where it
will be presenting to the community. Event organisers can request the SDCWA’s participation
in an upcoming event by contacting the designated utility representative. If the SDCWA is not
able to attend, handout materials and other resources can be provided to the organisation
hosting the event
– Education: The SDCWA teaches children about local water resources, instilling knowledge and
appreciation of the resource while fostering an understanding of the need to protect the
environment and use water wisely. Education programmes offered by the SDCWA include:
– Theatrical assemblies for elementary schools: The assembly programme comprises:
– H2O, Where Did You Go?: This musical-style performance focuses on the journey of
water and why it is a natural resource that should be protected. While emphasising
water conservation, the show intertwines comedy and music to teach students
about the water cycle, states of matter, and other water facts
– Waterology: Waterology is an energetic musical show about water science, water
runoff, and water conservation for grades K-6. The show also educates students about
aquifers, water pollution caused by runoff into storm drains, and the value of water
– Hydro Game Show: This is a fast-paced, interactive assembly programme about water
sources, water science, and conservation for grades K-6. The team-based format
coupled with comical “commercials” and a high-energy host makes this one-person
 3.8 Demonstration projects 35

show a memorable experience for students. The show also educates students about
desalination, reservoirs, and the value of water
– Splash Science Mobile Lab through the County Office of Education: This field trip comes to
schools and involves Students in grades 4 to 8 investigating how water pollution affects
the environment and wildlife and learning why it is essential to conserve water. The Splash
Lab is an entirely self-contained mobile lab that provides students with hands-on science
experience at the school and includes:
– A new watershed/storm drain model
– State-of-the-art GIS computer stations
– A water conservation station
– A San Diego estuary station
– Microscopes with video projection
– Chemistry experiments
– Cooperative learning skills29

3.8 Demonstration projects

Demonstration projects illustrate the feasibility and commercial viability of water

conservation and water efficiency initiatives. They can also showcase the various
economic, environmental, and social benefits to the community, including water
utility customers, private building owners, and developers. Furthermore, demon-
stration projects can pilot new policies for municipal or regional governments and
build local and institutional capacity and confidence.30

Case 3.8: Helix Water District’s demonstration landscape

Helix Water District’s new demonstration landscape located at its administration office in La Mesa
beautifies the neighbourhood and inspires the community to install WaterSmart landscaping. The
demonstration landscape includes three unique water-wise gardens on the streets around the
building, including a Mediterranean garden, a desert landscape, and a California native landscape.
Each garden is full of flowers, colours, and textures. The plants in all three gardens are adapted to
San Diego’s climate and need half to a fifth of the water that traditional lawns need. In addition to
requiring less water, WaterSmart landscapes also require less maintenance and provide habitat for
local wildlife, including bees, birds, and butterflies. The demonstration gardens show customers
that water-efficient landscaping is not just one style, with homeowners able to choose plants that
complement the home and personal taste. Plant markers provide the name of each plant and a QR
code, which, when scanned with a smartphone, provides each plant’s name, sun and water needs,
mature size, and photo. The District has also created an interactive webpage where customers can
make a list of their favourite plants and download each garden’s design plan. Information on effi-
cient irrigation and rebate programmes are also available. Overall, the District’s new demonstra-
tion gardens encourages people to upgrade to WaterSmart landscapes by showing that water-wise
plants are not only sustainable but beautiful too.31
36 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

3.9 Water recycling and reuse

Water recycling is the use of harvested water for the same or a different function,
after treatment, where treatment can be tailored to meet the water quality require-
ments of planned use. In contrast, water reuse is the direct use of harvested water
for the same or a different function, without treatment. Water recycling and water
reuse systems can provide a reliable, climate-resilient, and economically sound
source of water for non-potable and potable uses.32,33

3.9.1 Non-potable use

Water recycling and water reuse systems can be developed for a variety of non-po-
table projects. The water is usually of a lower quality than potable systems, and the
level of treatment varies depending on the end-use.34

3.9.1.1 Industrial
Industrial water can be reused or recycled within a business itself or between sev-
eral businesses. A business can directly reuse wastewater that is clean enough for
the purpose for which it is being reused. Process water is produced by industrial
processes such as cooling and heating and usually contains few contaminants,
often making it suitable for reuse. Cooling towers are one of the most common
water technologies in use by industry and the water is frequently reused for wash-
ing processes. Industrial process water and cooling tower water can be treated to
meet fit-for-purpose specifications for a particular next use. Meanwhile, water recy-
cling or reuse systems can be implemented for use between businesses, with the
exchange of waste product for the mutual benefit of two or more businesses known
as ‘industrial symbiosis’.

3.9.1.2 Agricultural
The increased availability of treated (secondary-treated wastewater) and recycled water
(tertiary-treated), along with increased competition for water supplies, provides an op-
portunity to develop this resource for agricultural production particularly during times
of drought when regular water supplies are limited or non-existent. The use of treated
and recycled water for irrigated crop production is controlled by regulations that gov-
ern the treated water quality, with lesser standards required for forage crops compared
with those for food crops.35
 3.9 Water recycling and reuse 37

3.9.1.3 Urban
In urban areas, a variety of onsite non-potable reuse and recycling systems are uti-
lised to meet non-potable needs:
– Greywater: Greywater is reusable wastewater from residential, commercial, and
industrial bathroom sinks, bathtub shower drains, and clothes washing equip-
ment drains. Greywater is reused onsite, usually for toilet flushing and irriga-
tion. Greywater systems vary significantly in their complexity and size, ranging
from small systems with simple treatment processes to large systems with com-
plex treatment processes. Nevertheless, most have standard features including
a tank for storing the treated water, a pump, a distribution system for trans-
porting the treated water to where it is needed, and some sort of (basic) treat-
ment, such as filtering, settlement of solids, chemical or UV disinfection etc.
– Blackwater: Blackwater, or sewage, is the wastewater from toilets. In blackwa-
ter recycling systems, all the blackwater is routed to an initial tank via gravity,
from which it settles, and a primary colony of bacteria eats at the waste. The
blackwater then goes through an aeration stage and a sludge settling stage, be-
fore it is chlorinated and used as irrigation water (watering lawns or non-food
gardens)
– Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater harvesting systems collect and store rainfall
for later use. When designed appropriately, they slow down and reduce runoff
and provide a source of water. There are two main types of rainwater harvest-
ing systems:
– Passive harvesting systems: They are typically small volume (50–100 gal-
lon) systems designed to capture rooftop runoff. Rain barrels are usually
used in residential applications where the flow from rain gutter down-
spouts is easily captured for outdoor use, for example, garden and land-
scape irrigation or car washing
– Active harvesting systems: They are larger volume (typically 1,000–100,000-
gallon) systems, for example, cisterns, which capture runoff from roofs or
other suitable surfaces. Rainwater collected in active systems is typically
used for irrigation or indoor non-potable water replacement, for example,
toilet flushing, clothes washing, evaporative cooling, etc.36

Case 3.9: The HAMBURG WATER Cycle® in the Jenfelder Au Quarter

The Jenfelder Au quarter is a new residential area in the Wandsbek district of Hamburg, built on the
former Lettow-Vorbeck military barracks. The HAMBURG WATER Cycle® (HWC) will be implemented in
over 800 newly constructed housing units and entails the separation of the material flows of wastewa-
ter. In conventional systems, all domestic wastewater streams are combined and discharged together
into the sewer system. In contrast, the HWC decouples the wastewater flows. Blackwater, greywater,
and stormwater are separately collected and then separately treated:
– Blackwater: Blackwater is less dilute and therefore facilitates material and energy recovery as
well as reduces the energy required to treat it. To further concentrate the blackwater, water-
saving toilets are used. The vacuum toilet consumes only about one litre of water per flush,
38 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

saving around five to nine litres of water per flush when compared with conventional toilets.
The concentrated blackwater is then combined with other biomass sources such as organic
waste in anaerobic digesters. Biogas is then formed which is converted into electricity and
heat from a combined heat and power process
– Greywater: In the HWC, greywater is separated from blackwater and is transported to a specially
designed facility before it is introduced into the local waters. They greywater can also be used
as process water for household activities such as watering the garden or toilet flushing
– Stormwater: The HWC aims to manage stormwater on-site and as natural as possible. The
stormwater can be used for watering lawns or managed using decentralised methods, such as
retention ponds, where water is able to either evaporate or join nearby waters, improving the
local climate or recharging groundwater37

Case 3.10: Hunter Water’s recycled water service

Hunter Water in Australia is using recycled water as one approach to ensuring the reliable delivery
of water to the Lower Hunter Region while ensuring confidence in public health and environmental
protection. Over the period 2017–18, the water utility recycled 6,454 million litres of wastewater.
Hunter Water’s recycled water scheme can be divided into four categories:
– Open space: Recycled water is used for open space irrigation across the Hunter, including
several golf courses and an educational college. These schemes use around 500 million litres
of recycled water per year for landscape irrigation
– Residential: Hunter Water operates two dual reticulation schemes that provide recycled water
for garden and toilet flushing in several housing estates. The water utility is also investigating
dual reticulation schemes for other new residential developments
– Industrial use: Industrial reuse customers such as Eraring Power Station and the Oceanic Coal
Washery use around 1,600 million litres of recycled water per year
– Agriculture use: This includes local farmers in the Clarence Town Irrigation Scheme which is
an integral part of the Clarence Town Wastewater Treatment Works, which is designed to
recycle all the product effluent in dry years. The final recycled water product is then stored in
a 34 million litre dam before being pumped to the reuse area. The reuse area consists of 18
hectares of pasture irrigated by a system of irrigators. Commercial fodder crops are cultivated
on the irrigated area38

3.9.2 Potable reuse

Potable water reuse involves the use of a community’s wastewater as a source of

drinking water. Two forms of planned potable reuse exist, which are indirect pota-
ble reuse (IPR) and direct potable reuse (DPR).

3.9.2.1 Indirect potable reuse

IPR can be defined as the reclamation and treatment of water from wastewater (often
sewage effluent) and the eventual returning of it into the current/natural water cycle
well upstream of the drinking water treatment plant. Planned IPR means there is an
intent to reuse the water for potable use. The point of return could be either into a
 3.9 Water recycling and reuse 39

major water supply reservoir; a stream feeding a reservoir; or into a water supply
aquifer (managed aquifer recharge). The natural processes of filtration and dilution
of the water with natural flows aim to reduce real or perceived risks associated with
eventual potable reuse. IPR (unplanned) is defined as treated wastewater entering
the natural water (creeks, rivers, lakes, aquifers), which is eventually extracted from
the natural system for drinking water: usually with no awareness that the natural
system contains treated wastewater.39

Case 3.11: Orange County’s Groundwater Replenishment System

Orange County’s Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS), a joint project between the Orange
County Water District and the Orange County Sanitation District (OCSD), provides enough new
water for nearly 850,000 residents and has become an essential local water supply. The GWRS is
the world’s most extensive advanced water purification system for IPR. OCSD treats the wastewater
and produces water clean enough to undergo purification at the GWRS. The water is purified at the
GWRS using a three-step advanced process of microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and ultraviolet light
with hydrogen peroxide. The purified water is then injected into a seawater barrier and pumped to
recharge basins where it percolates into the Orange County Groundwater Basin and supplements
Orange County’s drinking water supplies. Operational since 2008, the GWRS originally produced
70 million gallons a day (MGD) of purified water. In 2015, the project was expanded to produce 100
MGD. The GWRS’ total capacity is projected to reach 130 MGD after the infrastructure is built to
increase wastewater flows from OCSD to the GWRS, with the final expansion expected to be com-
pleted in 2023.40

3.9.2.2 Direct potable reuse

DPR can be defined as either the injection of recycled water directly into the potable
water supply distribution system downstream of the water treatment plant or into
the raw water supply immediately upstream of the water treatment plant (injection
could be either directly into the water pipeline or a service reservoir). This means
water used by consumers could contain either undiluted or slightly diluted recycled
water. The key distinction with IPR is that there is no temporal or spatial separation
between the recycled water introduction and its distribution to consumers.41–43

Case 3.12: Windhoek’s direct potable reuse system

Windhoek, Namibia, is the first city in the world to produce drinking water directly from the municipal
wastewater. For over 50 years, the city has been producing DPR with the first plant commissioned in
1968 and the second in 2001. Each day, 21,000 cubic metres of potable water is produced for direct
reuse. There are five main aspects of the project:
1. Multi-barrier approach: A multi-barrier approach is taken to treat the water with the funda-
mental processes being powdered activated carbon dosing, pre-oxidation and pre-ozonation,
flash mixing, enhanced coagulation and flocculation, dissolved air flotation, dual media rapid
gravity sand filtration, ozonation, biological activated carbon filtration, granular activated car-
bon filtration, ultrafiltration, and disinfection and stabilisation
2. Guaranteed water quality values: The water produced must adhere to ‘guaranteed values’ based
on World Health Organization Guidelines, Rand Water Potable Water Quality Criteria, and the
40 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

Namibian Guidelines for Group A water. Water samples are taken every four hours at various
points throughout the plant and analysed for basic quality control purposes
3. Blending of recycled and freshwater: Blending the recycled water with treated surface water
and/or groundwater provides an additional level of safety. The maximum portion of recycled
water fed into the distribution system is 50 percent in times of water scarcity and low water
demand
4. Operation and maintenance agreement: The plant is operated and maintained under a twenty-
year operation and maintenance contract between the City of Windhoek and a consortium of
three international water treatment contractors
5. Public awareness campaign: Persistent, well designed, and targeted marketing has meant the
people of Windhoek generally take pride that they are the only city in the world where DPR is
practised44,45

Notes

1 R.C. Brears, “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies,”
(2014), https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/18349/pp414-urban-water-security-
asiapacific.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
2 Urban Water Security (Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016).
3 Developing the Circular Water Economy (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).
4 “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies”.
5 European Commission, “The Role of Water Pricing and Water Allocation in Agriculture in
Delivering Sustainable Water Use in Europe – Final Report” (2012), https://ec.europa.eu/environ
ment/water/quantity/pdf/agriculture_report.pdf.
6 FAO, “Water Charging in Irrigated Agriculture,” http://www.fao.org/3/y5690e/y5690e04.htm
7 Irish Water, “Your Business Charges,” https://www.water.ie/for-business/billing-explained/
charges/.
8 San Diego County Water Authority, “New Agricultural Water Program Benefits San Diego County
Growers,” https://www.sdcwa.org/new-agricultural-water-program-benefits-san-diego-county-
growers.
9 Thomas Boyle et al., “Intelligent Metering for Urban Water: A Review,” Water 5, no. 3 (2013).
10 C. D. Beal and J. Flynn, “Toward the Digital Water Age: Survey and Case Studies of Australian
Water Utility Smart-Metering Programs,” Utilities Policy 32 (2015).
11 Yorkshire Water, “Yorkshire Water Looking to Save Millions of Litres of Water with New Smart
Meters,” https://www.yorkshirewater.com/news-media/2020/yorkshire-water-looking-to-save-mil
lions-of-litres-of-water-with-new-smart-meters/.
12 S.N. Ghosh, Environmental Hydrology and Hydraulics: Eco-Technological Practices for Sustainable
Development (CRC Press, 2016).
13 Mahmud Güngör, Ufuk Yarar, and Mahmut Firat, “Reduction of Water Losses by Rehabilitation
of Water Distribution Network,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 189, no. 10 (2017).
14 Luigi Berardi et al., “Active Leakage Control with Wdnetxl,” Procedia Engineering 154 (2016).
15 UNEP, “Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America
and the Caribbean,” https://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch20.htm#2.1%20desalina
tion%20by%20reverse%20osmosis.
16 State of Green, “Reducing Urban Water Loss,” (2016), https://stateofgreen.com/en/publica
tions/reducing-urban-water-loss/.
 Notes 41

17 Anglian Water, “Anglian Water to Trial Fibre-Optic Cables to Find Hidden Leaks in Water
Mains,” https://www.anglianwater.co.uk/news/anglian-water-to-trial-fibre-optic-cables-to-find-hid
den-leaks-in-water-mains/
18 Brears, “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies”.
19 New South Wales Government, “Level 2 Water Restrictions to Start across Sydney,” https://
www.nsw.gov.au/news/level-2-water-restrictions-to-start-across-sydney.
20 Brears, “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies”.
21 D. A. Kelly, “Labelling and Water Conservation: A European Perspective on a Global Challenge,”
Building Services Engineering Research & Technology 36, no. 6 (2015).
22 Australian Goverment, “Water Rating Label,” https://www.waterrating.gov.au/choose/water-rat
ing-label
23 Brears, “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies”.
24 Isaac B. Addo, Martin C. Thoms, and Melissa Parsons, “The Influence of Water-Conservation
Messages on Reducing Household Water Use,” Applied Water Science 9, no. 5 (2019).
25 GWP, “Raising Public Awareness,” https://www.gwp.org/en/learn/iwrm-toolbox/Management-
Instruments/Promoting_Social_Change/Raising_public_awareness/.
26 Georgia Environmental Protection Division Watershed Protection Branch, (2007), https://www1.
gadnr.org/cws/Documents/Conservation_Education.pdf
27 Rabab I. El-Nwsany, Ibrahim Maarouf, and Waled Abd el-Aal, “Water Management as a Vital
Factor for a Sustainable School,” Alexandria Engineering Journal 58, no. 1 (2019).
28 Damian C. Adams et al., “The Influence of Water Attitudes, Perceptions, and Learning Preferences
on Water-Conserving Actions,” Natural Sciences Education 42, no. 1 (2013).
29 San Diego County Water Authority, “Outreach and Education,” https://www.sdcwa.org/out
reach-and-education.
30 R.C. Brears, The Green Economy and the Water-Energy-Food Nexus (London: Palgrave Macmillan
UK, 2017).
31 Helix Water District, “Our Demonstration Landscape Is Complete,” https://hwd.com/our-demon
stration-landscape-is-complete/#.
32 Victorian Government Department of Health, “Guidelines for Water Reuse and Recycling in
Victorian Health Care Facilities: Non-Drinking Applications,” (2009), https://www2.health.vic.gov.
au/Api/downloadmedia/%7B949656D2-00DA-486E-B450-84C75D71A0BF%7D.
33 Australian Water Association, “Water Recycling,” http://www.awa.asn.au/AWA_MBRR/
Publications/Fact_Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet/AWA_MBRR/Publications/Fact_Sheets/
Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet.aspx?hkey=54c6e74b-0985-4d34-8422-fc3f7523aa1d.
34 National Academy of Sciences, “Understanding Water Reuse,” (2012), http://dels.nas.edu/
resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/110805697-Understanding-Water-
Reuse.pdf
35 Brears, Developing the Circular Water Economy.
36 Ibid.
37 Hamburg Wasser, “Hamburg Water Cycle,” https://www.hamburgwatercycle.de/en/hamburg-
water-cycler/.
38 Hunter Water, “Recycling & Reuse,” https://www.hunterwater.com.au/Water-and-Sewer/
Recycling–Reuse/.
39 Clemencia Rodriguez et al., “Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative,”
International journal of environmental research and public health 6, no. 3 (2009).
40 Orange County Water District, “Gwrs – New Water You Can Count On,” https://www.ocwd.
com/gwrs/.
42 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

41 Caroline E. Scruggs and Bruce M. Thomson, “Opportunities and Challenges for Direct Potable
Water Reuse in Arid Inland Communities,” Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
143, no. 10 (2017).
42 J. Lahnsteiner, P. van Rensburg, and J. Esterhuizen, “Direct Potable Reuse – a Feasible Water
Management Option,” Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 8, no. 1 (2017).
43 American Water Works Association WateReuse, Water Environment Federation, and National
Water Research Institute,, “Framework for Direct Potable Reuse” (2015), https://watereuse.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/09/14-20.pdf
44 Wingoc, “Windhoek Celebrates the 50th Anniversary of Direct Potable Reuse (Dpr) in Namibia,”
https://www.wingoc.com.na/media/news/windhoek-celebrates-50th-anniversary-direct-potable-
reuse-dpr-namibia.
45 2030 Water Resources Group, “Wastewater Reclamation to Meet Potable Water Demand: Windhoek,
Namibia,” (2015), https://www.waterscarcitysolutions.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Wastewater-rec
lamation-to-meet-potable-water-demand-Windhoek-Namibia.pdf.

References

2030 Water Resources Group. “Wastewater Reclamation to Meet Potable Water Demand:
Windhoek, Namibia”. (2015). https://www.waterscarcitysolutions.org/wp-content/uploads/
2015/08/Wastewater-reclamation-to-meet-potable-water-demand-Windhoek-Namibia.pdf.
Adams, Damian C., Derek Allen, Tatiana Borisova, Diane E. Boellstorff, Michael D. Smolen, and
Robert L. Mahler. “The Influence of Water Attitudes, Perceptions, and Learning Preferences on
Water-Conserving Actions”. [In English]. Natural Sciences Education 42, no. 1 (2013): 114–22.
Addo, Isaac B., Martin C. Thoms, and Melissa Parsons. “The Influence of Water-Conservation
Messages on Reducing Household Water Use”. Applied Water Science 9, no. 5 (2019/06/21
2019): 126.
Anglian Water. “Anglian Water to Trial Fibre-Optic Cables to Find Hidden Leaks in Water Mains”.
https://www.anglianwater.co.uk/news/anglian-water-to-trial-fibre-optic-cables-to-find-hid
den-leaks-in-water-mains/
Australian Goverment. “Water Rating Label”. https://www.waterrating.gov.au/choose/water-rat
ing-label
Australian Water Association. “Water Recycling”. http://www.awa.asn.au/AWA_MBRR/
Publications/Fact_Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet/AWA_MBRR/Publications/Fact_
Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet.aspx?hkey=54c6e74b-0985-4d34-8422-fc3f7523aa1d.
Beal, C. D., and J. Flynn. “Toward the Digital Water Age: Survey and Case Studies of Australian
Water Utility Smart-Metering Programs”. Utilities Policy 32 (2015/03/01/ 2015): 29–37.
Berardi, Luigi, Daniele B. Laucelli, Antonietta Simone, Gianfredi Mazzolani, and Orazio Giustolisi.
“Active Leakage Control with Wdnetxl”. Procedia Engineering 154 (2016/01/01/ 2016): 62–70.
Boyle, Thomas, Damien Giurco, Pierre Mukheibir, Ariane Liu, Candice Moy, Stuart White, and
Rodney Stewart. “Intelligent Metering for Urban Water: A Review”. Water 5, no. 3 (2013).
Brears, R.C. Developing the Circular Water Economy. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan,
2020.
———. The Green Economy and the Water-Energy-Food Nexus. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2017.
———. Urban Water Security. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
———. “Urban Water Security in Asia-Pacific: Promoting Demand Management Strategies”. (2014).
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asiapacific.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
 References 43

El-Nwsany, Rabab I., Ibrahim Maarouf, and Waled Abd el-Aal. “Water Management as a Vital Factor for
a Sustainable School”. Alexandria Engineering Journal 58, no. 1 (2019/03/01/ 2019): 303–13.
European Commission. “The Role of Water Pricing and Water Allocation in Agriculture in Delivering
Sustainable Water Use in Europe – Final Report” (2012). https://ec.europa.eu/environment/
water/quantity/pdf/agriculture_report.pdf.
FAO. “Water Charging in Irrigated Agriculture”. http://www.fao.org/3/y5690e/y5690e04.htm
Georgia Environmental Protection Division Watershed Protection Branch. (2007). https://www1.
gadnr.org/cws/Documents/Conservation_Education.pdf
Ghosh, S.N. Environmental Hydrology and Hydraulics: Eco-Technological Practices for Sustainable
Development. CRC Press, 2016.
Güngör, Mahmud, Ufuk Yarar, and Mahmut Firat. “Reduction of Water Losses by Rehabilitation of
Water Distribution Network”. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 189, no. 10 (2017/
09/11 2017): 498.
GWP. “Raising Public Awareness”. https://www.gwp.org/en/learn/iwrm-toolbox/Management-
Instruments/Promoting_Social_Change/Raising_public_awareness/.
Hamburg Wasser. “Hamburg Water Cycle”. https://www.hamburgwatercycle.de/en/hamburg-
water-cycler/.
Helix Water District. “Our Demonstration Landscape Is Complete”. https://hwd.com/our-demonstra
tion-landscape-is-complete/.
Hunter Water. “Recycling & Reuse”. https://www.hunterwater.com.au/Water-and-Sewer/
Recycling--Reuse/.
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charges/.
Kelly, D. A. “Labelling and Water Conservation: A European Perspective on a Global Challenge”.
[In English]. Building Services Engineering Research & Technology 36, no. 6 (Nov 2015-11-19
2015): 643–57.
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Management Option”. Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 8, no. 1 (2017): 14–28.
National Academy of Sciences. “Understanding Water Reuse”. (2012). http://dels.nas.edu/resour
ces/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/110805697-Understanding-Water-
Reuse.pdf
New South Wales Government. “Level 2 Water Restrictions to Start across Sydney”. https://www.
nsw.gov.au/news/level-2-water-restrictions-to-start-across-sydney.
Orange County Water District. “Gwrs – New Water You Can Count On”. https://www.ocwd.com/
gwrs/.
Rodriguez, Clemencia, Paul Van Buynder, Richard Lugg, Palenque Blair, Brian Devine, Angus Cook,
and Philip Weinstein. “Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative”.
[In eng]. International journal of environmental research and public health 6, no. 3 (2009):
1174–209.
San Diego County Water Authority. “New Agricultural Water Program Benefits San Diego County
Growers“. https://www.sdcwa.org/new-agricultural-water-program-benefits-san-diego-
county-growers.
———. “Outreach and Education”. https://www.sdcwa.org/outreach-and-education.
Scruggs, Caroline E., and Bruce M. Thomson. “Opportunities and Challenges for Direct Potable
Water Reuse in Arid Inland Communities“. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management 143, no. 10 (2017): 04017064.
State of Green. “Reducing Urban Water Loss”. (2016). https://stateofgreen.com/en/publications/
reducing-urban-water-loss/.
44 Chapter 3 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

UNEP. “Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and
the Caribbean”. https://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch20.htm#2.1%20desa
lination%20by%20reverse%20osmosis.
Victorian Government Department of Health. “Guidelines for Water Reuse and Recycling in
Victorian Health Care Facilities: Non-Drinking Applications”. (2009). https://www2.health.vic.
gov.au/Api/downloadmedia/%7B949656D2-00DA-486E-B450-84C75D71A0BF%7D.
WateReuse, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, and National Water
Research Institute,. “Framework for Direct Potable Reuse” (2015). https://watereuse.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/09/14-20.pdf
Wingoc. “Windhoek Celebrates the 50th Anniversary of Direct Potable Reuse (Dpr) in Namibia”.
https://www.wingoc.com.na/media/news/windhoek-celebrates-50th-anniversary-direct-pota
ble-reuse-dpr-namibia.
Yorkshire Water. “Yorkshire Water Looking to Save Millions of Litres of Water with New Smart
Meters”. https://www.yorkshirewater.com/news-media/2020/yorkshire-water-looking-to-
save-millions-of-litres-of-water-with-new-smart-meters/.
Chapter 4
Generating renewable energy and recovering
resources from wastewater

Abstract: Wastewater production is expected to increase significantly as the century

progresses. This chapter will discuss how wastewater treatment plants should not
be viewed as waste disposal facilities, but rather as water resource recovery facili-
ties that produce clean water, reduce dependence on fossil fuels through the use
and production of renewable energy, and recover nutrients.

Keywords: Wastewater, Water Resource Recovery, Renewable Energy, Nutrient

Recovery

Introduction

Currently, it is estimated that the world produces 380 billion cubic metres of wastewa-
ter per annum. Globally, wastewater production is expected to increase by 24 percent
by 2030 and 51 percent by 2050. It is estimated that energy embedded in wastewater
would be enough to provide electricity to 158 million households. Among major nu-
trients, 16.6 million metric tonnes (Tg) of nitrogen is estimated to be embedded in
wastewater produced per annum while phosphorous stands at 3.0 Tg and potassium
at 6.3 Tg. The full nutrient recovery from wastewater would offset 13.4 percent of
the global demand for these nutrients in agriculture.1 This chapter will discuss
how wastewater treatment plants should not be viewed as waste disposal facili-
ties, but rather as water resource recovery facilities that produce clean water, re-
duce dependence on fossil fuels through the use and production of renewable
energy, and recover nutrients.2,3

4.1 Renewable energy generation technologies at wastewater

treatment facilities

Electricity is the main energy source required in wastewater treatment plants, ac-
counting for around 25–50 percent of the operating costs of traditional activated
sludge plants.4 Energy derived from wastewater treatment is a renewable energy re-
source. It can include:
– Electrical energy, heat, or biofuels from the utilisation of digester gas (biogas
that consists mainly of methane and carbon dioxide)
– Electrical energy and heat from thermal conversion of biomass (biosolids)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-004
46 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

– Heating or cooling energy using plant influent or effluent as a heat source or

sink for a heat pump5

4.1.1 Biogas from anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a proven technology for sewage sludge treatment and allows
the generation of renewable energy from the same process. During anaerobic diges-
tion, microorganisms break down the organic matter contained in the sludge and
convert it into biogas which can be used for electricity, heat, and biofuel produc-
tion. Specifically, the sludge is pumped into anaerobic continuously stirred tank re-
actors where digestion takes place, usually at mesophilic temperatures (35–39 degrees
Celsius). During a retention time, usually around 20 days, microorganisms break down
part of the organic matter that is contained in the sludge and produce biogas, which is
composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace gases. The raw biogas is dried, and
hydrogen sulphide and other trace substances removed to obtain a good combustible
gas and avoid corrosion or unwanted deposition in the combustion equipment. After
cleaning, the biogas can be upgraded to biomethane, or it can be combusted in a com-
bined heat and power (CHP) plant to generate electricity and heat simultaneously.6

4.1.2 Biomethane

Biogas is primarily composed of methane (40–70 volume percent) and carbon diox-
ide and smaller traces of acidic gases and impurities such as hydrogen sulphide,
nitrogen, water vapour, and traces of other volatile organic gases. Biomethane is
produced via biogas upgrading, which is the removal of carbon dioxide before the
biogas can be used as a vehicle fuel or injected into the natural gas grid, as the
large volume of carbon dioxide reduces its heating value. Biogas can be upgraded
using the following technologies:
– Cryogenic separation: This involves cooling the acid gases to a very low temper-
ature so that the carbon dioxide can be liquefied and separated
– Membrane separation: This technique uses polymeric membranes to separate
the carbon dioxide from the methane in biogas while under high pressure
– Organic physical scrubbing: Carbon dioxide is more soluble than methane. Raw
biogas flows through a counter flow of a liquid in a column. The liquid absorbs
the carbon dioxide, leaving biogas with a high content of methane
– Pressure swing adsorption: In this process, biogas is compressed to a pressure
between 4–10 bar and is fed to a vessel (column) where it is put in contact with
a material (adsorbent) that will selectively retain carbon dioxide
– Amine scrubbing and water wash (or water scrubbing): Amine systems and water
scrubbing are similar in that they are both ‘wet’ upgrading systems and involve
 4.1 Renewable energy generation technologies at wastewater treatment facilities 47

separating the carbon dioxide from the methane by solubilising the carbon diox-
ide in a liquid solution while allowing the methane to pass7–9

Case 4.1: Stockholm’s wastewater treatment plants producing biogas for buses
In Stockholm, the two sewage treatment plants, Henriksdal and Bromma, serve more than one mil-
lion people and industries in the city plus surrounding municipalities. During the sewage treatment
process, the organic material is separated in the form of sludge from the water. In total, the two
plants produce around a million tonnes of sludge per year. When the sludge is digested biogas is
formed, providing a steady stream of vehicle fuel: currently, around 17 million cubic metres of
crude gas is produced which is sold to Scandinavian Biogas, who then transform the raw gas into
vehicle gas. The gas that is not converted to vehicle gas is used for heating and electricity genera-
tion. Most of the gas produced at Henriksdal is used by SL’s inner-city buses. Meanwhile, vehicle
gas from Bromma is sold, partly from a tank outside the plant and partly at other filling stations in
the city, for use in taxis, private cars, buses, and waste trucks. Overall, the biogas mitigates more
than 22,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions annually.10

4.1.3 Combined heat and power

CHP is the most prevalent means of utilising biogas. As the process of anaerobic di-
gestion requires some heat, it is suited to CHP. The ratio of heat to power varies de-
pending on the scale and technology but typically 35–40 percent is converted to
electricity, 40–45 percent to heat and the balance lost as inefficiencies in the various
stages of the process. This equates to over 2 kWh electricity and 2.5 kWh heat per
cubic metre, at 60 percent methane.11 CHP offers a variety of benefits, including:
– Efficiency: CHP requires less fuel than separate heat and power generation sys-
tems to produce a given energy output. CHP also avoids transmission and distri-
bution losses that occur when electricity travels over power lines from central
generating units
– Reliability: CHP can provide high-quality electricity and thermal energy to a
site regardless of what happens on the power grid, decreasing the impacts of
outages and improving power quality for sensitive equipment
– Environmental: Because less fuel is burned to produce each unit of energy out-
put, CHP reduces greenhouse gases and other air pollutants
– Economic: CHP lowers a facility’s energy bill considerably due to its high effi-
ciency, and it can provide a hedge against unstable energy costs12

Case 4.2: Charlotte Water’s biogas CHP system

Charlotte Water operates seven wastewater treatment plants, with the largest being the McAlpine
Creek Wastewater Management Facility located in Pineville, near Charlotte, North Carolina. In 2017,
McAlpine Creek became the first wastewater treatment plant in North Carolina to utilise anaerobic
digester gas to power a 1-megawatt (MW) CHP system. The CHP system generates electricity while
also providing process heat for anaerobic digestion. The project was supported by a 20-year zero-
48 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

interest loan from North Carolina’s Clean Water Revolving Fund. Also, the Southeast Combined Heat
and Power Technical Assistance Partnership provided technical support to the utility during the plan-
ning phases of the project by conducting a CHP qualification screening and a feasibility analysis. By
installing the CHP system, the previously-flared methane fuels a system that provides heat for the
digesters and generates electricity that is sold to Duke Energy under a Power Purchase Agreement,
with the revenue generated offsetting a significant portion of the cost to operate the plant.13

4.1.4 Anaerobic co-digestion

In addition to sewage sludge, some wastewater treatment plants include other or-
ganic feedstock in the anaerobic reaction. Known as anaerobic co-digestion, it can
lead to a significant increase in gas production as most co-substrates have higher
methane production per tonne of fresh matter than sewage sludge. This is due to
lower water content and high contents of energy-rich substances, including:
– Lipid wastes including fats, oils, and greases (known as FOG)
– Simple carbohydrate wastes, including bakery waste, brewery waste, and sugar-
based solutions such as soft drinks
– Complex carbohydrate wastes, including fruits and vegetables as well as mixed
organics, including the organic fraction of a municipal solid waste stream
– Protein wastes, including meat, poultry, and dairy waste products
– Other waste organic feedstocks, including glycerine from biosolid fuel
production14,15

Case 4.3: Hong Kong’s co-digestion trial scheme

Food waste pre-treatment facilities for anaerobic co-digestion will be constructed at the existing Tai
Po Sewage Treatment Works. The site will provide a maximum of 50 tonnes per day of pre-treated
food waste to the sewage treatment works for anaerobic co-digestion. The scheme is collaboratively
administered and run by the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) and Drainage Services
Department (DSD). Under the scheme, EPD will be responsible for food waste sourcing, food waste
pre-treatment, and delivery of pre-treated food waste to a designated anaerobic co-digester at the
sewage treatment works. At the same time, DSD will be responsible for the co-digestion operation
and making use of the biogas generated for electricity generation to supplement the sewage treat-
ment facilities’ internal power consumption.16

4.1.5 Thermal conversion of biosolids

Thermal oxidation (incineration), which is the complete oxidation of organics (bio-

mass) to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of excess air, is a well-established
technology. The benefits of thermal conversion include the reduction in biosolids
mass, generation of heat for use in heating or electricity generation, reduction in the
 4.1 Renewable energy generation technologies at wastewater treatment facilities 49

facility’s overall carbon footprint, lowering of the reliance on fossil fuels, generation of
ash for use in building materials, and generation of additional revenue to utilities.17

Case 4.4: Hunter Water studying the feasibility of biosolids for renewable energy
Hunter Water in Australia is undertaking a comprehensive study to help determine the feasibility of
generating renewable energy from the utility’s biosolids. Hunter Water’s 19 wastewater treatment
plants produce almost 8,000 dry tonnes of biosolids each year as a by-product of the sewage treat-
ment process. The biosolids are currently used for pasture improvement, land rehabilitation, and
other purposes in the farming and mining sectors. An initial estimate is that the use of biosolids
for energy generation could reduce Hunter Water’s emissions from energy consumption by around
10 percent. The study will also explore new commercial opportunities around renewable energy
from other organic waste streams.18

4.1.6 Thermal energy recovery from wastewater

Thermal energy can be recovered from raw wastewater or effluent by exploiting the
significant temperature differential between wastewater and ambient conditions.
This temperature difference can be recovered for use in heating and cooling sys-
tems, which is often used for buildings at the facility and in buildings of areas sur-
rounding the facility.19

4.1.6.1 District heating and cooling

District heating and cooling (DHC) is considered more efficient than the individual,
distributed systems for heating and cooling as DHC solutions can utilise locally avail-
able, low-cost energy sources. Wastewater heat recovery applications based on heat
pumps are becoming more widespread in energy-saving applications for both heating
and cooling. Heat recovery can be performed inside the buildings (domestic-scale),
from sewerage lines (urban-scale), and from wastewater treatment plants (municipal-
scale). In densely populated areas, heat recovery from sewage has immense potential,
particularly when Geographic Information System-based analysis is used to match the
availability of sewage and heat demand.20

Case 4.5: Scottish Water Horizons’ Stirling Low Carbon Heat Project
Scottish Water Horizons is recovering heat from wastewater in the sewer network for several large-
scale heat from waste schemes across Scotland, including the Stirling Low Carbon Heat Project.
The project, a partnership between Scottish Water Horizons and Stirling Council, will use heat from
wastewater technology alongside a CHP to deliver low-carbon heat to a city community through the
District Heat Network. The project will see Scottish Water Horizons owning and operating an energy
centre at the existing Stirling Wastewater Treatment Works in Forthside. A CHP unit will be used to
deliver renewable electricity to power the waste treatment site and be combined with technology
designed to recover heat from Scottish Water’s wastewater system to provide low carbon heat to
the District Heating Network in the form of hot water. Scottish Water Horizons will sell the heat to
50 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

Stirling Council at an agreed rate and volume, which the Council will then sell on to users via their
District Heat Network. The District Heat Network delivers heat and hot water to a number of build-
ings, including a leisure centre, high school, and office complex.21,22

4.2 Renewable energy activities on buildings and surrounding

lands
Water utilities can implement renewable energy activities on facility-owned build-
ings and surrounding lands, including the following.

4.2.1 Solar energy

Wastewater treatment plants require many aeration tanks when treating sewage.
These require a lot of space in the plant area, providing opportunities to utilise this
space with solar photovoltaic (PV) systems to drive equipment or provide heat.
These systems, which can produce electricity even in the absence of strong sun-
light, can generate significant quantities of electricity depending on a variety of fac-
tors including quality of the sunlight and the system’s mounted pitch. In addition
to lowering energy costs, solar PV systems can improve air quality by reducing pol-
lution caused by using fossil fuels in wastewater treatment plants.23

4.2.1.1 Floating photovoltaic installations

Floating PV installations are similar to that of land-based PV systems, other than the
fact that the PV arrays, and often their inverters, are mounted on a floating platform.
They can be installed on reservoirs as well as ponds and lakes. In a floating PV instal-
lation, the direct current electricity generated by PV modules is gathered by combiner
boxes and converted to alternating current by inverters. For small-scale floating
plants close to shore, the inverters can be placed on land a short distance from the
array. For larger-scale floating plants, central or string inverters are placed on spe-
cially designed floats. The potential benefits of floating solar include:
– Reduced evaporation from water reservoirs, as the solar panels provide shade
and limit the evaporative effects of wind
– Improvements in water quality through decreased algae growth
– Reduction or elimination of the shading of panels by their surroundings
– Elimination of the need for major site preparation, such as levelling or the lay-
ing of foundations, which are required for land-based installations
– Easy installation and deployment in sites with low anchoring and mooring re-
quirements, with a high level of modularity, leading to faster installations24
 4.2 Renewable energy activities on buildings and surrounding lands 51

Case 4.6: Watercare’s floating solar array

Watercare in Auckland, New Zealand has commissioned the country’s largest and only floating
solar array at its Rosedale Wastewater Treatment Plant in Albany. The one-megawatt array covers
one hectare and consists of more than 2,700 solar panels and 4,000 floating pontoons. It floats on
a treated wastewater pond next to the Northern motorway and will generate over 1,400 MWh per
annum: enough to supply 25 percent of the total energy needed at the treatment plant. The array
will also reduce carbon emissions by 145 tonnes per annum.25

4.2.2 Wind power

Wind energy, which is captured on-site using wind turbines, can be very cost effec-
tive in areas with adequate wind resources. As opposed to large utility-scale wind
farm turbines, which can have capacities as high as 3 MW, small wind turbines are
often better suited for local facilities. These small wind turbines are most often in-
stalled in non-urban areas because installations typically require at least one acre of
land and wind speeds averaging around 24 kilometres per hour at 50 metres above
the ground.26

Case 4.7: Germany’s hybrid sewage power plant

In Germany, the Bottrop sewage treatment plant serves a population of 1.34 million and currently
self-generates 70–80 percent of its energy requirement. Through the project ‘Vom Klärwerk zum
Kraftwerk’ (‘From sewage treatment to power generation’), the plant’s operators are aiming to self-
generate 100 percent of the plant’s total demand on-site (32 million kilowatt-hours of electrical en-
ergy per year), reducing its carbon emissions by 70,000 tonnes per year. This will be met through
individual, decentralised renewable energy systems. To date, the plant’s renewable energy is gen-
erated by a sewage gas CHP unit and a sludge incineration system. To meet the goal of 100 percent
self-generation, the plant will install:
– A wind turbine (3.1 MW)
– Four new CHP modules (each with a capacity of around 1.2 MW)
– A solar PV system on a roof surface
– A hydrodynamic screw as part of the sewage treatment plant (around 80 kilowatts of power)
– A new steam turbine as part of the existing sludge incineration
– A thermo-sludge drying facility, which uses the sun’s energy to extract the water from the
excessively liquid sewage sludge so that it can be burned more easily, making the use of coal
for sludge conditioning unnecessary27

4.2.3 Hydropower energy recovery

Hydropower energy recovery is defined as “hydropower built using an existing,

pressurized, manmade water conveyance that is already diverting water from a nat-
ural waterway for the distribution of water for agricultural, municipal, or industrial
52 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

consumption and not primarily for the generation of electricity”. Recovering energy
from the flow of wastewater entering or leaving a treatment plant using microhy-
dropower turbines is also a viable method of energy savings at plants with large
flows rates. Hydropower energy recovery is cost-effective because it is constructed
utilising existing infrastructure. The main driver for this type of hydropower is the
opportunity for water utilities to lower operational costs by offsetting energy use
costs with on-site hydropower generation.28,29

Case 4.8: Sydney Water’s hydro power generation from wastewater

Sydney Water generates 21 percent of its total energy needs through its renewable energy projects
with the aim of keeping the amount of electricity used below pre-1998 levels, even with an increas-
ing population and higher processing standards. One source of renewable energy utilised is hydro
power generation. The utility has installed hydro power generation at its North Head Wastewater
Treatment Plant, at its Prospect Water Filtration Plant, on the Warragamba pipeline, and on a pipe-
line from Woronora Dam. At the wastewater treatment plant, treated wastewater passes down a
long drop shaft on its way to a deep ocean outfall. This energy is captured from a hydro-electric
generator. The energy produced is enough to power 1,000 homes and will be used to power around
40 percent of the plant.30,31

4.3 Energy efficiency

There are various opportunities for improving energy efficiency in wastewater facil-
ities through equipment upgrades (replacing items with more efficient ones), opera-
tional modifications (reducing the amount of energy required to perform specific
functions), and modifications to facility buildings (reducing the amount of energy
consumed by facility buildings themselves). In the wastewater collection and treat-
ment process, there are opportunities to increase energy efficiency, including:
– Improving efficiency of aeration equipment and anaerobic digestion
– Implementing cogeneration and other onsite renewable power options
– Implementing lighting, HVAC improvements
– Fixing leaks
– Installing software
– Using efficient pumping systems (pumps, motors, variable frequency drives)
– Recycling water

In the treated wastewater discharge process, there are opportunities to:

– Use efficient pumping systems (pumps, motors, variable frequency drives)
– Capture energy from water moving downhill32,33
 4.4 Benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency 53

Case 4.9: Thames Water identifying energy savings at its wastewater treatment plant
Thames Water evaluated its wastewater treatment plant in Beckton to find potential energy sav-
ings. Already, the plant generates more than 50 percent of its energy from renewable sources, in-
cluding wind and biogas. However, the plant still had an energy bill of more than £9 million per
annum in electricity from the National Grid. The newer aeration lanes in activated plant four (ASP4)
was found to have the greatest potential for energy savings. Savings was achieved in a few areas,
including the doubling of the number of dissolved oxygen (DO) monitors to ASP4 and improving
the efficiency of the blower that pumps air into the tanks. Cost savings were achieved by continu-
ously measuring DO to ensure the right conditions for maximum efficiency as well as efficient
blower control. This real-time control equipment constantly monitors and adjusts the process to
ensure it runs under optimal conditions, using only the minimum amount of energy.34

4.4 Benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency

Some of the benefits of implementing renewable energy schemes and improving en-
ergy efficiency include:
– Reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions: Increasing the use of re-
newable energy and improving energy efficiency can help reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and air pollutants by decreasing consumption of fossil fuel-
based energy. Fossil fuel combustion also generates sulphur dioxide and nitro-
gen oxide emissions. These pollutants can lead to smog, acid rain, and airborne
particulate matter that can cause respiratory health problems for many people
– Reducing energy costs: Local governments can achieve significant cost savings
by generating their own electricity and heat from renewable energy systems
and increasing their efficiency of wastewater treatment plants
– Supporting economic growth through job creation and market development:
Investing in renewable energy systems and energy efficiency can stimulate
the local economy and spur development of renewable energy system service
and energy efficiency markets. Many of these jobs are performed locally by
workers from relatively small local companies as they typically involve instal-
lation or maintenance of equipment
– Demonstrating leadership: Investing in renewable energy systems and energy
efficiency demonstrates not only responsible government stewardship of tax
revenue but also the environmental co-benefits that are obtained from reducing
energy usage. The implementation of renewable energy systems and energy ef-
ficiency measures may facilitate broader adoption of these technologies and
strategies by the private sector
– Improving energy and water security: Improving energy efficiency at wastewater
treatment plants reduces electricity demand, avoiding the risk of brownouts or
blackouts during high energy demand periods and helping avoid the need to
54 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

build new power plants, which in turn lowers water requirements to generate
electricity
– Extending the life of infrastructure/equipment: Energy-efficient equipment often
has a longer service life and requires less maintenance than older, less efficient
technologies
– Protecting public health: The deployment of renewable energy systems and im-
provements in energy efficiency at wastewater treatment plants can reduce air
and water pollution from the power plants that supply electricity to those facili-
ties. Equipment upgrades may also allow facilities to increase their capacity for
treating wastewater or improving the performance of treatment processes, re-
ducing the risk of waterborne illness35–37

4.5 Recovering resources

Numerous resources can be recovered from wastewater, including the following.

4.5.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus

Most wastewaters are relatively diluted, yet their high volumes provide opportuni-
ties to recover a sizeable amount of nutrients.38

4.5.1.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogenous materials present in the sewage can be removed from sewage effluent and
converted into biomass through activated secondary treatment processes. Fertiliser
grade ammonium sulphate can be produced from the high ammonia-nitrogen con-
centration sidestreams from sludge digestion processes by stripping and absorp-
tion. The stripping of ammonia can be done by steam (steam is blown through the
water, and after condensation, a concentrated ammonia solution is produced) or air
(air is bubbled through wastewater and takes up the gaseous ammonia). Zeolites and
other minerals such as clay can be used to absorb ammonium.39,40

4.5.1.2 Phosphorus
Resource recovery technologies applied to wastewater are generally focused on
phosphorus recovery from the biosolids accumulated after the treatment of the
main process stream or on sidestreams that have enriched phosphorus because of bio-
logical accumulation. The simplest form of beneficial reuse of the recovered phospho-
rus from sewage treatment is through the land application of biosolids, which can take
the form of composted biosolids, alkaline stabilised biosolids, heat-dried pellets, char,
or ashes.41
 4.5 Recovering resources 55

4.5.1.3 Struvite recovery

Struvite is mainly known as a scale deposit that naturally occurs under the specific
condition of pH and mixing energy in specific areas of wastewater treatment plants,
for example, pipes and heat exchanges, when concentrations of magnesium phos-
phate and ammonia approach an equimolar ratio 1:1:1. However, rather than stru-
vite being a concern to wastewater treatment plants (pipeline blockages and higher
plant-wide nutrient load), it can be recovered to reduce phosphorus levels in efflu-
ents while simultaneously generating a valuable by-product such as a slow-release
fertiliser or raw material for the chemical industry.42,43

Case 4.10: Welsh Water maximising biosolids on farms

Welsh Water provides cost-effective and sustainable biosolids to farmers from the utility’s ad-
vanced anaerobic digestion facilities – Port Talbot, Cardiff, Hereford, and Wrexham. The utility pro-
vides a variety of services to farmers to help agricultural customers fully utilise the potential for
biosolids (Table 4.1). In addition to biosolids enhancing the water holding capacity of the soil, the
recycling of biosolids uses less energy than intensive mineral fertiliser production, providing an
alternative that reduces carbon footprint.44

Table 4.1: Welsh Water’s Biosolids Services to Agriculture.

Service Description

Soil testing Before spreading every field must be tested. Every five years the
land is tested for pH, Phosphate, Potassium and Magnesium.
Every  years the soil is also tested for Cadmium, Chromium,
Copper, Mercury, Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Fluoride, Arsenic,
Selenium, and Molybdenum, ensuring fields are suitable for
using Biosolids

Guidance on utilising biosolids The utility advises on the suitability and timings regarding
in the farm system incorporation into cropping and grazing systems to ensure
compliance with regulations outlined by regulators

Agronomic Advisory Service Welsh Water has in-house Fertiliser Advisor Certification and
Training Scheme (FACTS) qualified advisors and offers free
no-obligation advice on incorporating biosolids into a farm’s
nutrient management plan

Year-round availability Welsh Water’s biosolids are available all year round, delivered
to farm

Stockpiling Where direct spreading is not suitable, it may be possible for

farmers to have biosolids delivered and stockpiled on-farm in
preparation for when they are ready to spread

Ongoing support Welsh Water will continually work with farmers to make sure
everything is going as planned and offer advice where needed to
get the best out of biosolids
56 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

4.5.2 Cellulose

Toilet paper often ends as fibrous particles in the wastewater treatment plant. By
using fine-mesh sieves, the cellulose fibres can be successfully removed. The cellu-
lose materials that are recovered can be used:
– To dewater the wastewater treatment plant sewage sludge
– In the production of asphalt
– As a raw material for insulation material45

Case 4.11: The cellulose recovery initiative in the Netherlands

The Scale-up of low-carbon footprint material recovery techniques in existing wastewater treatment
plants (SMART-Plant) project in Europe is aiming to prove the feasibility of circular management of
urban wastewater and environmental sustainability of the systems and co-benefits of scaling-up
water solutions through Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing approaches. The project’s
cellulose recovery initiative consists of innovative integration of dynamic fine-sieving and in-situ
post-processing that has been developed and is currently validated in the municipal wastewater
treatment plant of Geestmerambacht in the Netherlands. Filter systems have been installed, sepa-
rating cellulose fibres from toilet paper in the wastewater. The result is marketable cellulose that
has been cleaned, dried, and disinfected while the sludge is sent for post-processing inside the
treatment plant.46

4.5.3 Bioplastic

One of the most non-traditional technologies under development is the production

of biodegradable plastic using polymers isolated from biosolids. Polymers contain
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and therefore biological wastewater can
be used to make polymers. Polymers called polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) can be
produced by anaerobic bacteria by metabolising renewable organic carbon sources.
PHA polymers are biodegradable thermoplastics and can be used as a substitute for
conventional petroleum-based plastics.47

Case 4.12: World’s first kilogram of PHA from wastewater in the Netherlands
In 2015, three Dutch water authorities, Brabantse Delta, De Dommel, and Wetterskip Fryslân, in collab-
oration with STOWA (Dutch Foundation for Applied Water Research), sludge treatment plant SNB, and
two commercial parties, Veolia and KNN, produced the world’s first kilogram of PHA. It was produced
by bacteria from a wastewater treatment facility in the Dutch province of Zeeland. While the capacity
of the project is small – a few kilograms a week – the aim is to scale this up to include the total treated
wastewater volume and ultimately result in production capacity of 2,000 metric tonnes/year.48
 Notes 57

4.5.4 Bricks and tiles

Sewage sludge ash is the by-product from the combustion of dewatered sewage
sludge in an incinerator. The ash is primarily a silty material with some sand-sized
particles. The size range and properties of the ash depend on the type of incinera-
tion system and the chemical additives used in the wastewater treatment process.
The ash can be used in the brick and tile industry.49

Case 4.13: Thames Water helping create energy-efficient bricks from sewage ash
Thames Water has signed a deal with a private-sector contractor to create energy-efficient bricks
from sewage ash. Each day, wastewater enters Europe’s largest sewage works in Beckton with the
leftover solids used in the utility’s waste-to-energy incinerator. Until now the leftover ash was dis-
posed of in a landfill. Thames Water will now provide a contractor with the dried residue ash needed
to create the bricks with the ash to be reacted and mixed with carbon dioxide, water, sand, and a
small quantity of cement to form aggregate for 17-kilogram blocks. Overall, Thames Water will supply
ash to make 18,000 tonnes of the aggregate, enough to create 2.3 million heavy-duty bricks.50

4.5.5 Mining wastewater for metals

Metals can be potentially mined from wastewater, for instance, silver and cadmium
is increasingly being found in wastewater and is expensive enough to potentially
warrant recovery.51

Case 4.14: The ZERO BRINE project in the Netherlands

The ZERO BRINE project in the Netherlands aims to prove that minerals can be recovered from in-
dustrial processes for reuse in other industries. The Demineralized Water Plant, in the Botlek area
owned by EVIDES, is a large-scale demonstration of the ZERO BRINE project that uses a combina-
tion of ion exchanges and membrane technology: dissolved air flotation, reverse osmosis, and
mixed bed ion exchange. Waste heat and wastewater streams will be combined in a multi-company
site environment:
– Eliminating brine effluent (target: zero liquid discharge) of the industrial water supplier
– Recovering high purity magnesium products (target: magnesium purity >90 percent), sodium
chloride solution, and sulphate salts
– Recycling streams within the site (target: >70 percent internal recycling of materials recovered) 52

Notes

1 Manzoor Qadir et al., “Global and Regional Potential of Wastewater as a Water, Nutrient and
Energy Source,” Natural Resources Forum n/a, no. n/a (2020).
2 R.C. Brears, Developing the Circular Water Economy (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan,
2020).
58 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

3 Ranjani B. Theregowda et al., “Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater for Sustainable
Food Production Systems: An Alternative to Traditional Fertilizers,” Environmental engineering sci-
ence 36, no. 7 (2019).
4 Marta Gandiglio et al., “Enhancing the Energy Efficiency of Wastewater Treatment Plants through
Co-Digestion and Fuel Cell Systems,” Frontiers in Environmental Science 5, no. 70 (2017).
5 Brears, Developing the Circular Water Economy.
6 IEA Bioenergy, “Sustainable Biogas Production in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants,”
(2015), https://www.ieabioenergy.com/publications/sustainable-biogas-production-in-municipal-
wastewater-treatment-plants/.
7 Ahmed M. I. Yousef et al., “Upgrading Biogas by a Low-Temperature Co2 Removal Technique,”
Alexandria Engineering Journal 55, no. 2 (2016).
8 Amir I. Adnan et al., “Technologies for Biogas Upgrading to Biomethane: A Review,” Bioengineering
6, no. 4 (2019).
9 Saeid Mokhatab, William A. Poe, and John Y. Mak, “Chapter 7 – Natural Gas Treating,” in Handbook
of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing (Fourth Edition), ed. Saeid Mokhatab, William A. Poe, and
John Y. Mak (Gulf Professional Publishing, 2019).
10 R.C. Brears, “Stockholm Turning Wastewater into Resourcewater,” Mark and Focus, https://
medium.com/mark-and-focus/stockholm-turning-wastewater-into-resourcewater-6bf27e8028e5
11 NNFCC Biocentre, “Biogas,” http://www.biogas-info.co.uk/about/biogas/.
12 US EPA, “Opportunities for Combined Heat and Power at Wastewater Treatment Facilities:
Market Analysis and Lessons from the Field,” (2011), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/
2015-07/documents/opportunities_for_combined_heat_and_power_at_wastewater_treatment_facili
ties_market_analysis_and_lessons_from_the_field.pdf.
13 CHP Technical Assistance Partnerships, “Mcalpine Creek Wastewater Management Facility
1 mw Biogas Chp System,” (2019), http://www.chptap.org/Data/projects/McAlpineWWTP-Project_
Profile.pdf.
14 IEA Bioenergy, “Sustainable Biogas Production in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants”.
15 US EPA, “Food Waste to Energy: How Six Water Resource Recovery Facilities Are Boosting
Biogas Production and the Bottom Line” (2014), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-
07/documents/food_waste_to_energy_-_final.pdf.
16 Environmental Protection Department, “Food Waste/Sewage Sludge Anaerobic Co-Digestion
Trial Scheme,” https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/codi
gestion_trial_scheme.html.
17 National Biosolids Partnership, “The Potential Power of Renewable Energy Generation from
Wastewater and Biosolids Fact Sheet,” (2014), https://www.resourcerecoverydata.org/Potential_
Power_of_Renewable_Energy_Generation_From_Wastewater_and_Biosolids_Fact_Sheet.pdf.
18 Hunter Water, “Options on Energy-from-Waste Studied at Hunter Water,” https://yourvoice.
hunterwater.com.au/sustainable-wastewater/news_feed/options-on-energy-from-waste-studied-at-
hunter-water.
19 National Biosolids Partnership, “The Potential Power of Renewable Energy Generation from
Wastewater and Biosolids Fact Sheet”.
20 M.; Scoccia Aprile, R.; Dénarié, A.; Kiss, P.; Dombrovszky, M.; Gwerder, D.; Schuetz, P.;
Elguezabal, P.; Arregi, B., “District Power-to-Heat/Cool Complemented by Sewage Heat Recovery,”
Energies 12, no. 3 (2019).
21 Stirling Council, “Stirling Council and Scottish Water Horizons Join Forces for Pioneering
Renewables Project,” https://www.stirling.gov.uk/news/2018/december-2018/stirling-council-and-
scottish-water-horizons-join-forces-for-pioneering-renewables-project/
22 Scottish Water Horizons, “Low Carbon Heat. Naturally.,” (2019), https://www.scottishwaterhor
izons.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Low-carbon-heat-brochure.pdf
 Notes 59

23 Ziyang Guo et al., “Integration of Green Energy and Advanced Energy-Efficient Technologies
for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants,” International journal of environmental research and
public health 16, no. 7 (2019).
24 World Bank, “Where Sun Meets Water: Floating Solar Market Report,” (2019), http://documents.
worldbank.org/curated/en/579941540407455831/Floating-Solar-Market-Report-Executive-Summary.
25 Watercare, “New Zealand’s First Floating Solar Array Unveiled,” https://www.watercare.co.nz/
About-us/News-media/New-Zealand%E2%80%99s-first-floating-solar-array-unveiled.
26 US EPA, “On-Site Renewable Energy Generation: A Guide to Developing and Implementing
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs,” (2014), https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2018/11/
f57/onsiterenewables508.pdf.
27 R.C. Brears, “A Hybrid Sewage Power Plant,” Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/mark-and-
focus/a-hybrid-sewage-power-plant-3e86805df310
28 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Energy Recovery Hydropower: Prospects for Off-
Setting Electricity Costs for Agricultural, Municipal, and Industrial Water Providers and Users.
July 2017 – September 2017,” (2018), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy18osti/70483.pdf.
29 Christine Power, Paul Coughlan, and Aonghus McNabola, “Microhydropower Energy Recovery at
Wastewater-Treatment Plants: Turbine Selection and Optimization,” Journal of Energy Engineering
143, no. 1 (2017).
30 Sydney Water, “Innovation & Renewable Energy,” https://www.sydneywater.com.au/sw/edu
cation/water-management/innovationrenewableenergy/index.htm.
31 The Sydney Morning Herald, “First Sewage-Powered Hydro-Electric Plant in Australia,” https://
www.smh.com.au/environment/sustainability/first-sewagepowered-hydroelectric-plant-in-australia-
20100429-tvd3.html.
32 US EPA, “Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities: A Guide to Developing and
Implementing Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs,” (2013), https://www.epa.gov/sites/produc
tion/files/2015-08/documents/wastewater-guide.pdf.
33 Gandiglio et al., “Enhancing the Energy Efficiency of Wastewater Treatment Plants through Co-
Digestion and Fuel Cell.”
34 Aquatech, “Europe’s Largest Wastewater Plant Saves £500k/Year,” https://www.aquatechtrade.
com/news/wastewater/thames-water-wastewater-treatment/.
35 IEA Bioenergy, “Sustainable Biogas Production in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants”.
36 Ibrahim A. Nassar, Kholoud Hossam, and Mahmoud Mohamed Abdella, “Economic and
Environmental Benefits of Increasing the Renewable Energy Sources in the Power System,” Energy
Reports 5 (2019).
37 Jonathan J. Buonocore et al., “Climate and Health Benefits of Increasing Renewable Energy
Deployment in the United States,” Environmental Research Letters 14, no. 11 (2019).
38 Ka Leung Lam, Ljiljana Zlatanović, and Jan Peter van der Hoek, “Life Cycle Assessment of
Nutrient Recycling from Wastewater: A Critical Review,” Water Research 173 (2020).
39 IWA, “State of the Art Compendium Report on Resource Recovery from Water,” (2016),
http://www.iwa-network.org/publications/state-of-the-art-compendium-report-on-resource-recovery-
from-water/.
40 Jianyin Huang et al., “Removing Ammonium from Water and Wastewater Using Cost-Effective
Adsorbents: A Review,” Journal of Environmental Sciences 63 (2018).
41 Stewart Burn, Tim Muster, and Anna Kaksonen, Resource Recovery from Wastewater: A Research
Agenda. Werf Research Report Series (London, UNITED KINGDOM: IWA Publishing, 2014).
42 K. S. Le Corre et al., “Phosphorus Recovery from Wastewater by Struvite Crystallization: A Review,”
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 39, no. 6 (2009).
43 Bing Li et al., “Phosphorous Recovery through Struvite Crystallization: Challenges for Future
Design,” Science of The Total Environment 648 (2019).
60 Chapter 4 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater

44 Welsh Water, “Biosolids – Services to Agriculture,” https://www.dwrcymru.com/en/My-

Wastewater/Biosolids.aspx.
45 Sabine; Mulder Eijlander, Karel F, “Sanitary Systems: Challenges for Innovation,” Journal of
Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 7, no. 2 (2019).
46 SMART-Plant, “Scale-up of Low-Carbon Footprint Material Recovery Techniques in Existing
Wastewater Treatment Plants,” https://www.smart-plant.eu/index.php/cellulosecellulose-recovery.
47 Polymer Solutions, “Wastewater Put to Use Making Bioplastics,” https://www.polymersolutions.
com/blog/wastewater-put-to-use-making-bioplastics/.
48 Bioplastics Magazine, “World First – Pha from Sewage Sludge,” https://www.bioplasticsmaga
zine.com/en/news/meldungen/20151023-Sewage-based-PHA-produced.php.
49 Brears, Developing the Circular Water Economy.
50 New Civil Engineer, “Millions of Bricks to Be Made of Recycled Sewage Waste,” https://www.
newcivilengineer.com/latest/millions-of-bricks-to-be-made-of-recycled-sewage-waste/10041573.
article.
51 Brears, Developing the Circular Water Economy.
52 ZERO BRINE, “Water Plant I Netherlands,” https://zerobrine.eu/pilot-projects/netherlands/.

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US EPA. “Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities: A Guide to Developing and
Implementing Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs”. (2013). https://www.epa.gov/sites/pro
duction/files/2015-08/documents/wastewater-guide.pdf.
———. “Food Waste to Energy: How Six Water Resource Recovery Facilities Are Boosting Biogas
Production and the Bottom Line” (2014). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-
07/documents/food_waste_to_energy_-_final.pdf.
———. “On-Site Renewable Energy Generation: A Guide to Developing and Implementing
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs”. (2014). https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/
2018/11/f57/onsiterenewables508.pdf.
———. “Opportunities for Combined Heat and Power at Wastewater Treatment Facilities: Market
Analysis and Lessons from the Field”. (2011). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/
2015-07/documents/opportunities_for_combined_heat_and_power_at_wastewater_treat
ment_facilities_market_analysis_and_lessons_from_the_field.pdf.
Watercare. “New Zealand’s First Floating Solar Array Unveiled”. https://www.watercare.co.nz/
About-us/News-media/New-Zealand%E2%80%99s-first-floating-solar-array-unveiled.
Welsh Water. “Biosolids – Services to Agriculture”. https://www.dwrcymru.com/en/My-
Wastewater/Biosolids.aspx.
World Bank. “Where Sun Meets Water: Floating Solar Market Report”. (2019). http://documents.
worldbank.org/curated/en/579941540407455831/Floating-Solar-Market-Report-Executive-
Summary.
Yousef, Ahmed M. I., Yehia A. Eldrainy, Wael M. El-Maghlany, and Abdelhamid Attia. “Upgrading
Biogas by a Low-Temperature Co2 Removal Technique”. Alexandria Engineering Journal 55,
no. 2 (2016/06/01/ 2016): 1143–50.
ZERO BRINE. “Water Plant I Netherlands”. https://zerobrine.eu/pilot-projects/netherlands/.
Chapter 5
Greening of grey water infrastructure

Abstract: Traditionally, stormwater systems are designed to remove stormwater from

sites as quickly as possible to reduce on-site flooding. Many cities have implemented
these systems as part of a larger sewer system that also regulates domestic and indus-
trial wastewater. The downside of this traditional system is increased peak flows and
total discharges from storm events, enhanced delivery of nutrients, and combined
sewer overflows during wet conditions. In contrast, various green infrastructure solu-
tions are available to manage stormwater while utilising natural processes to improve
water quality.

Keywords: Stormwater, Green Infrastructure, Green Roofs, Blue Roofs, Green Streets

Introduction

Traditionally, stormwater systems, which comprise of stormwater drainpipes, kerb

inlets, access holes, culverts and so forth, are designed to remove stormwater from
sites as quickly as possible to a main river channel or nearest body of water to reduce
on-site flooding. Many cities have implemented these systems as part of a larger
sewer system that also regulates domestic and industrial wastewater. Combined
sewer systems are the most common where stormwater and wastewater is collected
in one pipe network, with the mixed water transported to a wastewater treatment
plant for cleaning before being discharged into a river or large body of water. The
downside of this traditional system is increased peak flows and total discharges
from storm events, enhanced delivery of nutrients degrading aquatic habitats in
waterways, and combined sewer overflows during wet conditions. Also, sealed surfa-
ces in urban areas are increasing peak flows, increasing downstream flooding risks
and lowering groundwater recharge rates.1 This chapter will discuss the various green
infrastructure solutions available to manage stormwater while utilising natural pro-
cesses to improve water quality.

5.1 Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting systems comprise three elements: a collection area, a convey-

ance system, and storage facilities. The collection area is typically the roof of a
house or building. A conveyance system usually consists of gutter systems or pipes
that deliver rainfall falling on the rooftop to cisterns or other storage vessels. It is
recommended that both drainpipes and roof surfaces be constructed of chemically

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-005
64 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminium, or fibreglass to avoid adverse effects.
The water is stored in a storage tank or cistern, which should be constructed of inert
material such as reinforced concrete, fibreglass, or stainless steel. The storage tank can
be constructed as part of the building or built as a separate unit to the building.
Rainwater is considered naturally clean; however, the collecting surface always
introduces contaminants such as sediments, pathogens, metals, organic matter,
and volatile organic compounds. The quality of harvested rainwater also depends
on the surrounding environment as well as the level of maintenance of the system
and storage time. As such, rainwater is usually harvested for a variety of non-
potable needs such as irrigation, laundry, and toilet flushing. The following guide-
lines should be considered when maintaining rainwater harvesting systems:
– A procedure to eliminate ‘foul flush’ after a long period of dry weather should
be considered to remove undesirable materials that have accumulated on the
roof and other surfaces between rainfalls
– The storage tank should be checked and cleaned periodically with chlorine so-
lution recommended for cleaning, followed by thorough rinsing
– Care should be taken to keep rainfall collection surfaces covered to reduce the
likelihood of mosquitoes using the cistern as a breeding ground
– Gutters and downpipes should be periodically inspected and cleaned
– Community systems require the creation of a community organisation to main-
tain them effectively 2–5

Rainwater harvesting systems are suitable in all areas as a means of augmenting

the amount of water available. The main benefits are:
– Rainwater harvesting provides a source of water at the point where it is needed.
It is owner-operated and managed
– In addition to providing an alternative source of water, rainwater harvesting sys-
tems can be used as a stormwater control system to reduce localised flooding
– It provides an essential reserve in times of emergency and/or breakdown of
public water supply systems, particularly during natural disasters
– The construction of a rooftop rainwater catchment system is simple, and the
community can be easily trained to build one, minimising its cost
– The technology is flexible. The systems can be built to meet almost any
requirements
– It can improve the engineering of building foundations when cisterns are built
as part of the substructure of the buildings, as in the case of mandatory cisterns
– The physical and chemical properties of rainwater may be superior to those of
groundwater or surface waters that may have been subjected to pollution, some-
times from unknown sources
– Running costs are low, and construction, operation, and maintenance are not
labour-intensive6,7
 5.2 Rain gardens 65

Case 5.1: City of Tucson’s rainwater harvesting rebate

Tucson Water in Arizona is providing rebates for qualifying rainwater harvesting systems up to
$2,000 per property to encourage the capture, diversion, and storage of rainwater for plant irriga-
tion. To qualify, applicants must be Tucson Water customers and attend an approved Rainwater
Harvesting Incentives Program Workshop that covers topics including:
– What rainwater harvesting is
– Best methods to conserve potable water by utilising rainwater harvesting systems
– How to develop a rainwater harvesting project plan

There are two incentives available with applicants able to apply for both, provided the total does
not exceed $2,000 for the combination per property:
1. Simple/passive rain gardens: Applicants can receive 50 percent off the costs of eligible materi-
als and labour up to $500. Passive earthworks include:
a. Directing and retaining water in landscapes
b. Using site-appropriate practices including basins, berms, terraces, swales, infiltration
trenches, and kerb cuts
2. Complex/active rain tanks: Applicants can receive a rebate covering the cost of the system
based on the gallon per capacity of the tank up to $2,0008

5.2 Rain gardens

Rain gardens are planted basins which have several functions including increasing
infiltration of runoff into the ground, improving water quality by removing pollu-
tants from the runoff, and reducing the volume of stormwater entering the storm-
water management system. Rain gardens are different to regular gardens in that
they usually are bowl- or saucer-shaped and are specially designed to collect runoff
and hold it for one or two days as the water infiltrates into the surrounding soil.
Rain gardens are often used to promote absorption and infiltration of stormwater
runoff. Generally, rain gardens are most effective on a small-scale, receiving runoff
from an area of no more than one-two acres: this is to avoid high volume flows
which would erode plant materials. Generally, rain gardens should be between 10
and 20 percent of the square footage of the area of impervious surface that they are
receiving runoff from. Rain gardens can incorporate a variety of plants including
perennials, shrubs, wildflowers, and/or grasses.
Rain gardens are often placed in areas that receive runoff from a roof or paved
area such as car parking lot islands, residential developments, commercial develop-
ments, and campuses. A typical rain garden includes a ponding area and inflow
and outflow structures. The ponding area can be a natural or artificial ground de-
pression, constructed by soil excavation, which, in the sloping ground, can be com-
bined with building an earth berm at the downslope side using the excavation
material. A mulch layer usually covers the ponding area’s bottom before topsoil is
added. If the water infiltration rate is low, a gravel layer can be constructed, or a
perforated underdrain pipe installed. Inflow structures are used to convey rainwater
66 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

from downspouts or adjacent impermeable areas, such as streets and footpaths, to

the ponding area. The construction of overflow structures allows water to exit the
rain garden when the ponding area is full, with water usually directed to the sewer
network.9,10
Rain garden maintenance is similar to that of a typical garden, including weed-
ing and re-establishing plants where necessary. Periodically removing sediment
may be required to ensure the proper functioning of these systems. Runoff can be
pre-treated via swales and/or filter strips before entering the rain garden to avoid
sediment accumulation. Plants should be selected to reduce maintenance needs
and to tolerate various weather conditions.11
In addition to managing excess runoff and improving water quality, rain gar-
dens provide a wide range of co-benefits, for instance, they can:
– Improve the aesthetics of a property and provide a natural habitat for birds,
butterflies, and beneficial insects
– Contribute to climate change adaptation by improving adaptation to more in-
tense rainfall events that are expected to increase with climate change
– Regulate urban temperatures, reducing energy demand for cooling buildings
– Contribute to groundwater recharge
– Provide educational opportunities for schools teaching classes on sustainabil-
ity and the water cycle12–15

Case 5.2: The Rain Guardians of San Francisco

Over the next 20 years, the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) will implement green
infrastructure along with the grey infrastructure to manage stormwater across the City’s eight urban
watersheds and ensure a sustainable sewer system for future generations. This is part of the Urban
Watershed Assessment which will identify green infrastructure (rain gardens, permeable pavement,
and bioswales) and grey infrastructure (pipes, tunnels, and pump stations) solutions to the City’s
sewer system challenges. In addition to public input, SFPUC will ensure the projects are of maximum
value using a Triple Bottom Line analysis tool that will assess each project’s community, environ-
mental, and economic benefits. Some immediate benefits identified from implementing green in-
frastructure include improving streets for cyclists and pedestrians, creating open public spaces,
and beautifying neighbourhoods. SFPUC has launched the Rain Guardians Program to maximise
the benefits of its green infrastructure, foster community engagement, and ensure they are effec-
tively managed. Like the utility’s Adopt-a-Drain Program, the Rain Guardians Program enables
San Francisco residents or businesses to become ‘guardians’ of SFPUC’s new rain gardens. Rain
gardens are a green infrastructure solution that uses the natural processes of soils and plants to
slow down and purify stormwater as well as keep it from overwhelming the City’s sewer system.
Rain gardens are typically depressed below the street level so stormwater can easily flow in and be
treated by the plants and soils. With rain gardens often becoming a depository for rubbish year-
round, Rain Guardians will regularly remove the rubbish and report any other issues.16
 5.3 Bioswales 67

5.3 Bioswales

Bioswales are strips of vegetated areas that redirect and filter stormwater. A typical
bioswale is a long, linear strip in an urban setting used to collect runoff from large
impermeable surfaces such as roads and car parks. Bioswales have an inlet and out-
let. When it rains, the inlet lets the water flowing down the street into the bioswale.
The outlet is the kerb-cut closest to the catch basin. During heavy rain events, the
bioswale may fill to its capacity, with the outlet letting excess water flow out of the
bioswale so that it can flow into the catchment basin. Beneath the bioswale is layers
that include sandy soils and stones that store stormwater and allow it to seep into
the ground gradually. The trees and plants also absorb the stormwater and release
it through evapotranspiration.
Bioswales are mainly constructed just upstream of the catch basins so that by
design they can partially collect the stormwater flowing down the street and foot-
path before it goes into the catch basin and then into the sewer system. By partially
catching stormwater in the bioswale first, the water can be used as a resource to
help trees and plants grow, rather than overwhelm the sewer system. There are two
types of bioswales commonly used:
– Dry bioswales: These provide both quantity (volume) and quality control by fa-
cilitating stormwater infiltration
– Wet bioswales: These use residence time and natural growth to reduce peak
discharge and provide water quality treatment. A wet bioswale typically has
water-tolerant vegetation permanently growing in the body of water17–19

In addition to managing excess stormwater runoff, bioswales provide a range of co-

benefits including:
– Limiting the flow of water into centralised wastewater systems, therefore, reduc-
ing energy consumption and carbon emissions in wastewater treatment plants
– Increasing biodiversity in urban areas with the vegetation providing a diversity
of flora that serves as a habitat for fauna
– Promoting the use of locally available construction materials
– Reducing the urban heat island effect
– Improving groundwater recharge
– Removing contaminants from stormwater
– Helping avoid polluted water from entering groundwater20–22

5.3.1 Maintenance of bioswales

The five main categories of care to ensure bioswales operate as they are intended
are listed in Table 5.1.23
68 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

Table 5.1: Maintaining Bioswales.

Maintenance Category Description

Communicate The difference between bioswales and regular tree pits should be
communicated to residents. There should be an explanation of what
they are and how they work. The more people are informed about
bioswales, the better care they will take of them and the greater the
acceptance of future green infrastructure systems

Remove rubbish Bioswales can quickly accumulate debris and litter with rubbish
easily washing in from the street, blown in from the wind, or thrown
in by people. This rubbish can clog the inlets and outlets and prevent
the bioswale from collecting water properly

Inspect the soil and plants The soil and plants are specifically chosen to help bioswales manage
stormwater. They should be inspected to make sure they are working
in the way they are supposed to. Signs of soil erosion should be
checked for following storms and vegetative health assessed with
healthy bioswales containing healthy and dense plants

Weed often Frequently weeding is essential for keeping the plants healthy.
Weeds are not only unsightly, but they crowd the plants, making it
hard for them to absorb water and grow strong. Weeding should be
done at least once a month during the growing season

Sufficient water for when it Even though bioswales are designed to collect rainwater, they may
is hot or dry need additional water during hot and dry periods. Watering is
necessary for the plant root systems to become established and grow

Case 5.3: Network of bioswales in Kallang River @ Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park, Singapore
Kallang River at Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park is a collaboration between the Public Utilities Board (PUB)
and the National Parks Board to turn a concrete canal into a picturesque river teeming with life. Under
the Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters Programme, a combination of plants, natural materials, and civil
engineering techniques were introduced to soften the edges of the waterway, give it a natural appear-
ance, and prevent soil erosion. With the river renaturalised, wildlife has been attracted to the area.
The river channel itself was designed based on a flood plain concept and is linked to a network of
drains in the City. During dry weather, the flow of water is confined to a narrow stream in the middle
of the river. During a storm event, the adjacent park area doubles up as a conveyance channel, carry-
ing the rainwater downstream gradually. In the open lawn area of the park, there is a network of bio-
swales that are used to reduce surface runoff as well as filter contaminants.24

5.4 Floodwater detention and retention basins

A basin is an area that has been designed and designated for the temporary or per-
manent retention of floodwaters during a rain or storm event. There are two types
 5.5 Green roofs 69

of basins, the main difference being the presence or absence of a permanent pool of
water, or pond:
– Detention, or dry, basins: These retain water only during storm events, releasing
the water later at a controlled rate until the basin is empty. The basin remains
dry between rain events
– Retention, or wet, basins: These retain a permanent pool of water, like a pond,
irrespective of storm events and so they are wet year-round. They provide addi-
tional storage capacity above the permanent pool for the temporary storage of
runoff. The depth of a wet basin is often based on water quality considerations,
and so wet basins also act as water treatment devices25

In most cases, detention and retention basins have outlet openings that remain fixed;
called static control, with the discharge rate varying according to water height but is
not controlled otherwise. This static operation can be changed to a dynamic opera-
tion by controlling, in real-time, the opening of the outlet gate. The discharge rate, as
well as the filling and emptying rates and volumes, can be controlled in real-time ac-
cording to pre-established rules and weather and/or hydraulic conditions. Real-time
control can delay the peak flow and discharge the water at times when the environ-
ment receiving the runoff has a better capacity to do so. Real-time control can also be
predictive when seeking optimal solutions for discharge rates. For example, using
rainfall forecasts generated by weather radars and hydrological/hydraulic models al-
lows the system to anticipate the volume of water generated by the next rainfall
event and empty the basin at the appropriate time.26
In addition to managing excess stormwater, detention and retention basins can
improve water quality with treatment processes available including filtration, sedi-
mentation, irradiation (UV/sun exposure), biological treatment, and plant uptake
depending on the design components included in these basins.27

Case 5.4: City of Toronto’s Earl Bales Stormwater Management Pond

The Earl Bales Stormwater Management Pond is one of the largest stormwater management ponds in
Canada, covering 3.2 hectares with a depth of around three metres. It has the capacity to manage
and treat 90 percent of total annual stormwater runoff from a 550-hectare catchment area that in-
cludes residential and industrial development. The pond helps prevent erosion along 2.5 kilometres
of ravine system, protecting the urban forest and sewer infrastructure. The pond’s water also pro-
vides recreational benefits with it being used for irrigation of a golf course in the summer and snow-
making on the Earl Bales ski hill in the winter, reducing demand for water from the West Don River.28

5.5 Green roofs

Green roofs consist of a layer of vegetation that covers an otherwise conventional

flat or moderately pitched roof. Green roofs are composed of multiple layers which
70 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

can include a waterproofing roof protection layer, moisture interception layer,

drainage layer, leak detection layer, engineered planting medium, and specialised
plants. By appropriately selecting materials, green roofs can effectively reduce both
flow peak and volume in urban drainage networks.29 Green roofs can be used on a
variety of roofs including on terraces and high-rise building roofs. Generally, any
roof that has a pitch up to 16.7 percent can accommodate green roofs without spe-
cial slope stabilisation provisions. There are two types of green roofs:
– Extensive green roofs: These are thin (usually less than six inches), lightweight
systems that are mainly planted with succulents, drought-tolerant ground cov-
ering plants, and grass
– Intensive green roofs: These are deeper (usually greater than six inches), heavier
systems that are designed to sustain complex landscapes

The typical components of green roofs include:

– Inlet control component: Green roofs that receive direct rainfall do not have
inlet controls. For green roofs that receive runoff from roof directly connected
impervious area, inlet control systems may convey and control the flow of
stormwater from the contributing catchment area to the green roof
– Storage area component: Green roof storage areas temporarily hold stormwater
before it can either be used by plants through evapotranspiration or be released
downstream. Storage areas for green roofs are usually composed of:
– Growing medium: This supports plant growth and provides for storage of
stormwater within voids. The storage capacity is a function of medium
depth, surface area, and total void space
– Filter or separation fabric or geotextile: This prevents migration of soil into
the underlying drainage layer of the green roof
– Drainage layer: This can incorporate measures to intercept and retain per-
colated rainfall as it moves through the green roof storage area
– Moisture interception layers/roof barriers: These are impermeable liners that
protect the underlying roof deck from moisture and plant root intrusion
– Underlying roofing system: This typically consists of a structural deck, its
supporting structures, and a traditional overlaying waterproofing system
– Vegetation component: Green roof plant material take up much of the water
that falls on the roof during a storm event. It mitigates wind and water erosion,
transpires captured moisture back into the atmosphere, and provides evapora-
tive cooling. Plant materials also collect particulate matter and create oxygen.
Some green roofs may have an irrigation system to support plant growth during
dry periods
– Outlet control component: Outlet controls can include risers, edge drains, scup-
pers, gutters, or impervious liners
 5.6 Blue roofs 71

– Inspection and maintenance access component: Safe and comfortable inspection of

all major components within a green roof is critical to ensuring its long-term per-
formance. Depending on the roof height and slope, access components may con-
sist of permanent or temporary safety monitoring systems, guardrails and safety
net systems, warning line systems, and/or personal fall arrest systems. There may
also be a long-term leak detection system for locating and managing leaks

In addition to managing excess stormwater runoff, green roofs provide a wide vari-
ety of co-benefits, including:
– Enhanced building aesthetics and market value
– Regulated building temperature in both the summer and winter, therefore re-
ducing cooling and heating costs
– Reduced urban heat island effect by providing evaporative cooling
– Improved air quality by filtering particulate matter
– Extended service life of roofs by protecting the underlying roof membrane from
mechanical damage, shielding it from UV radiation, and buffering temperature
extremes
– Increased recreational space
– Opportunities for food production
– A wildlife habitat
– Educational resource30–36

5.6 Blue roofs

Blue roofs are detention systems that provide temporary storage and slow release of
rainwater on a rooftop. Blue roofs can effectively control runoff from buildings with
flat or mildly sloping roof surfaces. Typically, water is temporarily detained on the
roof surface using rooftop check dams or rain drain restrictors. The outflow is con-
trolled and is usually directed to the building’s storm drains, scuppers or down-
spouts. The typical components of a blue roof include:
– Inlet control component: Blue roofs that only receive direct rainfall do not have
inlet controls. For blue roofs that receive runoff from adjacent roof directly con-
nected impervious area, including additional roof levels, inlet control systems
convey and control the flow of stormwater from the contributing catchment
area to the blue roof
– Storage area component: Blue roofs temporarily hold stormwater until it can ei-
ther evaporate or be released downstream at a controlled rate
– The area dedicated to storage is dependent on the chosen blue roof system
type:
– Storage in roof drain restrictor systems: Storage is determined by the roof
slope and geometry relative to the height of both the restrictors and
72 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

parapets. The bulk volume occupied by all building mechanical systems

and so on need to be factored into the storage volume calculations
– Storage in roof check dam systems: Storage is determined by the roof
slope and associated area dedicated to ponding behind the dams. The
bulk volume occupied by all building mechanical systems and so on
needs to be factored into the storage volume calculations
– In all types of blue roofs, a waterproofing membrane underlies blue roof
areas with numerous types of systems existing including modified bitumen
roofing, synthetic rubber membranes, thermoplastic membranes and so forth
– Outlet control component: Outlet controls within a blue roof system can provide
a range of functions including meeting drain downtime requirements, control-
ling the rate of discharge and limiting water surface elevations during various
storm events, and bypassing of flows from large storm events
– Inspection and maintenance access component: Depending on roof height and
slope, blue roof inspection and maintenance access components may consist of
permanent or temporary safety monitoring systems, guardrail and safety net
systems, warning line systems, and/or personal fall arrest systems. There may
also be a long-term leak detection system for locating and managing leaks37

Case 5.5: Amsterdam’s blue-green roofs

With European Union-Urban Innovative Action funding, Amsterdam’s Project RESILIO aims to realise
10,000 square metres of blue-green roofs in four city districts, with at least 8,000 square metres
sited on social housing rooftops. The consortium of both public and private partners aims to build
an interconnected network of smart roofs, in which sensors and state-of-the-art equipment enable
micro-water management on rooftops. Specifically, in the first phase of the project, singular blue-
green roofs will be built with smart flow controls that anticipate heavy rain or drought, releasing or
retaining water accordingly. In the second phase, the project will build a smart grid of blue-green
roofs enabling real-time data exchange for dynamic water levels, allowing remote regulation of
rooftop water levels based on weather forecasts and water management settings. In addition to
reducing the impacts of heavy rain, the blue-green roofs will reduce the urban heat island effect,
mitigate droughts, improve building insulation, and enhance biodiversity and quality of life.38

5.7 Permeable pavements

Permeable pavements are a stormwater practice designed to manage stormwater

runoff. Permeable pavements are alternative paving surfaces that allow stormwater
runoff to filter through voids in the pavement surface into an underlying stone reser-
voir, where the runoff is temporarily stored or infiltrated. These systems eliminate the
need for construction of side drainage for collecting the stormwater. Permeable pave-
ments also improve runoff quality as well as minimise the discharge of harmful pollu-
tants to surface water bodies. Permeable pavements are usually limited to parking
 5.7 Permeable pavements 73

lots, basic access streets, and recreation areas which carry light vehicles or slow-
moving traffic. There are four main types of categories of permeable pavement, as
listed below, while Table 5.2 lists the components underneath the permeable pave-
ment surface:
1. Porous pavement: This includes one or more layers of porous asphalt underlain
by a choke-stone layer or treated base layer and aggregate base/sub-base reser-
voir. The layer depth is based on structural load, stormwater requirements, and
frost depth requirements. The porous asphalt surface void space usually ranges
from 18–25 percent, and surface permeability ranges from 170 to 500 inches/hour
2. Pervious concrete: This consists of a hydraulic cementitious binding system
combined with an open-graded aggregate to produce a rigid, durable pavement.
Pervious concrete pavement typically has 15–25 percent interconnected void
space and a surface permeability of 300 to 2,000 inches/hour
3. Permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP): This consists of manufactured
concrete units that form permeable voids and joints when assembled into a lay-
ing pattern. The joints allow stormwater to flow into a crushed stone aggregate
bedding layer and base/sub-base reservoir that support the pavers. The joints
usually comprise 5–15 percent of the paver surface area and maintain surface
permeability of 400–600 inches/hour
4. Others (such as grid pavement systems): Grid pavements are composed of concrete
or plastic open-celled paving units. The cells or openings penetrate the full thick-
ness so they can accommodate aggregate, topsoil or grass. Surface void space
ranges from 20–75 percent. Surface permeability depends on the fill material and
ranges from 30 to 40 inches/hour for sand, 200 to 400 inches/hour for aggregate,
and one to two inches/hour for grass fill

Table 5.2: Components Below Permeable Pavement Surfaces.

Component Description

Bedding layer Used for pavers so they can be laid flat

Choker layer A layer of small rock to prevent fine material from migrating into the
reservoir layer

Reservoir layer Stone to hold excess water until it infiltrates

Underdrain Conveys excess water into the drainage system when the reservoir fills

Filter layer/geotextile A layer of stone or permeable geotextile to separate the reservoir layer
from the soil below and prevent migration of fines into the reservoir layer

Impermeable liner Prevents infiltration into subgrade or adjacent roadway structural section

Uncompacted subgrade Existing soil into which stormwater infiltrates

74 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

Permeable pavements provide a range of environmental benefits, including:

– Reduced flows to storm sewer systems and streams
– Increased groundwater recharge
– Decreased and delayed peak discharge
– Reduced pollutants and improved water quality
– Reduced urban heat island effect39–42

Case 5.6: The largest permeable pavement retrofit in North America

In 2015–2016, the City of Atlanta, Georgia, Department of Watershed Management partnered with a
private sector partner to install over four miles of PICP, the largest permeable pavement retrofit
project in North America. With $16 million of funding, the Department of Watershed Management
excavated streets upstream of flood-prone areas to use permeable pavers and the water storage
capacity of deep aggregate reservoirs beneath them to provide downpipe capacity relief. The four
miles of permeable pavers provide four million gallons of capacity relief. The permeable pavers
chosen are designed to withstand vehicular travel in high-traffic areas and provide long-term dura-
bility in harsh climates, particularly those with extreme freeze/thaw cycles.43

5.8 Green streets

Green streets use green infrastructure practices installed within the public right-of-
way to manage stormwater while preserving the primary function of a street as a
conduit for vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, and transit riders. Green streets also re-
duce contaminants from entering local waterways, improving water quality. The
various types of green infrastructure commonly used in transitways, boulevards,
main neighbourhood streets, commercial and residential shared streets, green al-
leys, industrial streets, and so forth, are listed below. At the same time, Table 5.3
provides a summary of the multiple benefits green streets provide.

5.8.1 Stormwater planters

A stormwater planter is a specialised, landscaped planter installed in the footpath

area and are designed to manage stormwater runoff. Runoff is routed to the planter
by setting the top of the planting media in the planter lower than the street’s gutter
elevation and connecting the planter to one or more inlets, allowing stormwater
runoff from the street to flow into the planter. Runoff from the adjacent footpath
can flow directly into the stormwater planter from the surface. Plantings are incor-
porated within the system to provide uptake of water and pollutants.
 5.8 Green streets 75

Table 5.3: Benefits of Green Streets.

Street User Green Street Benefit

People walking – Make the walking environment more inviting and pleasant by reducing the
temperature, attenuating noise, and improving air quality
– Calm traffic and improve safety conditions
– High-quality public gathering spaces with natural features improve
mental health and create opportunities for community development and
social cohesion

People using – Green infrastructure can be integrated into transit facilities, including
transit traffic islands to improve natural drainage near transit stops
– Transit shelters and facility roofs can incorporate green infrastructure
– Green infrastructure can be incorporated alongside cycleways to improve
drainage and increase cycling comfort and access during and after
storms
– Permeable pavement can be implemented on cycle lanes and raised
cycle tracks to reduce the time required for the pavement to dry
– Planters or vegetation may be incorporated into protected cycleway
buffer elements to increase ride comfort and reduce stress

People driving – Green infrastructure can capture runoff and reduce flooding and
motor vehicles ponding, promoting safer driving conditions
– Green infrastructure can be implemented with geometric changes that
reduce vehicle speed and improve visibility

People conducting – Success and viability of commercial districts and neighbourhood shops
business depends on the ability of people to access and use streets comfortably
– Economic performance is tied to the comfort and attractiveness of
streets, with environments with green infrastructure performing better
– Green infrastructure can increase property value

5.8.2 Stormwater bump-outs

A stormwater bump-out is a landscape kerb extension that extends the existing kerb
line into the cartway. It is designed to manage stormwater runoff by setting the top of
the planting media in the bump-out lower than the street’s gutter elevation and con-
necting the bump-out to one or more inlets, allowing stormwater runoff from the street
to flow into the bump-outs. Runoff from the adjacent footpath can flow directly into
the stormwater bump-out from the surface. Stormwater bump-outs capture, slow, and
infiltrate stormwater within a planted area or subsurface stone bed. Plantings take up
some of the stormwater through their root systems, and the remaining stormwater is
temporarily stored within the kerb extension until it either infiltrates or drains back to
the sewer.
76 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

5.8.3 Stormwater tree

A stormwater tree is a street tree planted in a specialised tree pit installed in the
footpath area. It is designed to manage stormwater runoff by placing the top of the
planting media in the tree pit lower than the street’s gutter elevation and connect-
ing the tree pit to an inlet, allowing stormwater runoff from the street to flow into
the tree pit. Runoff from the adjacent footpath can flow directly into the tree pit
from the footpath surface. If the stormwater tree pit reaches capacity, runoff can
bypass the inlet and enter other downstream green infrastructure or a storm drain.

5.8.4 Stormwater tree trench

A stormwater tree trench is a subsurface trench installed in the footpath area that
includes a series of trees along a section or the total length of the subsurface
trench. It manages stormwater runoff by connecting the subsurface trench to one
or more inlets, allowing runoff from the street and footpath to flow into the sub-
surface trench. The runoff is stored in the empty spaces between the stones or other
storage media in the trench, watering the trees and slowly infiltrating through the
trench bottom.

5.8.5 Green car parking lots

Green car parking lots incorporate a variety of green infrastructure design elements,
including trees, dispersion areas, bioinfiltration, and permeable pavement. These
strategies use natural processes to reduce the volume of runoff, peak flow, and pol-
lutants. In particular:
– Trees: Trees intercept water on leaves, slowly delivering it to mulch and soils,
absorbing it through root systems, and transpiring it as water vapour directly
back to the atmosphere
– Dispersion areas: Dispersion areas disconnect impervious areas from directly
running to the storm drainage system. Dispersion areas use the natural func-
tions of plants, mulch, and soils to slow stormwater runoff and remove pollu-
tants. This strategy uses storage, sediment capture, and biological processes to
clean the water
– Bioinfiltration: Bioinfiltration facilities are vegetated surface water systems that
filter water through vegetation and soil or bioinfiltration soil media before dis-
charge to the storm drain system. They also use shallow depressions to provide
storage and evapotranspiration44–52
 5.9 Multifunctional spaces 77

Case 5.7: The Toronto Green Streets Technical Guidelines

The Toronto Green Streets Technical Guidelines, generated after a consultation process involving var-
ious City departments, the utility and service providers, and the City of Toronto Complete Streets
team, provide new standards for the development of green streets that manage stormwater while
providing significant benefits, including:
– Relieving urban pressures on ecological systems
– Improving air quality
– Achieving energy efficiency
– Enhancing water quality while ensuring the City’s streets remain efficient conduits for vital
infrastructure and beautiful
– Functional corridors for pedestrians, transportation, and transit53

5.9 Multifunctional spaces

Multifunctional spaces, including streets, parking spaces, green spaces, sports

grounds, and playgrounds can be used for short-term retention and/or transportation
of runoff peaks during extreme precipitation events. These multifunctional spaces
provide numerous benefits, including:
– Reductions in impervious areas
– Infiltration of runoff from paved areas and rooftops
– Public education opportunities
– Provision of shade when trees are used
– Improved habitat for wildlife
– Creation of a more welcoming environment
– Creation of park-like areas54,55

Case 5.8: Flood Water Retention for the City of Winterthur, Switzerland
The City of Winterthur is at risk of floodwater from the Eulach river. To mitigate the risk of flooding
in the city centre, a new retention area will provide protection from one-in-30-year floods. As the
Eulach reaches a critical level, some of the water will be diverted via an underground diversion
structure onto the land of the gliding airfield and the Hegmatten football facilities where it will be
held back with a 10.5-kilometres-long embankment that is up to 10 metres high in some places.
The underground diversion structure with its supply channel to the retention area will be built in
the middle of a residential area. The underground diversion structure will be as wide as a four-lane
motorway and 100 metres-long, while the supply channel will be five metres-wide and nearly
400 metres-long.56
78 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

Notes

1 R.C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban
Water Resources (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018).
2 Violet Kisakye and Bart Van der Bruggen, “Effects of Climate Change on Water Savings and
Water Security from Rainwater Harvesting Systems,” Resources, Conservation and Recycling 138
(2018).
3 Mohammad A. Alim et al., “Suitability of Roof Harvested Rainwater for Potential Potable Water
Production: A Scoping Review,” Journal of Cleaner Production 248 (2020).
4 N. İpek Şahin and Gülten Manioğlu, “Water Conservation through Rainwater Harvesting Using
Different Building Forms in Different Climatic Regions,” Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019).
5 B. Helmreich and H. Horn, “Opportunities in Rainwater Harvesting,” Desalination 248, no. 1 (2009).
6 Jennifer Steffen et al., “Water Supply and Stormwater Management Benefits of Residential
Rainwater Harvesting in U.S. Cities,” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association
49, no. 4 (2013).
7 UNEP, “Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America
and the Caribbean,” https://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch20.htm#2.1%20desalina
tion%20by%20reverse%20osmosis.
8 City of Tucson, “Rainwater Harvesting Rebate,” https://www.tucsonaz.gov/water/rainwater-
harvesting-rebate.
9 Aikaterini Basdeki, Lysandros Katsifarakis, and Konstantinos L. Katsifarakis, “Rain Gardens as
Integral Parts of Urban Sewage Systems-a Case Study in Thessaloniki, Greece,” Procedia Engineering
162 (2016).
10 Laurène Autixier et al., “Evaluating Rain Gardens as a Method to Reduce the Impact of Sewer
Overflows in Sources of Drinking Water,” Science of The Total Environment 499 (2014).
11 City of Chicago, “City of Chicago Bioinfiltration Rain Gardens,” https://www.chicago.gov/city/
en/depts/water/supp_info/conservation/green_design/bioinfiltration_raingardens.html.
12 Naturally Resilient Communities, “Rain Gardens,” http://nrcsolutions.org/rain-gardens/.
13 Natural Water Retention Measures, “Rain Gardens,” (2015), http://nwrm.eu/measure/rain-
gardens.
14 Siwiec Ewelina, Erlandsen Anne Maren, and Vennemo Haakon, “City Greening by Rain Gardens –
Costs and Benefits,” Environmental Protection and Natural Resources; The Journal of Institute of
Environmental Protection-National Research Institute. 29, no. 1 (2018).
15 Sarah P. Church, “Exploring Green Streets and Rain Gardens as Instances of Small Scale Nature
and Environmental Learning Tools,” Landscape and Urban Planning 134 (2015).
16 SFPUC, “San Francisco Rain Guardians,” https://sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=1190.
17 University of Florida, “Bioswales/Vegetated Swales,” (2008), http://buildgreen.ufl.edu/Fact_
sheet_bioswales_Vegetated_Swales.pdf.
18 Brears, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources.
19 Nature-Based Solutions to 21st Century Challenges (Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 2020).
20 CTCN, “Bioswales,” (2017), https://www.ctc-n.org/resources/bioswales.
21 A. Rebecca Purvis et al., “Evaluating the Water Quality Benefits of a Bioswale in Brunswick
County, North Carolina (Nc), USA,” Water 10, no. 2 (2018).
22 Brian S. Anderson et al., “Bioswales Reduce Contaminants Associated with Toxicity in Urban
Storm Water,” Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 35, no. 12 (2016).
23 G. Everett et al., “Delivering Green Streets: An Exploration of Changing Perceptions and Behaviours
over Time around Bioswales in Portland, Oregon,” Journal of Flood Risk Management 11, no. S2 (2018).
 Notes 79

24 PUB, “Kallang River @ Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park,” https://www.pub.gov.sg/abcwaters/explore/

bishanangmokiopark.
25 Naturally Resilient Communities, “Floodwater Detention and Retention Basins,” (2017), http://
nrcsolutions.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/NRC_Solutions_Retention_Basins.pdf.
26 Karine Bilodeau, Geneviève Pelletier, and Sophie Duchesne, “Real-Time Control of Stormwater
Detention Basins as an Adaptation Measure in Mid-Size Cities,” Urban Water Journal 15, no. 9
(2018).
27 David B. E. Pezzaniti, Simon Gche M. E. PhD Beecham, and Jaya M. E. PhD Kandasamy,
“Stormwater Detention Basin for Improving Road-Runoff Quality,” Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers 165, no. 9 (2012).
28 City of Toronto, “Earl Bales Stormwater Management Pond,” https://www.toronto.ca/services-
payments/water-environment/managing-rain-melted-snow/what-the-city-is-doing-stormwater-
management-projects/other-stormwater-management-projects/stormwater-ponds/earl-bales-
stormwater-management-pond/.
29 Giulia Ercolani et al., “Evaluating Performances of Green Roofs for Stormwater Runoff Mitigation
in a High Flood Risk Urban Catchment,” Journal of Hydrology 566 (2018).
30 Muhammad Shafique, Reeho Kim, and Muhammad Rafiq, “Green Roof Benefits, Opportunities
and Challenges – a Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018).
31 Philadelphia Water Department, “Stormwater Management Practice Guidance,” (2018), https://
www.pwdplanreview.org/manual-info/guidance-manual.
32 Lotte Fjendbo Møller Francis and Marina Bergen Jensen, “Benefits of Green Roofs: A Systematic
Review of the Evidence for Three Ecosystem Services,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 28 (2017).
33 Shafique, Kim, and Rafiq, “Green Roof Benefits, Opportunities and Challenges – a Review.”
34 Ahmet B. Besir and Erdem Cuce, “Green Roofs and Facades: A Comprehensive Review,” ibid.82.
35 Virginia Stovin, “The Potential of Green Roofs to Manage Urban Stormwater,” Water and
Environment Journal 24, no. 3 (2010).
36 T. Susca, S. R. Gaffin, and G. R. Dell’Osso, “Positive Effects of Vegetation: Urban Heat Island
and Green Roofs,” Environmental Pollution 159, no. 8 (2011).
37 Philadelphia Water Department, “Stormwater Management Practice Guidance”.
38 Urban Innovation Actions, “Resilio – Resilience Network of Smart Innovative Climate-Adapative
Rooftops,” https://www.uia-initiative.eu/en/uia-cities/amsterdam.
39 Shadi Saadeh et al., “Application of Fully Permeable Pavements as a Sustainable Approach for
Mitigation of Stormwater Runoff,” International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology
(2019).
40 Masoud Kayhanian et al., “Application of Permeable Pavements in Highways for Stormwater
Runoff Management and Pollution Prevention: California Research Experiences,” ibid.
41 Transportation Research Board, Engineering National Academies of Sciences, and Medicine,
Guidance for Usage of Permeable Pavement at Airports, ed. James Bruinsma, et al. (Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press, 2017).
42 San Diego County, “Green Parking Lots Guidelines: A Guide to Green Parking Lots Implementation
in the County of San Diego” (2019), https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/dam/sdc/dpw/
WATERSHED_PROTECTION_PROGRAM/watershedpdf/Dev_Sup/GPL_Guidelines_2019.pdf.
43 Belgrade, “Belgard Partners with the City of Atlanta for the Largest Permeable Pavement
Project,” https://www.belgardcommercial.com/resources/news_and_articles/belgard_partners_
with_the_city_of_atlanta.
44 Philadelphia Water Department, “City of Philadelphia Green Streets Design Manual,” (2014),
http://www.phillywatersheds.org/img/GSDM/GSDM_FINAL_20140211.pdf.
45 Adam Berland et al., “The Role of Trees in Urban Stormwater Management,” Landscape and
urban planning 162 (2017).
80 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

46 National Association of City Transportation Officials, “Urban Street Stormwater Guide,” (2017),
https://nacto.org/publication/urban-street-stormwater-guide/.
47 Ibid.
48 State of New Jersey, “Complete and Green Streets for All. Model Complete Streets Policy &
Guide Making New Jersey’s Communities Healthy, Equitable, Green & Prosperous,” (2019), https://
www.state.nj.us/transportation/eng/completestreets/pdf/CS_Model_Policy_2019.pdf.
49 Joowon Im, “Green Streets to Serve Urban Sustainability: Benefits and Typology,” Sustainability
11, no. 22 (2019).
50 David Elkin, “Portland’s Green Streets: Lessons Learned Retrofitting Our Urban Watersheds,”
in Low Impact Development for Urban Ecosystem and Habitat Protection (2008).
51 Guillem Vich, Oriol Marquet, and Carme Miralles-Guasch, “Green Streetscape and Walking:
Exploring Active Mobility Patterns in Dense and Compact Cities,” Journal of Transport & Health 12
(2019).
52 San Diego County, “Green Parking Lots Guidelines: A Guide to Green Parking Lots Implementation
in the County of San Diego “.
53 City of Toronto, “Green Street Technical Guidelines” (2017), https://www.toronto.ca/services-
payments/streets-parking-transportation/enhancing-our-streets-and-public-realm/green-streets/.
54 Brears, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources.
55 Nature-Based Solutions to 21st Century Challenges.
56 Basler & Hofmann, “Flood Water Retention for the City of Winterthur,” https://www.baslerhof
mann.ch/en/projects/en-projekte-detailansicht/projekt/hochwasserrueckhalt-fuer-die-stadt-winterthur.
html.

References

Alim, Mohammad A., Ataur Rahman, Zhong Tao, Bijan Samali, Muhammad M. Khan, and Shafiq
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A Scoping Review”. Journal of Cleaner Production 248 (2020/03/01/ 2020): 119226.
Anderson, Brian S., Bryn M. Phillips, Jennifer P. Voorhees, Katie Siegler, and Ronald Tjeerdema.
“Bioswales Reduce Contaminants Associated with Toxicity in Urban Storm Water”.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 35, no. 12 (2016/12/01 2016): 3124–34.
Autixier, Laurène, Alain Mailhot, Samuel Bolduc, Anne-Sophie Madoux-Humery, Martine Galarneau,
Michèle Prévost, and Sarah Dorner. “Evaluating Rain Gardens as a Method to Reduce the
Impact of Sewer Overflows in Sources of Drinking Water”. Science of The Total Environment
499 (2014/11/15/ 2014): 238–47.
Basdeki, Aikaterini, Lysandros Katsifarakis, and Konstantinos L. Katsifarakis. “Rain Gardens as
Integral Parts of Urban Sewage Systems-a Case Study in Thessaloniki, Greece”. Procedia
Engineering 162 (2016/01/01/ 2016): 426–32.
Basler & Hofmann. “Flood Water Retention for the City of Winterthur”. https://www.baslerhof
mann.ch/en/projects/en-projekte-detailansicht/projekt/hochwasserrueckhalt-fuer-die-stadt-
winterthur.html.
Belgrade. “Belgard Partners with the City of Atlanta for the Largest Permeable Pavement Project”.
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the_city_of_atlanta.
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Berland, Adam, Sheri A. Shiflett, William D. Shuster, Ahjond S. Garmestani, Haynes C. Goddard,
Dustin L. Herrmann, and Matthew E. Hopton. “The Role of Trees in Urban Stormwater
Management”. [In eng]. Landscape and urban planning 162 (2017): 167–77.
Besir, Ahmet B., and Erdem Cuce. “Green Roofs and Facades: A Comprehensive Review”.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018/02/01/ 2018): 915–39.
Bilodeau, Karine, Geneviève Pelletier, and Sophie Duchesne. “Real-Time Control of Stormwater
Detention Basins as an Adaptation Measure in Mid-Size Cities”. Urban Water Journal 15, no. 9
(2018/10/21 2018): 858–67.
Board, Transportation Research, Engineering National Academies of Sciences, and Medicine.
Guidance for Usage of Permeable Pavement at Airports. [in English] Edited by James Bruinsma,
Kelly Smith, David Peshkin, Lauren Ballou, Bethany Eisenberg, Carol Lurie, Mark Costa, et al.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2017. doi:10.17226/24852.
Brears, R.C. Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018.
———. Nature-Based Solutions to 21st Century Challenges. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 2020.
Church, Sarah P. “Exploring Green Streets and Rain Gardens as Instances of Small Scale Nature
and Environmental Learning Tools”. Landscape and Urban Planning 134 (2// 2015): 229–40.
City of Chicago. “City of Chicago Bioinfiltration Rain Gardens”. https://www.chicago.gov/city/en/
depts/water/supp_info/conservation/green_design/bioinfiltration_raingardens.html.
City of Toronto. “Earl Bales Stormwater Management Pond”. https://www.toronto.ca/services-
payments/water-environment/managing-rain-melted-snow/what-the-city-is-doing-stormwater-
management-projects/other-stormwater-management-projects/stormwater-ponds/earl-bales-
stormwater-management-pond/.
———. “Green Street Technical Guidelines” (2017). https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/
streets-parking-transportation/enhancing-our-streets-and-public-realm/green-streets/.
City of Tucson. “Rainwater Harvesting Rebate”. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/water/rainwater-
harvesting-rebate.
CTCN. “Bioswales”. (2017). https://www.ctc-n.org/resources/bioswales.
Elkin, David. “Portland’s Green Streets: Lessons Learned Retrofitting Our Urban Watersheds”.
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Ercolani, Giulia, Enrico Antonio Chiaradia, Claudio Gandolfi, Fabio Castelli, and Daniele Masseroni.
“Evaluating Performances of Green Roofs for Stormwater Runoff Mitigation in a High Flood
Risk Urban Catchment”. Journal of Hydrology 566 (2018/11/01/ 2018): 830–45.
Everett, G., J. E. Lamond, A. T. Morzillo, A. M. Matsler, and F. K. S. Chan. “Delivering Green Streets:
An Exploration of Changing Perceptions and Behaviours over Time around Bioswales in
Portland, Oregon”. Journal of Flood Risk Management 11, no. S2 (2018/02/01 2018): S973–S85.
Ewelina, Siwiec, Erlandsen Anne Maren, and Vennemo Haakon. “City Greening by Rain Gardens –
Costs and Benefits”. [In English]. Environmental Protection and Natural Resources; The Journal
of Institute of Environmental Protection-National Research Institute. 29, no. 1 (2018): 1–5.
Francis, Lotte Fjendbo Møller, and Marina Bergen Jensen. “Benefits of Green Roofs: A Systematic
Review of the Evidence for Three Ecosystem Services”. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 28
(2017/12/01/ 2017): 167–76.
Helmreich, B., and H. Horn. “Opportunities in Rainwater Harvesting”. Desalination 248, no. 1
(2009/11/15/ 2009): 118–24.
Im, Joowon. “Green Streets to Serve Urban Sustainability: Benefits and Typology”. Sustainability
11, no. 22 (2019).
Kayhanian, Masoud, Hui Li, John T. Harvey, and Xiao Liang. “Application of Permeable Pavements in
Highways for Stormwater Runoff Management and Pollution Prevention: California Research
Experiences”. International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology (2019/02/02/ 2019).
82 Chapter 5 Greening of grey water infrastructure

Kisakye, Violet, and Bart Van der Bruggen. “Effects of Climate Change on Water Savings and Water
Security from Rainwater Harvesting Systems”. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 138
(2018/11/01/ 2018): 49–63.
National Association of City Transportation Officials. “Urban Street Stormwater Guide”. (2017).
https://nacto.org/publication/urban-street-stormwater-guide/.
Natural Water Retention Measures. “Rain Gardens”. (2015). http://nwrm.eu/measure/rain-gardens.
Naturally Resilient Communities. “Floodwater Detention and Retention Basins”. (2017). http://
nrcsolutions.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/NRC_Solutions_Retention_Basins.pdf.
———. “Rain Gardens”. http://nrcsolutions.org/rain-gardens/.
Pezzaniti, David B. E., Simon Gche M. E. PhD Beecham, and Jaya M. E. PhD Kandasamy.
“Stormwater Detention Basin for Improving Road-Runoff Quality”. [In English]. Proceedings of
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———. “Stormwater Management Practice Guidance”. (2018). https://www.pwdplanreview.org/man
ual-info/guidance-manual.
PUB. “Kallang River @ Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park”. https://www.pub.gov.sg/abcwaters/explore/
bishanangmokiopark.
Purvis, A. Rebecca, J. Ryan Winston, F. William Hunt, Brian Lipscomb, Karthik Narayanaswamy,
Andrew McDaniel, S. Matthew Lauffer, and Susan Libes. “Evaluating the Water Quality
Benefits of a Bioswale in Brunswick County, North Carolina (Nc), USA”. Water 10, no. 2 (2018).
Saadeh, Shadi, Avinash Ralla, Yazan Al-Zubi, Rongzong Wu, and John Harvey. “Application of Fully
Permeable Pavements as a Sustainable Approach for Mitigation of Stormwater Runoff”.
International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology (2019/02/13/ 2019).
Şahin, N. İpek, and Gülten Manioğlu. “Water Conservation through Rainwater Harvesting Using
Different Building Forms in Different Climatic Regions”. Sustainable Cities and Society 44
(2019/01/01/ 2019): 367–77.
San Diego County. “Green Parking Lots Guidelines: A Guide to Green Parking Lots Implementation
in the County of San Diego” (2019). https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/dam/sdc/dpw/
WATERSHED_PROTECTION_PROGRAM/watershedpdf/Dev_Sup/GPL_Guidelines_2019.pdf.
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Shafique, Muhammad, Reeho Kim, and Muhammad Rafiq. “Green Roof Benefits, Opportunities and
Challenges – a Review”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018/07/01/ 2018):
757–73.
State of New Jersey. “Complete and Green Streets for All. Model Complete Streets Policy & Guide
Making New Jersey’s Communities Healthy, Equitable, Green & Prosperous”. (2019). https://
www.state.nj.us/transportation/eng/completestreets/pdf/CS_Model_Policy_2019.pdf.
Steffen, Jennifer, Mark Jensen, Christine A. Pomeroy, and Steven J. Burian. “Water Supply and
Stormwater Management Benefits of Residential Rainwater Harvesting in U.S. Cities”. JAWRA
Journal of the American Water Resources Association 49, no. 4 (2013): 810–24.
Stovin, Virginia. “The Potential of Green Roofs to Manage Urban Stormwater”. Water and
Environment Journal 24, no. 3 (2010): 192–99.
Susca, T., S. R. Gaffin, and G. R. Dell’Osso. “Positive Effects of Vegetation: Urban Heat Island and
Green Roofs”. Environmental Pollution 159, no. 8 (2011/08/01/ 2011): 2119–26.
UNEP. “Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and
the Caribbean”. https://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch20.htm#2.1%20desa
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 References 83

University of Florida. “Bioswales/Vegetated Swales”. (2008). http://buildgreen.ufl.edu/Fact_

sheet_bioswales_Vegetated_Swales.pdf.
Urban Innovation Actions. “Resilio – Resilience Network of Smart Innovative Climate-Adapative
Rooftops”. https://www.uia-initiative.eu/en/uia-cities/amsterdam.
Vich, Guillem, Oriol Marquet, and Carme Miralles-Guasch. “Green Streetscape and Walking:
Exploring Active Mobility Patterns in Dense and Compact Cities”. Journal of Transport & Health
12 (2019/03/01/ 2019): 50–59.
Chapter 6
Protecting and restoring water quality
in river basins

Abstract: River basins are geographic features that include all surface and ground-
water, soils, vegetation, animals, and human activities and do not reflect local po-
litical boundaries. In most cases, river basins cross political and administrative
boundaries and so by cooperating, communities within river basins can plan for the
future of the river basin. River basin management focuses on the relationship be-
tween land use and land cover, the movement and storage of water, and water qual-
ity. This chapter will discuss how river basin planning can protect and restore
water quality before discussing how permit systems, best management practices,
and source water protection can protect and restore water quality.

Keywords: River Basin Management, Tradable Permits, Water Quality, Best Management
Practices

Introduction

River basins are geographic features that include all surface and groundwater,
soils, vegetation, animals, and human activities and do not reflect local political
boundaries. In most cases, river basins cross political and administrative bound-
aries and so by cooperating, communities within river basins can plan for the future
of the river basin. River basin management focuses on the relationship between
land use and land cover, the movement and storage of water, and water quality.
This chapter will discuss how river basin planning can protect and restore water
quality before discussing how permit systems, best management practices, and
source water protection can protect and restore water quality.

6.1 River basin planning to protect and restore water quality

A successful river basin plan to protect and restore water quality should clearly
identify why the river basin plan is needed, where the existing problems, threats,
and opportunities are located, what actions and projects are recommended to ad-
dress the problems and threats and to take advantage of the opportunities, when
the recommendations will be advanced, who will take the lead in making it happen,
and how much will it cost to implement the plan. The river basin plan will have a
variety of goals and strategies that it seeks to maintain or achieve. A successful

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-006
86 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

river basin plan is informed by available data and driven by consensus. The plan
characterises the physical aspects of the river basin and assesses municipal controls
to ensure future water quality. The plan will also recommend corrective and preven-
tive actions to protect and restore water quality as well as other ecosystem services.

6.1.1 Developing and implementing a successful river basin management plan

There are a variety of recommended activities that should take place to ensure the
success of a river basin management plan as follows.

6.1.1.1 Planning for community involvement

River basin planning is only successful when the people that live and work in the
river basin realise that they are a crucial part of their river basin. They recognise
that their actions have an impact on the health of the river basin and participate in
protecting and restoring their river basin for the benefit of the entire community
and future generations. Community involvement is required in every stage of pro-
tecting and restoring the river basin. Community participation can take many
forms, but it is generally designed to:
– Foster an appreciation of the river basin
– Introduce local leaders and community residents to the river basin planning
process
– Generate a community consensus about the vision for the future of the river
basin
– Develop a strategy to address the most critical river basin issues

6.1.1.2 Identifying the key stakeholders

A stakeholder is a person or group who has something to gain or lose based on the
outcomes of the river basin plan. It is essential to involve those individuals and
groups, which include elected officials, business and civic leaders, neighbourhood
and environmental groups, and educational institutions, who have a direct stake in
the future of the river basin. The setting and prioritising of goals are where stake-
holders become critical players in identifying strategies and designing the actual
river basin management plan. A strategy needs to be formed that effectively in-
volves these stakeholders. The strategy needs to identify how to approach each
stakeholder and what they can contribute, for instance:
– Do they need to be informed?
– Are the stakeholders required for funding?
– Are they to participate on a committee?
 6.1 River basin planning to protect and restore water quality 87

Throughout the river basin plan’s implementation, stakeholders and other commu-
nity members may be involved in a variety of ways, for example, creating a river
basin advisory committee, creating specific issue-orientated subcommittees, estab-
lishing partnerships, encouraging partnerships, encouraging participating in vi-
sioning and planning workshops, or participating in volunteer work parties. At the
same time, the entire community needs to be informed on what is going on with
regular progress reports provided and how they can participate.

6.1.1.3 Organising a river basin advisory committee

In the early stages of the planning process, most communities establish an advisory
committee that helps focus efforts, streamlines the planning process, and see the
plan through to implementation. Responsibilities of advisory committees usually
include:
– Managing the river basin planning process or advising staff on managing the
process
– Providing input on river basin issues and conditions
– Holding regular meetings related to planning and project implementation
– Informing the community about the planning process and ways they can be
involved
– Organising and participating in focus groups, workshops, and public hearings
– Keeping elected officials and municipal officials informed about the planning
process

Members of the advisory committee should include representatives from groups in-
cluding local governments, such as elected officials, staff, and members of planning,
zoning and other boards of all municipalities in the river basin, neighbourhood and
community organisations, local and regional non-profit organisations, property own-
ers, representatives from the business community, water suppliers, and the academic
community.

6.1.1.4 Establishing partnerships

In addition to advisory committees bringing together all the stakeholders in a river
basin, partnerships need to be formed with these stakeholders. Partnerships are re-
quired when pursuing goals that affect other people and organisations, more re-
sources, whether financial, political, or human, are required to accomplish goals,
and a strong coalition is required to show that interests of various stakeholders are
in agreement. Success in river basin planning requires partnerships that contain
the right blend of stakeholders. They will come from the private sector, all levels of
government, and from the community to form a partnership with the common goal
of achieving a shared vision. There are a variety of critical potential partners, in-
cluding local government, adjacent municipalities, regional planning or resource
88 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

conservation organisations, state government partners, academic institutions, rep-

resentatives of businesses and industries in the surrounding area, property owners
in the surrounding area, residents in the surrounding area, community and neigh-
bourhood groups, and non-profit organisation in the community and river basin.

6.1.1.5 Charting the course

It is essential to chart the course for the protection and restoration of the river basin
by developing a step-by-step strategy to guide the completion and implementation
of the river basin plan. To chart the course, the following needs to be specified:
– The tasks to be performed
– The technique to be used
– The roles of the people involved and their areas of responsibility
– The time frame for action

6.1.1.6 Implementing goals and strategies and monitoring

To fit their river basin’s needs, stakeholders and decision-makers may customise
the tools that exist for putting river basin management plans into practice. Several
of those tools are permits, best management practices (BMPs), and source water
protection. Each river basin management plan will have site-specific needs requir-
ing different combinations of these tools. Measuring progress towards achieving
river basin management plans and water quality goals can be done through in-
creased and more efficient monitoring and other data gathering.1–5

Case 6.1: The Danube River Basin’s TransNational Monitoring Network

The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) oversees the
TransNational Monitoring Network (TNMN), which monitors physical, chemical, and biological con-
ditions in the Danube and its tributaries, and provides in TNMN Yearbooks an annual overview of
pollution levels as well as long term trends for water quality in the basin. TNMN was established to
support the implementation of the Danube River Protection Convention in the field of monitoring
and assessment utilising monitoring data assessed at national level. The TNMN consists of four
elements: surveillance monitoring I (monitoring of surface water status); surveillance monitoring II
(monitoring of specific pressures); operational monitoring; and investigative monitoring. The TNMN
monitoring network is derived from national surface water monitoring networks and includes 101
monitoring stations with up to three sampling points across the Danube and its main tributaries.
The minimum sampling frequency is 12 times per year for chemical determinands and twice a year
for biological parameters.6,7
 6.2 Permits 89

6.2 Permits

The goal of environmental permitting is to protect human health and the environment
by defining, in a transparent, accountable manner, legally binding requirements for
individual sources of significant environmental impact. Single-medium permitting,
which is the traditional regulatory approach, is based on addressing specific environ-
mental problems such as water protection. Specifically, under this type of regime, the
limit for environmental impacts of installations are set to protect the environmental
medium (for example, water). Meanwhile, integrated permitting means that emissions
to air, water, and land, as well as other environmental effects, must all be considered
together. This means that regulators set permit conditions to achieve a high level of
protection for the environment overall. In the context of managing water quality, reg-
ulatory permits are mainly used to control point sources, including wastewater treat-
ment discharges, industrial waste discharges, and stormwater collection systems. The
permits are typically issued by the government and specify discharge levels for pollu-
tants. Point sources may not exceed these permitted levels.8,9 There are a series of fun-
damental principles in establishing a permitting system:
– Permitting of all stationary sources of significant pollution: All stationary pollution
sources with significant environmental impact should have an environmental
permit as a precondition for their operation. The provision of environmental per-
mits to industrial installations is a fundamental element of the regulatory pro-
cess addressing pollution. A coherent permitting system is also necessary to
ensure economic competition remains fair under environmental regulations and
that economic development proceeds in a sustainable way
– Differentiation of regulatory regimes for major and minor pollution sources: Major
pollution sources should be subject to integrated environmental permitting on
a case-by-case basis, where all environmental aspects are considered simulta-
neously, and that the environment is a disposal route of last resort. Small and me-
dium-sized enterprises should be subject to simplified regulatory regimes as these
businesses pose a lower environmental risk and case-by-case permitting would
pose a disproportionately heavy burden on them as well as on the regulators
– Appropriate permitting authority: There should be a ‘one-stop-shop’ system
where applicants deal with one designated authority that ensures coordination
with all other stakeholders. This increases the consistency and predictability of
the permitting process and reduces the administrative burden on both govern-
ment and industry
– Public participation and access to information: The public should be allowed to
comment on permit applications before the authority reaches its decision and
have access to permit-related information after the permit has been awarded.
Regarding consulting the public, it is appropriate to maintain a permit register
accessible to the public, where applications and permits are placed, subject to
commercial confidentiality
90 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

– Extensive stakeholder involvement: Permitting requires a transparent process

for involving all institutional stakeholders. Stakeholder consultations should
be part of both the development of the regulatory framework for permitting
(procedures, rules, and guidance) and the permit determination process itself.
The permitting authority should also consult other authorities with related re-
sponsibilities or interests. Permit registers and interagency electronic networks
should be developed to facilitate such coordination
– Outreach to the regulated community: Environmental authorities should make
substantial effort through trade associations, environmental and industry pub-
lications, industry seminars etc. to ensure operators are aware of its obligations
under the environmental law. The environmental permitting authority may
hold pre-application discussions with the operator before it submits a formal
application to clarify relevant requirements
– Close interaction with Environmental Assessment (EA): Both EA and environ-
mental permitting follow legally binding procedures for identifying and ana-
lysing significant environmental impacts and making decisions related to
economic activity. However, EA applies at an earlier stage of project planning
and considers a wide range of alternatives and mitigation measures. As such,
EA and permitting should be applied to maximise their effectiveness and
avoid overlap. This should be achieved through using EA findings in prepar-
ing and evaluating permit applications and include EA recommendations on
mitigation measures in permit conditions
– Clear and enforceable permit requirements: A permit must contain conditions
that are unambiguous and enforceable. The key to simple, effective, and con-
sistent permitting is to base permit conditions on statutory requirements and
technical guidance that have been developed in cooperation with all stakehold-
ers and are available to all, including the public10

6.2.1 Tradable permits

Tradable permits are market-based instruments that provide allowance or permission

to engage in an activity. These permits are mainly used to allocate pollution rights,
and they can be issued under a trading system. There are two main types of trading
systems: cap-and-trade systems and baseline-and-credit systems. In a cap-and-trade
system, an upper limit on permits is fixed, and the permits are either auctioned or
distributed for free according to specific criteria. Under a baseline-and-credit system,
there is no fixed limit on pollution, but polluters that reduce their emissions more
than they have to earn credits that they sell to others who need them to comply with
 6.2 Permits 91

regulations that they are subject to. Overall, the use of tradable permits has been
made on the following grounds:
– Incentives for abatement cost equalisation
– Positive technological innovation and diffusion impacts
– A high degree of environmental certainty
– Relatively low administrative costs
– Flexibility to address distributional concerns11–13

In the case of water resources, tradable water pollution rights are where the water
management authority establishes the maximum amount of emissions according to
the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in question. The total amount of emissions is
subdivided into a fixed number of permits or rights to pollute, that can be initially
allocated according to past levels of pollution (grandfathering) or by auction. The
holders can trade the rights in a secondary permit market.14 For tradable water pollu-
tion rights to be successful, there need to be secure property rights, water rights must
be enforceable, and an efficient administrative system must exist to ensure market
operation. Overall, tradable water pollution rights systems can provide greater flexi-
bility on the timing and level of technology a facility might install, reduce overall
compliance costs, and encourage the voluntary participation of non-point sources
within a river basin. Furthermore, trading can provide additional environmental ben-
efits, including carbon sinks, flood retention, riparian improvement, and habitat.15,16
There are a variety of trading scenarios possible for tradable water pollution rights
systems, including:

6.2.1.1 Point source-point source trading

Trading between point sources is the most basic form of water quality trading. It is
relatively straight forward, easily measurable, and directly enforceable. It is usually
the most accessible type of trading to implement, measure reductions from, and en-
sure compliance and enforcement with because all sources have a permit, the effec-
tiveness of removal technologies is relatively known, and monitoring protocols are
in place. Several trading scenarios exist for point source-point source trading,
which is summarised in Table 6.1.

6.2.1.2 Point source-non-point source trading

Trading between point source buyers and non-point source sellers provides another
opportunity to meet water quality standards. In successful point source-non-point
source trading schemes, point sources benefit by purchasing credits for required re-
ductions at a lower cost than technology upgrades. Non-point sources benefit by
gaining income from better resource management, and water quality improves.
Several types of trading scenarios exist for point source-non-point source trading,
which is summarised in Table 6.2.17
92 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

Table 6.1: Point Source-Point Source Trading Scenarios.

Scenario Description

Trading between two point – Generally, it involves a trade agreement between two point
sources sources
– One point source is the credit generator, and the other is
the credit purchaser
– A single permit can be issued that incorporates or
references the trade agreement and includes both point
sources as co-permittees. Alternatively, each discharger
can be issued an individual permit with trading provisions
placed in each permit

Multiple facility point-source – Involves a group of point sources operating under a single
trading/No exchange trade agreement
– The agreement can establish ground rules for trading to
allow point sources to trade among themselves
– The agreement can precisely identify the point sources that
may participate in water quality trading, or it can identify a
geographic boundary (typically a river basin) or a type of
discharger, or both, and allow qualifying point sources to
participate in trading as desired or appropriate
– An over-all limit or cap set by the permit regulates all
trades

Point source credit exchanges – Point sources purchase credits from a central exchange to
comply with individual effluent limitations
– The credit exchange is likely to be either operated by or
approved and overseen by a state regulatory agency
– Credits in the exchange are generated by point sources that
control their discharges
– The trade agreement can specify how credits may be
generated and purchased, how trade ratios are calculated,
and individual and group responsibilities for meeting
effluent limitations and overall pollutant loading caps

Table 6.2: Point Source-Non-point Source Trading Scenarios.

Scenario Description

Single point source-non-point – This is a trade agreement between a single point source and
source trades one or more non-point sources
– Under this trade, the non-point source(s) reduce(s) pollutant
loads below the established baseline to generate credits, and
the point source purchases these credits
 6.2 Permits 93

Table 6.2 (continued )

Scenario Description

Non-point source credit – A credit exchange programme is established to buy credits

exchange from multiple non-point sources to sell to point sources
– The exchange could be managed by the state, a conservation
district, a private entity, or another third party
– A broker can be used to identify trading partners and facilitate
trades
– There are two main types of exchanges:
1. A broker-facilitated exchange where the broker brings
parties together to trade directly with each
2. A central exchange where the point sources are not
required to deal directly with non-point sources
– For the second type of exchange, the credit sellers (non-point
sources) generate pollutant load reductions using a variety of
approved BMPs and sell the credits to the credit exchange.
Point sources may then purchase credits from the credit
exchange rather than directly from the non-point sources

Case 6.2: Ohio River Basin Water Quality Trading Project

The Ohio River Basin Water Quality Trading Project is the world’s most extensive water quality
credit programme. The non-profit organisation Electric Power Research Institute led the develop-
ment of the programme along with the collaboration of companies, farmers, state and federal agen-
cies, and environmental groups. Working with local farmers and private landowners in Ohio,
Indiana, and Kentucky, the programme funds agricultural conservation practices that reduce nutri-
ent loading of waterways and ecosystems. Each credit equals one pound of nutrient (nitrogen or
phosphorous) that, through voluntary action, is prevented from discharging into the water. Every
credit is associated with a specific vintage year. For buyers interested in a more generalised water
quality credit that is not specific to nitrogen or phosphorous, credits can be purchased as a ‘bun-
dle’ of benefits including nitrogen and phosphorous reductions as well as any associated ancillary
benefits (qualitative) such as pollinator habitat, habitat enhancement, and social benefits to farm-
ers. Credits can be generated through the installation of conservation practices with private land-
owners in the river basin. Projects are intended to improve water quality while maintaining crop
yields. Typical practices include cover crops, reduced fertiliser application, riparian buffer strips,
cattle exclusion fencing, and manure wetland treatment systems. The contracts with farmers range
from five years for seasonal practices, such as cover crops, to 40 years for tree planting. The
Environment Registry runs the credit registry from IHS Markit. The registry ensures that each credit
is created and used as approved under the trading plan. In one location, information about each
farm project is captured, agricultural agencies verify that BMPs have been implemented on the
ground, permitting authorities certify that a credit is acceptable for regulatory compliance, credit
buyers can search for credits available to purchase, and stakeholders can view public information
on projects. The registry utilises the WARMF watershed model so buyers can understand the load
reductions of their credits at specific sites located significantly downstream from the location
where the original credit was generated. The registry also assigns a unique serial number for
each pound of nutrient reduction and allows for the tracking of the credit through its lifecycle.18
94 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

6.3 Best management practices

River basin management strategies generally involve controlling non-point source

pollution by implementing various BMPs.19

6.3.1 Agricultural best management practices for water quality protection

There are a variety of agricultural BMPs that can protect water quality, including
the following.

6.3.1.1 Conservation tillage

Low-till agriculture also known as conservation or reduced till consists of a combi-
nation of a crop harvest that leaves at least 30 percent of the soil surface covered
after planting. This slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil ero-
sion and potentially leads to greater infiltration. Meanwhile, no-till farming is a
type of conservation tillage that seeks to minimise soil disruption and entails leav-
ing crop residue on the fields after harvest. The residue acts as a mulch to stabilise
and protect the soil from wind and water erosion. Leaving crop residues on the soil
surface can also increase water infiltration by helping slow and capture runoff,
which in turn helps conserve water and enhances the utilisation of applied fertil-
isers and pesticides. By reducing the amount of surface runoff, conservation tillage
can help reduce contamination of nearby water bodies by reducing the transport of
sediment, fertilisers, and pesticides.20–22

6.3.1.2 Crop nutrient management

To successfully grow and produce crops, plants must receive sufficient and proper nu-
trients at correct times and in appropriate amounts. The practice of nutrient manage-
ment involves effectively managing the amount, source, placement, form, and timing
of the application of plant nutrients and soil amendments. Nutrient management not
only helps retain optimum production levels but can also protect water quality and
reduce input costs. By carefully managing nutrients and preventing overapplication of
fertilisers and manure, the amount of excess nutrients lost to runoff can be reduced,
which in turn reduces the amount of non-point source pollution from cropland.23

6.3.1.3 Riparian buffers

Riparian buffers are areas of trees or other vegetation located adjacent to a water body
and are managed to reduce the negative impact of nearby land use. They have a variety
of roles including separating the crop field from the stream, filtering runoff to remove
sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and microorganisms, increasing water infiltration,
 6.3 Best management practices 95

taking up nitrate from shallow groundwater, and stabilising streambanks. Riparian

buffers reduce nitrogen loading into the stream by filtering and sedimentation of or-
ganic and other particulate-bound nitrogen. In particular, riparian buffers increase
infiltration, increase nitrogen uptake, especially if there is subsurface flow through
the root zone, and increase denitrification, with denitrification relatively high with
mature riparian forest, intermediate with a grass buffer, and least with cropland.24–26

6.3.1.4 Irrigation water management

Irrigation scheduling involves the application of irrigation water based on systematic
monitoring of crop soil-moisture requirements. It should be based on the daily water
use of the crop, the water-holding capacity of the soil, the lower limit of soil moisture
for the crop, and the volume of water applied to the field. Irrigation water should be
applied in a way that ensures efficient use and distribution, and that minimises runoff,
deep percolation, and soil erosion. When chemigation, or the application of fertilisers,
pesticides, or other chemicals through irrigation water, is implemented, precautions
should be taken to prevent chemigated water from contaminating surface or ground-
water. Irrigation practices that can minimise surface and groundwater contamination
include:
– Knowing the water-holding capacity of all soils in the field
– Monitoring soil water content to determine how much water has been removed
and to evaluate the effectiveness of current irrigation management practices
– Recording how much water is being delivered to the field
– Recording precipitation and estimating how much enters the crop root zone
– Estimating crop water use for each crop
– Calculating a soil water balance based on stored soil water, crop water use,
and water applied via precipitation or irrigation27,28

Case 6.3: Saskatchewan’s Farm Stewardship Program

The Farm Stewardship Program provides Saskatchewan producers funding to implement BMPs in three
priority areas: water, climate change, and biodiversity. The Program focuses on the four outcomes of
demonstrated improvements in water quality, demonstrated reductions in greenhouse gas emissions,
enhanced resilience of the agricultural sector, and biodiversity maintained. To achieve these outcomes,
the Program provides rebates for a variety of agricultural BMPs, including the following:
– Drainage Stewardship BMP: Existing agricultural drainage works impact downstream water quality
and quantity. This BMP helps producers to address the impacts of existing private drainage
networks. Eligible funding is available for implementing approved drainage stewardship practices,
including installation of water control and erosion control structures. Funding is available to
implement the BMP with eligible producers able to receive a rebate of 50 percent of eligible
costs to a maximum of $20,000 on water and erosion controls with pre-approval required to
qualify for this BMP
– Variable Rate Mapping BMP: The Variable Rate Mapping BMP assists producers to obtain zone
maps for variable rate fertiliser and variable rate irrigation application. Through this BMP,
producers can reduce their environmental impacts to soil and water resources and decrease
96 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

greenhouse gas emissions. Funding is available to implement the BMP with eligible producers
able to receive a rebate of 30 percent to a maximum of $2,000 with the maximum eligible cost
for variable rate mapping set at $8 per acre, with no pre-approval required29

6.3.2 Industrial best management practices for water quality protection

A variety of BMPs can be designed to prevent or reduce the effects of pollutants on

waterways and habitat health from industrial stormwater discharges:

6.3.2.1 Best management practices to treat total suspended solids

Total suspended solids (TSS) is inorganic (for example, sand, metals) and organic
(for example, vegetative and animal waste) particles and debris that are washed off
surfaces into surface waters. TSS smothers fish eggs and larvae, causes turbidity
that impairs sight-feeding fish, increases drinking water treatment costs, and acts
as a vehicle to transport other pollutants such as nutrients and metals to surface
waters. Control of TSS can be achieved by avoiding or minimising land disturbance
such as clearing and grading as well as reducing stormwater runoff from construc-
tion, mining, and logging sites. BMPs that reduce TSS include:
– Implementing a frequent outdoor sweeping schedule
– Using grassed or vegetated areas to catch sediment particles in flowing storm-
water, for example, adding rock filters upstream of existing grassed areas to
slow down water velocity and adding fibre or synthetic mats on eroded areas or
bare, non-vegetation areas
– Developing detention ponds30

6.3.2.2 Best management practices to manage availability of oxygen

The availability of oxygen for aquatic life is impacted by substances in water which
use oxygen to break down materials washed into the water. Biological oxygen de-
mand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms in a
body of water to break down the organic material present. Chemical oxygen de-
mand (COD) measures the oxygen required to decompose organic and inorganic
materials, metals, and nutrients present in water by chemical reaction. The higher
the BOD or COD, the less oxygen is available in the water for fish and other aquatic
life. A variety of BMPs can be used to manage BOD and COD, including:
– Erosion control
– Litter prevention/management
– Stormwater detention ponds
– Constructed wetlands
 6.3 Best management practices 97

– Filtration devices
– Infiltration devices31

6.3.2.3 Best management practices to manage nutrients

Excessive amounts of some nutrients can lead to algal blooms or other conditions
toxic to aquatic life and detrimental to human health:
High amounts of phosphorus can create algal blooms and excessive plant
growth which results in oxygen depletion and accelerated sediment filling of lakes
when the algae die. Phosphorus sources include chemicals and fertilisers, animal
wastes and by-products, food/energy processing wastes, wood processing wastes,
and cleaning agents. BMPs used to treat phosphorus include:
– Properly storing materials
– Cleaning up materials from impervious surfaces
– Covering raw material, waste piles, and transfer processes
– Storing materials indoors or covering with a roof or tarp
– Capturing and treating high-strength waste streams separately
– Slowing down water to allow nutrient attenuation by grasses/vegetation before
runoff occurs

Nitrates and nitrogen-containing substances can affect both surface water and ground-
water with large concentrations of nitrates presenting a health hazard in groundwater
and drinking water. Nitrate/nitrogen sources include fertiliser manufacturing, mining,
food manufacturing, leather tanning, and fabricated metal manufacturing activities.
BMPs used to treat nitrates/nitrogen include:
– Source control by implementing fertiliser application limits
– Minimising, or eliminating exposure before discharge
– Housekeeping such as sweeping spilt solid materials, and detention ponds32

6.3.2.4 Best management practices to manage metals

Metals originate from galvanising, chrome plating, and other industrial operations.
As metals corrode, dissolve, or settle out in the air, small amounts are carried away
by the wind or water and can concentrate in stormwater runoff. Many of these met-
als become attached to sediment particles and are carried with it to receiving
waters. When these sediments settle out, the attached metals accumulate over time
to concentrations that are harmful to sediment-dwelling and other aquatic life.
BMPs used to treat metals include:
– Source control by limiting metal exposure to stormwater
– Modifying processes, storage, or handling
– Minimising or eliminating the usage of metal-containing product processes
– Replacing or painting galvanised surfaces
– Implementing vegetative buffer strips to capture sediment particles
98 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

– Adding recycling to recover and recycle specific metals from the production
processes33

Case 6.4: City of Guelph’s Stormwater Service Credits for large properties
The City of Guelph, Canada, is providing Stormwater Service Credits for industrial, commercial, in-
stitutional, and multi-residential properties of six units or more to reduce stormwater runoff from
properties. The objective of the programme is to recognise and reward property owners who have
implemented stormwater and/or pollution prevention BMPs and green infrastructure to reduce im-
pacts to the City’s stormwater infrastructure by controlling runoff quantity and quality discharged
from their property. The specific goals of the programme include:
– Reducing the quantity of water entering the storm servicing infrastructure to reduce operational
and future capital costs and mitigate potential flooding in areas with insufficient capacity
– Improving water quality by reducing pollutant loads to the storm system
– Improving overall environmental conditions through reduced pollutant loadings and the
introduction of landscaping that will filter pollutants (for example, rain gardens, bio-filters, etc.)
– Encouraging infiltration measures to reduce overall runoff volumes, while still protecting
groundwater quality, particularly considering existing Source Water Protection Policies
– Encouraging practices by individuals to reduce runoff and protect water quality at the source

Stormwater credits are available in each of four categories which align with the overall objectives
of the City’s stormwater programme (Table 6.3). The credit is performance-based, meaning credits
are awarded based on how well a BMP achieves the defined performance criteria as established by
the City. This encourages creativity, provides flexibility, and enables property owners to pursue
technologies best suited for their properties and needs, as permitted by existing by-laws, codes,
and regulations.34

Table 6.3: Stormwater Credit Categories and Rates.

Credit Category Description/Basis for Charge Reduction Maximum

Credit

Peak flow Facilities that control peak flow of stormwater discharged from the  percent
reduction property, based on the outlet rate in comparison to natural
hydrologic conditions

Runoff volume Facilities that control the amount of stormwater retained on the  percent
reduction property, based on retention volume resulting from increased
infiltration, evapotranspiration, or reuse

Water quality Facilities that control the quality of stormwater discharged from  percent
treatment the property, based on treatment type, pollutant load reduction, or
Ontario Ministry of Environment and Climate Change level of
protection

Operations and Non-structural measures including education programmes and  percent

activities pollution prevention/risk management practices

Maximum credit available: Capped at  percent

 6.3 Best management practices 99

6.3.3 Urban best management practices for water quality protection

In urban settings, surfaces are subject to the deposit of contaminants, which are then
subject to wash-off by rainfall or snowmelt. The typical contributors to pollutants in
runoff include vehicular traffic, lawn care, pets, eroded sediments, and vegetative lit-
ter. The major urban non-point source pollutants include sediment, nutrients, oxy-
gen-demanding substances, toxic chemicals, chloride, bacteria and viruses, and
temperature changes. Stormwater BMPs aim to prevent or reduce the movement of
sediment, nutrients, pollutants, or debris from land to surface or ground waters.
There are a variety of structural and non-structure BMPs available that are summar-
ised in Table 6.4.35–37

Table 6.4: Structural and Non-Structural Stormwater Best Management Practices.

Type Best Management Description

Practice

Structural Wet extended detention These are a combination of permanent pool storage and
ponds extended detention storage above the permanent pool to
provide additional water quality or rate control

Dry ponds These have no permanent pool. Instead, they rely on

extended detention storage for treatment. They are best
combined with other BMPs such as filtration or infiltration

Stormwater wetlands Stormwater wetlands are constructed management

(constructed wetlands) practices. They are similar in design to stormwater ponds;
however, they differ by varying water depths and
associated vegetation. They are typically installed at the
downstream end of the treatment train

Infiltration basins These basins capture and temporarily store stormwater

runoff while allowing it to infiltrate into subsurface soils

Underground infiltration These capture stormwater underground in pipes or tanks

devices and allow stormwater to infiltrate into subsurface soils
through open bottoms or perforations. They are typically
installed where space is limited

Filtration systems These systems are a diverse group of techniques for

treating stormwater runoff. Options can range from a
simple sand filter or vegetative filter system through to
complex engineered systems. The commonality is that
each type utilises one or more forms of media, such as
sand, gravel, peat, grass, soil or compost or synthetic
media to filter stormwater pollutants
100 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

Table 6.4 (continued )

Type Best Management Description

Practice

Non- Information and education Erosion control information, fertiliser and pesticide
structural application guides, illicit dumping and littering
information, landscaping information to reduce runoff,
information on the correct disposal of hazardous waste
and used motor oils

Ordinances and Erosion-control ordinances, comprehensive management

regulations plans for developments, elimination of illegal connections,
fertiliser and pesticide licensing, land-use controls,
landscaping requirements to reduce runoff, special
commercial or industrial requirements

Source controls by Limiting infiltration to storm sewers, effective use of de-

the City icing chemicals, management of hazardous waste and
used motor oils, monitoring programmes, spill response
and prevention, street cleaning, storm sewer maintenance

Case 6.5: Melbourne Water’s Water Smart City Model

Melbourne Water has developed the Water Smart City Model using Lego to raise awareness of the
benefits of BMPs in managing stormwater quality and surface runoff. The model is an educational
activity suitable for all ages that can be used at community events and festivals. The activity in-
volves the audience building a model city with roads and buildings made from Lego building
blocks. Food dye, representing pollutants, is placed on the City and rainfall is simulated over the
model, carrying the pollution over the impervious surfaces and into the ‘bay’. A variety of features
including rain gardens, rainwater tanks, swales, and green roofs are then added. Pollution is again
added to the model and rain simulated. The amount of surface runoff is significantly decreased due
to the retention capabilities of the new features, reducing risks of flooding. Pollution is also cap-
tured in the features, so the water flowing into the ‘bay’ is cleaner.38

6.4 Source water protection

Source water refers to sources of water, such as rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs,
springs, and groundwater, that provide water to public drinking water supplies and
private wells. Protecting the source can reduce risks by preventing exposures to con-
taminated water. Protecting source water from contamination also helps reduce treat-
ment costs and may avoid or defer the need for complex treatment. Source water
protection includes a variety of actions and activities that aim to safeguard, maintain,
 Notes 101

or improve the quality and/or quantity of sources for drinking water and their contrib-
uting areas. Examples of source water protection include:
– Riparian zone restoration
– Streambank stabilisation
– Land protection/conservation easements
– BMPs for agriculture and forestry activities or stormwater control
– Local ordinances to limit certain activities in source water or wellhead protec-
tion areas
– Developing emergency response plans
– Educating local industry, businesses, and communities on pollution prevention
and source water protection39–42

Case 6.6: New York City’s watershed protection programme

In 2017, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (NYC DEP) was issued a 10-year
waiver to continue delivering unfiltered drinking water from its Catskill and Delaware water supply
systems. The system is the largest unfiltered water supply in the United States and delivers around
90 percent of New York City’s water on a typical day. The waiver, known as a Filtration Avoidance
Determination (FAD), was issued by the New York State Department of Health. Over the period, the
NYC DEP will commit an estimated $1 billion to comply with FAD by administering programmes that
protect the upstate reservoirs and the watershed lands that surround them. Including the new FAD,
the City has committed more than $2.7 billion towards its watershed protection programmes since
1993. NYC DEPs source water protection initiatives include the following:
– Administering a land acquisition programme that has preserved more than 14,000 acres of
land through fee-simple purchases or conservation easements. These lands are purchased at
fair market value and only from willing sellers
– The non-profit Watershed Agricultural Council, which is one of the City’s watershed partners,
has completed more than 450 ‘whole farm’ plans that incorporate pollution prevention into
the business operations of local farms. These plans have included the installation of more
than 7,400 BMPs to control runoff from farms
– NYC DEP administers a regulatory programme to review and approve new development proposals
in the watershed. All proposals must comply with standards designed to protect watershed
streams and reservoirs, especially as they relate to wastewater and stormwater43

Notes

1 New York State Department of State, “New York State Guidebook Watershed Plans Protecting and
Restoring Water Quality,” (2009), https://www.dos.ny.gov/opd/sser/pdf/WatershedPlansGuidebook.
pdf.
2 Texas A&M University, “Watershed Approach to Water Quality Managment,” https://texaswater.
tamu.edu/surface-water/watershed-water-quality-management.html.
3 A. Said et al., “Exploring an Innovative Watershed Management Approach: From Feasibility to
Sustainability,” Energy 31, no. 13 (2006).
102 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

4 Charalampos Skoulikaris and Antigoni Zafirakou, “River Basin Management Plans as a Tool for
Sustainable Transboundary River Basins’ Management,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research
26, no. 15 (2019).
5 Marta Terrado et al., “Integrating Ecosystem Services in River Basin Management Plans,” Journal
of Applied Ecology 53, no. 3 (2016).
6 ICPDR, “Tnmn – Transnational Monitoring Network,” https://www.icpdr.org/main/activities-
projects/tnmn-transnational-monitoring-network.
7 “Watching the Danube´ Beyond the Jds” (2013), http://www.danubesurvey.org/jds3/jds3-files
/nodes/documents/factsheet7-jds3_1.pdf.
8 Texas A&M University, “Watershed Approach to Water Quality Managment”.
9 World Bank, “Watershed Management Approaches, Policies, and Operations: Lessons for Scaling
Up,” (2008), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TURKEYEXTN/Resources/361711-1216301653427/
5218036-1267432900822/WatershedExperience-en.pdf
10 OECD, “Guiding Principles of Effective Environmental Permitting Systems” (2007), https://
www.oecd.org/env/outreach/37311624.pdf
11 “Oecd Policy Instruments for the Environment,” (2016), http://www.oecd.org/environment/
tools-evaluation/PINE_Metadata_Definitions_2016.pdf
12 “Tradeable Permits: Policy Evaluation, Design and Reform,” (2004), https://www.oecd-ilibrary.
org/environment/tradeable-permits_9789264015036-en.
13 “Efficient and Effective Use of Tradeable Permits in Combination with Other Policy Instruments”
(2003), www.oecd.org/env/cc/2957650.pdf
14 Simone Borghesi, “Water Tradable Permits: A Review of Theoretical and Case Studies,” Journal
of Environmental Planning and Management 57, no. 9 (2014).
15 SSWM, “Tradable Water Rights,” http://archive.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools
/water-distribution/software/economic-tools/tradable-water-rights.
16 US EPA, “Water Quality Trading,” https://www.epa.gov/npdes/water-quality-trading.
17 “Water Quality Trading Toolkit for Permit Writers,” (2009), https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/
wqtradingtoolkit.pdf
18 First Climate, “Water Quality Credits,” https://www.firstclimate.com/en/water-quality-credits/
19 Jing Wu, Shaw L. Yu, and Rui Zou, “A Water Quality-Based Approach for Watershed Wide Bmp
Strategies1,” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 42, no. 5 (2006).
20 Natural Water Retention Measures, “Low Till Agriculture,” (2015), http://nwrm.eu/measure/
low-till-agriculture.
21 Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality Water Quality Division Nonpoint Source Program,
“Cropland Best Management Practice Manual: Conservation Practices to Protect Surface and Ground
Water,” (2013), http://deq.wyoming.gov/media/attachments/Water%20Quality/Nonpoint%20Source/
Best%20Management%20Practices/2013_wqd-wpp-Nonpoint-Source_Cropland-Best-Management-Practice-
Manual.pdf.
22 Steffen Seitz et al., “Conservation Tillage and Organic Farming Reduce Soil Erosion,” Agronomy
for Sustainable Development 39, no. 1 (2018).
23 Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality Water Quality Division Nonpoint Source Program,
“Cropland Best Management Practice Manual: Conservation Practices to Protect Surface and Ground
Water”.
24 Ibid.
25 Matt Helmers and Antonio Mallarino, “Agricultural Phosphorus Management and Water
Quality Protection in the Midwest,” (2005), https://store.extension.iastate.edu/product/
Agricultural-Phosphorus-Management-and-Water-Quality-Protection-in-the-Midwest-EPA-Region-7.
26 Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Jay Radhakrishnan, and Eiji Yamaji, “Impact of Riparian Buffer Zones
on Water Quality and Associated Management Considerations,” Ecological Engineering 24, no. 5 (2005).
 References 103

27 Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality Water Quality Division Nonpoint Source

Program, “Cropland Best Management Practice Manual: Conservation Practices to Protect Surface
and Ground Water”.
28 Mallarino, “Agricultural Phosphorus Management and Water Quality Protection in the Midwest”.
29 Government of Saskatchewan, “Farm Stewardship Program (Fsp),” https://www.saskatchewan.ca/
business/agriculture-natural-resources-and-industry/agribusiness-farmers-and-ranchers/canadian-agri
cultural-partnership-cap/environmental-sustainability-and-climate-change/farm-stewardship-program-
fsp
30 Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, “Industrial Stormwater: Best Management Practices
Guidebook,” (2015), https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/wq-strm3-26.pdf
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 City of Guelph, “Stormwater Service Credits for Business,” https://guelph.ca/living/environ
ment/water/stormwater/stormwater-service-fee-credit-program/
35 Mahesh R. Gautam, Kumud Acharya, and Mark Stone, “Best Management Practices for Stormwater
Management in the Desert Southwest,” Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education 146, no. 1
(2010).
36 Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, “Industrial Stormwater: Best Management Practices
Guidebook”.
37 R.C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban
Water Resources (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018).
38 “The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water Resources,” Mark and Focus
https://medium.com/mark-and-focus/the-role-of-blue-green-infrastructure-in-managing-urban-water-
resources-dd058007ba1a
39 US EPA, “Source Water Protection,” https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection.
40 The Forest Guild and Mountain Conservation Trust of Georgia American Rivers, “Forests to
Faucets: Protecting Upstream Forests for Clean Water Downstream,” (2013), https://americanrivers.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/AmericanRivers_forests-to-faucets-report.pdf.
41 G. Tracy Mehan III and Adam T. Carpenter, “Bringing Agriculture and Drinking Water Utilities
Together for Source Water Protection,” Journal – AWWA 111, no. 8 (2019).
42 Monica B. Emelko et al., “Implications of Land Disturbance on Drinking Water Treatability in a
Changing Climate: Demonstrating the Need for “Source Water Supply and Protection” Strategies,”
Water Research 45, no. 2 (2011).
43 NYC DEP, “High Quality Nyc Tap Water Receives New Filtration Waiver,” https://www1.nyc.
gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/779-17/high-quality-nyc-tap-water-receives-new-filtration-waiver

References

American Rivers, The Forest Guild and Mountain Conservation Trust of Georgia. “Forests to Faucets:
Protecting Upstream Forests for Clean Water Downstream”. (2013). https://americanrivers.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/AmericanRivers_forests-to-faucets-report.pdf.
Anbumozhi, Venkatachalam, Jay Radhakrishnan, and Eiji Yamaji. “Impact of Riparian Buffer Zones
on Water Quality and Associated Management Considerations”. Ecological Engineering 24,
no. 5 (2005/05/30/ 2005): 517–23.
Borghesi, Simone. “Water Tradable Permits: A Review of Theoretical and Case Studies”. Journal of
Environmental Planning and Management 57, no. 9 (2014/09/02 2014): 1305–32.
104 Chapter 6 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

Brears, R.C. Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018.
———. “The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water Resources”. Mark and Focus
https://medium.com/mark-and-focus/the-role-of-blue-green-infrastructure-in-managing-
urban-water-resources-dd058007ba1a
City of Guelph. “Stormwater Service Credits for Business”. https://guelph.ca/living/environment/
water/stormwater/stormwater-service-fee-credit-program/
Emelko, Monica B., Uldis Silins, Kevin D. Bladon, and Micheal Stone. “Implications of Land
Disturbance on Drinking Water Treatability in a Changing Climate: Demonstrating the Need for
“Source Water Supply and Protection” Strategies”. Water Research 45, no. 2 (2011/01/01/
2011): 461–72.
First Climate. “Water Quality Credits”. https://www.firstclimate.com/en/water-quality-credits/
Gautam, Mahesh R., Kumud Acharya, and Mark Stone. “Best Management Practices for Stormwater
Management in the Desert Southwest”. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education
146, no. 1 (2010/12/01 2010): 39–49.
Government of Saskatchewan. “Farm Stewardship Program (Fsp)”. https://www.saskatchewan.ca/
business/agriculture-natural-resources-and-industry/agribusiness-farmers-and-ranchers/ca
nadian-agricultural-partnership-cap/environmental-sustainability-and-climate-change/farm-
stewardship-program-fsp
ICPDR. “Tnmn – Transnational Monitoring Network”. https://www.icpdr.org/main/activities-
projects/tnmn-transnational-monitoring-network.
———. “Watching the Danube´ Beyond the Jds” (2013). http://www.danubesurvey.org/jds3/jds3-
files/nodes/documents/factsheet7-jds3_1.pdf.
Mallarino, Matt Helmers and Antonio. “Agricultural Phosphorus Management and Water Quality
Protection in the Midwest”. (2005). https://store.extension.iastate.edu/product/Agricultural-
Phosphorus-Management-and-Water-Quality-Protection-in-the-Midwest-EPA-Region-7.
Mehan III, G. Tracy, and Adam T. Carpenter. “Bringing Agriculture and Drinking Water Utilities
Together for Source Water Protection”. Journal – AWWA 111, no. 8 (2019): 34–39.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. “Industrial Stormwater: Best Management Practices
Guidebook”. (2015). https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/wq-strm3-26.pdf
Natural Water Retention Measures. “Low Till Agriculture”. (2015). http://nwrm.eu/measure/low-till-
agriculture.
New York State Department of State. “New York State Guidebook Watershed Plans Protecting and
Restoring Water Quality”. (2009). https://www.dos.ny.gov/opd/sser/pdf/
WatershedPlansGuidebook.pdf.
NYC DEP. “High Quality Nyc Tap Water Receives New Filtration Waiver”. https://www1.nyc.gov/of
fice-of-the-mayor/news/779-17/high-quality-nyc-tap-water-receives-new-filtration-waiver
OECD. “Efficient and Effective Use of Tradeable Permits in Combination with Other Policy
Instruments” (2003). www.oecd.org/env/cc/2957650.pdf
———. “Guiding Principles of Effective Environmental Permitting Systems” (2007). https://www.
oecd.org/env/outreach/37311624.pdf
———. “Oecd Policy Instruments for the Environment”. (2016). http://www.oecd.org/environment/
tools-evaluation/PINE_Metadata_Definitions_2016.pdf
———. “Tradeable Permits: Policy Evaluation, Design and Reform”. (2004). https://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/environment/tradeable-permits_9789264015036-en.
Said, A., G. Sehlke, D. K. Stevens, T. Glover, D. Sorensen, W. Walker, and T. Hardy. “Exploring an
Innovative Watershed Management Approach: From Feasibility to Sustainability”. Energy 31,
no. 13 (2006/10/01/ 2006): 2373–86.
 References 105

Seitz, Steffen, Philipp Goebes, Viviana Loaiza Puerta, Engil Isadora Pujol Pereira, Raphaël Wittwer,
Johan Six, Marcel G. A. van der Heijden, and Thomas Scholten. “Conservation Tillage and
Organic Farming Reduce Soil Erosion”. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39, no. 1
(2018/12/18 2018): 4.
Skoulikaris, Charalampos, and Antigoni Zafirakou. “River Basin Management Plans as a Tool for
Sustainable Transboundary River Basins’ Management”. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research 26, no. 15 (2019/05/01 2019): 14835–48.
SSWM. “Tradable Water Rights”. http://archive.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/water-
distribution/software/economic-tools/tradable-water-rights.
Terrado, Marta, Andrea Momblanch, Mònica Bardina, Laurie Boithias, Antoni Munné, Sergi
Sabater, Abel Solera, and Vicenç Acuña. “Integrating Ecosystem Services in River Basin
Management Plans”. Journal of Applied Ecology 53, no. 3 (2016): 865–75.
Texas A&M University. “Watershed Approach to Water Quality Managment”. https://texaswater.
tamu.edu/surface-water/watershed-water-quality-management.html.
US EPA. “Source Water Protection”. https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection.
———. “Water Quality Trading”. https://www.epa.gov/npdes/water-quality-trading.
———. “Water Quality Trading Toolkit for Permit Writers”. (2009). https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/
pubs/wqtradingtoolkit.pdf
World Bank. “Watershed Management Approaches, Policies, and Operations: Lessons for Scaling
Up”. (2008). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/TURKEYEXTN/Resources/361711-
1216301653427/5218036-1267432900822/WatershedExperience-en.pdf
Wu, Jing, Shaw L. Yu, and Rui Zou. “A Water Quality-Based Approach for Watershed Wide Bmp
Strategies1”. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 42, no. 5 (2006/10/
01 2006): 1193–204.
Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality Water Quality Division Nonpoint Source Program.
“Cropland Best Management Practice Manual: Conservation Practices to Protect Surface and
Ground Water”. (2013). http://deq.wyoming.gov/media/attachments/Water%20Quality/
Nonpoint%20Source/Best%20Management%20Practices/2013_wqd-wpp-Nonpoint-Source_
Cropland-Best-Management-Practice-Manual.pdf.
Chapter 7
Smart digital water management and managing
customers of the future

Abstract: Smart digital water management is the use of Information and Communication
Technology to provide real-time, automated data for use in resolving water chal-
lenges across a range of scales and differing contexts. Smart digital water man-
agement enables water utilities and customers to integrate smart principles into
their strategies. Meanwhile, water utilities need to move away from viewing customers
as recipients of services and instead view them as active participants in the delivery of
those services. At the same time, there are growing customer expectations of the level
of service delivered by water utilities.

Keywords: Smart Digital Water Management, Smart Water Grids, Smart Water Meters,
Social Media

Introduction

Smart digital water management is the use of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) to provide real-time, automated data for use in resolving water
challenges across a range of scales and differing contexts. Smart digital water man-
agement enables water utilities to integrate smart principles into urban, regional, and
national strategies. Meanwhile, customers are not just passive consumers of water serv-
ices, but instead, they are in the middle of the water chain, with customer behaviour
demanding clean water, which affects the volume of water taken from the environ-
ment, treated, and transported for use. At the same time, it is the customer’s behaviour
that drives demand for how much wastewater needs to be removed, treated, and re-
turned to the environment. Furthermore, customers are becoming active participants
in the delivery of water resources while expecting higher levels of service.1 This chapter
will first discuss the concept of smart digital water management, followed by its com-
ponents before discussing managing customers of the future.

7.1 Smart digital water management

There are many applications for smart digital water management including water
quality monitoring, water efficiency improvement, efficient irrigation, leak detection,
pressure and flow management, and floods and drought monitoring.2,3 Smart

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-007
108 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

digital water management allows conventional water and wastewater systems to

become:
– Instrumented: The ability to detect, sense, measure, and record data
– Interconnected: The ability to communicate and interact with operators and
people who manage the systems
– Intelligent: The ability to analyse the situation, enable quick responses, and op-
timise troubleshooting solutions

Smart systems allow informed and systematic decision making for water utilities,
based on accurate and timely information. There are a few benefits that can be real-
ised by implementing smart digital water management, examples of which are sum-
marised in Table 7.1.4,5

Table 7.1: Benefits of Smart Digital Water Management.

Benefit Description

Social – Improved access to clean water and sanitation through water treatment and
monitoring
– Health improvements through access to clean, safe water
– Improved livelihoods through job creation, higher productivity, and
educational opportunities
– Greater collaboration with community through increased engagement and
knowledge-sharing
– Increased gender equality through increased opportunities for capacity
building and further education

Economic – Increased efficiency in water and wastewater treatment systems

– Reduced waste through lower leakage levels
– Job creation through project research, design, development, and
implementation
– Reduction in future infrastructure costs by improving capacity and efficiency,
resulting in less need for additional infrastructure

Environmental – Improved water quality through reduced pollution and contamination of

waterways
– Improved ecosystem health and protection through improved water quality
and water quantity
– Increased groundwater protection
– Lower carbon emissions from reduced energy consumption and increased
energy efficiency
– Lower water consumption through leak detection and reduced demand
 7.1 Smart digital water management 109

7.1.1 Categories of smart digital water management technologies

Smart digital water management technologies can be divided into three categories
depending on who is using or adopting the technology:
– Type 1 institutional user: Technologies are aimed at major institutional users
such as water suppliers, water managers, and water treatment plants. Users
adopt the technologies in a straightforward manner due to incentives, for ex-
ample, improved efficiency, environmental benefits or because of regulations
or targets introduced by government agencies
– Type 2 individual user: Technologies are aimed at many individual users. The
implementation of technologies is more complex as it requires individuals to
change what they are doing. Individuals are less likely to respond to economic
incentives because of perceived inconveniences of taking up the new technol-
ogy. However, the total impact is large and therefore social benefit is high
– Type 3 institutional and individuals combined: This is where an institution de-
velops and implements a technology, but the success relies on the individual
user, and therefore this approach requires some engagement6

7.1.2 Smart digital water management system components

Smart digital water management system components can be divided into digital
output instruments (meters and sensors), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and software for a wide
range of purposes.

7.1.2.1 Digital output instruments

Digital output instruments are used to collect and transmit information in real-time
for a variety of applications including water quality monitoring, real time leak de-
tection, and pressure management:
– Water quality monitoring: Water quality is impacted by non-point and point sour-
ces and includes sewage discharge, discharge from industries, runoff from agri-
cultural fields, and urban runoff from impervious surfaces. Other sources of
contamination include floods and droughts. Water quality monitoring is the col-
lection of information at set locations at regular intervals that provide data that
can be used to determine current conditions and establish trends. The main objec-
tives of online water quality monitoring include measurement of key water quality
parameters including microbial, physical, and chemical properties as to identify
deviations in parameters and provide early warning of hazards. Also, real-time
monitoring can inform stakeholders of activities impacting water quality
110 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

– Real-time leak detection: Meters are usually read by manual meter reading
which is an expensive and highly labour-intensive job. Water leaks can go un-
detected for long periods using manual meters, resulting in mounting damage,
and wasted water. Smart water meters can monitor and detect leaks based on
abnormal flow patterns, especially continuous water flow. Water utilities can
install smart meters to detect and quantify the water losses in District Metered
Areas (DMA). The water supplied to a DMA can be compared to the consump-
tion volumes during a defined period and a water balance developed
– Pressure management: Pressure management is the practice of managing water
distribution network pressures to the optimum levels of service, ensuring a suffi-
cient and efficient supply of water to customers. It is one of the most cost-effective
ways of reducing leakage in water distribution networks. The objectives of pres-
sure management for reducing leakage is reducing background leakage, which is
acoustically undetectable seeps at pipe joints and small cracks and are uneco-
nomical to be repaired on an individual basis, reducing the rate of new leaks and
breaks, which occur on mains and service connections, and reducing the flow
rate from any leaks and breaks7–12

Case 7.1: New York City’s water quality monitoring systems

New York City’s Department of Environmental Protection (NYC DEP) uses multiparameter water qual-
ity monitoring systems to ensure early warning detection of issues in its reservoirs. Monitoring
buoys are equipped with sondes that measure dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, pH,
and depth and are installed at different depths below the buoy, helping NYC DEP understand the
dynamics of the reservoirs from top to bottom. Each buoy is equipped with a data acquisition sys-
tem and a spread spectrum radio transceiver and has rechargeable batteries and solar panels. The
data loggers convert the digital outputs of the sondes to outputs that can be sent from the logger
through spread spectrum radio to the SCADA system, where an operator can view and archive the
information. The sondes take readings every 15 minutes, and real-time information is downloaded
and analysed, providing water quality managers with limnological data needed to assess condi-
tions and make the best operational decisions.13

Case 7.2: Yorkshire Water’s Internet of Things approach to real-time leak detection
Yorkshire Water is undertaking a data-led Internet of Things (IoT) approach that will enable the water
company to obtain real-time information and understand trends about its water and sewerage opera-
tions. Intelligence on the condition of the water pipes will enable the company to adopt a ‘predict
and prevent’ approach to the maintenance of its 31,000 kilometres of water mains. To help predict
where and when things will happen on its network, 15,000 ‘acoustic ear’ devices will be installed
into the pipes to listen to the noise flowing water makes. Data generated from this technology will be
analysed by a new team of data scientists based at the company’s control room. The data can be
analysed to help control the flow of water and prevent pipe bursts and leaks happening. It will also
enable the water company to repair any issues within three hours, rather than the current average of
three days. To encourage innovation in the water sector, Yorkshire Water has partnered with the
Open Data Institute and the Datamill North as a data repository to host this data, which includes
pollution data, consumption data, water resource data, leakage data, and bioresource data.14
 7.1 Smart digital water management 111

Case 7.3: United Utilities’ pressure management system

During the 1990s, the introduction of pressure management valves helped United Utilities reduce
leakage levels by 50 percent. As such, pressure reduction stabilises the network and is a proven
way to control leakage. To optimise pressure management, United Utilities has awarded contracts
for the supply of pressure management valve controllers and associated data systems. Currently,
the water company has a centralised command and control function for the water network, which is
managed through an Integrated Control Centre. Automation and control of the pressure manage-
ment valves are needed to optimise water pressure across the network. Currently, there are around
4,000 pressure management valves in place across the network and, via the use of the controllers,
automation and control will be achieved through the installation of remote control of pressure man-
agement valves and pumping stations.15,16

7.1.2.2 SCADA systems

A water distribution network is made up of different operational components, includ-
ing sensors, meters, pumps, and control valves. Components can be monitored or con-
trolled onsite or from a central location. In the past, these operations were usually
done using onsite instrument or control panels. In recent times, water utilities have
transitioned to SCADA systems which measure, acquire information, and control over
a distance. SCADA systems can process information and remotely operate and optimise
systems and processes for a variety of uses. SCADA systems are used for accomplishing
remote monitoring and control of water distribution facilities. The SCADA system’s
data acquisition function can be used for a variety of uses including monitoring storage
tank levels, residual chlorine levels, pH levels, pressures, flows, pump status points
(i.e. on/off), chemical feed station operation, and energy consumption. The SCADA sys-
tem’s control function can be used to optimise distribution system operations; for ex-
ample, storage tank operating levels can be set based on real-time demand.17,18

Case 7.4: Yarra Valley Water’s upgraded SCADA system

Yarra Valley Water has a substantial water network covering over 4,000 square kilometres, including
over 9,000 kilometres of water and 18,000 kilometres of sewer mains. Development in Melbourne’s
growth corridor is increasing pressure on the utility to deliver sustainable water solutions. Yarra
Valley Water’s 30,000-point SCADA system monitors around 550 sites including 11 treatment plants,
67 water pump stations, over 100 sewer relief facilities, nearly 100 sewer pump stations, and 102
sewer flow control facilities. The system had received minimal updates in functionality since it was
installed in 2001 with no graphical interface for mimics and relied on text and tabular displays to
show alarms and status, with basic graphical trending capability for historical analysis. The system
was mainly used as an alarm system, from which the control room generated work requests for the
field crews. Following an upgrade to the system in 2014, staff now have a modern SCADA system that
allows them to monitor the distributed assets and perform predictive and reactive maintenance and
be better able to respond to incidents, such as environmental spills, promptly. Reported faults have
been reduced by 66 percent, and there has been an 80 percent reduction in external support costs.
The new user interface and open database tools allow real-time and historical information to be
made available to operations and strategic planning staff for informed decision-making.19
112 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

7.1.2.3 GIS
A GIS serves as a repository of location information and asset details, based on a
web map with layers corresponding to various systems that can be updated and
shared in real-time with field crews. In water resources management, GIS is used to
monitor water objects while checking the frequency and mapping of the quality of
water sources. GIS can be applied in a variety of ways, including the following:
– Asset management: GIS enables water utilities to know in detail their assets,
what their conditions are, what maintenance is required or the necessary bud-
get, for example, it enables water utilities to determine whether the pipes that
break the most often have a certain diameter or material
– Disaster forecasting: Flood reduction and drought monitoring programmes use
GIS technology for forecasting. GIS determines the range of disaster events in-
cluding magnitudes, frequencies, depth, and velocities
– GIS in surface water and groundwater management: Surface water risk manage-
ment is determined by GIS, with data collected able to predict rainfall, deter-
mine the risk to aquatic habitat from surrounding areas, and assess pollution
levels. GIS can be used to help measure the depth of groundwater as well as its
quality. The groundwater source can be studied before drilling or developing a
water source to reduce the risk of contamination20–22

Case 7.5: GIS transforming Thames Water’s business processes enterprise-wide

Thames Water replaced all its previous, disparate systems with the ArcGIS platform. One of the
water company’s new GIS developments is the integration of ArcGIS into the organisation’s SAP
customer relationship management (CRM) system. Now, when customers contact Thames Water,
call centre agents can locate the caller, identify assets concerning that customer address, and see
any outstanding maintenance activities there. This information makes diagnosing customer issues
easier. The ArcGIS platform also enables the water company to exchange accurate asset and loca-
tion information with its mobile engineers, surveyors, and field workers. When they launch their
laptops, ArcGIS Mobile automatically opens at that location and enables them to enter information
about the job in hand. Any asset updates recorded in the field are automatically audited and trans-
ferred to the central asset database, where they are visible to everyone in the company. Overall,
ArcGIS provides Thames Water with an accurate and up-to-date record of all its assets and makes
this business information available to employees across the business, helping staff make better
decisions, work more efficiently, and deliver a high level of customer service. In the customer con-
tact centre, employees use ArcGIS to help them respond more quickly and appropriately to cus-
tomer queries and issues. In the field, employees are more productive as they can be directed to
the right place straight away and can instantly see the locations of Thames Water’s assets and the
property of other utilities such as buried cables. This enables the workers to speed up repairs and
minimise public inconvenience. Meanwhile, the asset management teams can use ArcGIS to gain a
deeper understanding of the condition of the company’s assets then analyse asset performance
and make informed decisions about which assets need replacing first and where investments
should be directed. Overall, this ensures a better return on capital.23
 7.1 Smart digital water management 113

7.1.2.4 Software
Software is used to store, use, and report data. It can be used for modelling of in-
frastructure and environmental systems, decision-making, and risk management.
Software is usually integrated with SCADA and/or GIS to manage water networks,
control pressure, and monitor leakage. Software is also used for smart metering,
billing and collections, hydrological modelling for water security, and cloud-
based management and hosting options. For instance, online portals can be de-
veloped that provide customers with household consumption data at the yearly,
monthly, daily, and even hourly level as well as historical consumption patterns,
leak information, and water use comparisons with similar households, all in an
interactive, web-based format. Customers who sign into these portals are often
provided access to customisable leak detection alerts and notifications. Customers
that set up automated leak alerts typically have them delivered to their smart-
phones when the system detects a leak on their property at a specified scale.24,25

Case 7.6: DC Water’s high usage alerts

The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority’s (DC Water) customers can sign up for high
water usage alerts (HUNA) to get notified if their water usage is higher than average. If there is a
broken pipe or leaking toilet, HUNA may be the customer’s first indication. This may help them de-
termine the source of the problem and avoid high water bills. Customers that are already registered
for My DC Water are automatically registered for the alerts via email. The service is linked to a tool
that tracks how much water a customer uses on a daily, monthly, and yearly basis. Once the utility
has tracked the customer’s water usage for a full year, it can let the customer know when their
water usage is significantly higher for four consecutive days with a spike in water usage potentially
due to a leaking toilet, unattended hose or an internal plumbing issue or leaky faucet.26

7.1.3 Smart water grids and smart water meters

A smart water grid integrates ICT into the management of the water distribution sys-
tem. Sensors, meters, digital controls, and analytic tools are used to automate, moni-
tor, and control the transmission and distribution of water. Smart water grids aim to
ensure water is efficiently delivered only when and where it is needed and that the
water is of good quality. Smart water grids provide a wide range of benefits, including:
– Real-time monitoring of asset condition and preventative maintenance: With ad-
vanced sensors, data can be gathered on pipeline conditions and used to de-
velop a risk-based model for pipe replacement projects. This enables utilities to
better plan and schedule mains replacements and rehabilitation programmes
– Real-time pressure and water quality monitoring: Real-time sensor and meter
data allow water utilities to quickly detect leaks to minimise water losses as
well as detect stress in pipes early to mitigate the risk of pipe bursts. Water util-
ities can also use this technology to continuously monitor water quality in the
distribution pipelines, providing early warning of potential contamination
114 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

– Real-time water consumption information to help customers conserve water:

Smart water grids and smart water meter technology enables water utilities to
provide customers with real-time feedback on water, as well as energy, usage.
This helps customers make informed choices with regards to water consump-
tion. Also, usage data from smart meters enable more accurate demand predic-
tion for optimising water pumping schedules and the volume of water required
to treat and pump27,28

Case 7.7: SA Water’s Smart Water Network

In 2017, SA Water implemented a Smart Water Network in Adelaide’s Central Business District. The
network is comprised of 100 smart meters at 70 business customer sites and over 300 sensors –
measuring flow, pressure, and water quality as well as acoustic leak detection – to provide near
real-time information about what is occurring in the water network 24/7. This helps the utility iden-
tify and proactively fix leaks before they impact customers and commuters. The immediate benefits
are less water loss and fewer water service interruptions and commuter delays. Since then, the
Smart Water Network has been expanded across metro and regional South Australia. SA Water has
also installed 88 flow and level sensors and one weather station in various parts of the Adelaide
foothills suburbs to provide real-time information on the movement of sewage through pipes, aim-
ing to find blockages before they can result in overflows. The water utility has also installed 88
odour sensors and three weather stations at Gawler, north of Adelaide, where detectable sewer
odour levels in some areas of the town have been consistently above average.29,30

7.1.4 Artificial intelligence and machine learning

Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines or computers, al-

lowing them to perform tasks such as understanding, learning, reasoning, plan-
ning, and more. In its current application, AI systems can rationally solve complex
problems, predict outcomes, and act in real-world situations to achieve goals. The
spectrum of AI is expanding and includes:
– Automated intelligence systems that take repeated, labour-intensive tasks re-
quiring intelligence, and automatically completes them
– Assisted intelligence systems review and reveal patterns in historical data and
help people perform tasks more quickly and better use the information collected
– Augmented intelligence systems that use AI to help people understand and pre-
dict an uncertain future
– Autonomous intelligence systems that automate decision-making without human
intervention

In the context of water resources management, a wide variety of IoT sensors and
other data-driven technologies can continuously collect data on different phases in
the water supply and demand. As such, AI can be used in a variety of contexts as
summarised in Table 7.2.31–33
 7.1 Smart digital water management 115

Table 7.2: Contexts that AI Can be Used in Water Resources Management.

Context Example

Water supply – Water supply monitoring and management

– Water quality simulation and data alerts
– Asset management on critical water and wastewater expenditures

Catchment – Harmful algal blooms detection and monitoring

control – Streamflow forecasting
– Automated flood-centred infrastructure

Water efficiency – Residential water use monitoring and management

– Optimisation of industrial water use
– Predictive maintenance of water plants
– An early-warning system for water infrastructure
– Detect underground leaks in potable water supply systems
– Smart meters in homes

Adequate – Drones and AI for real-time monitoring of river quality

sanitation – Ensuring adequate sanitation of water reserves
– Real-time monitoring and management of household water supply

Drought – Drought prediction

planning – Simulations for drought planning
– Drought-impact assessments

7.1.4.1 Machine learning

Machine learning (ML) is a subset of AI that helps derive meaning from data generated
by people, devices, and smart systems etc. Increasingly, the volume of data collected
is surpassing the ability of humans to make sense of it and use it efficiently. ML uses
this data to create predictions or answer questions. Specifically, a predictive model is
trained using data to create predictions or answer questions, with the more data gath-
ered, the more the model can be refined, and new predictive models developed.34

Case 7.8: Melbourne Water’s AI programme saving energy

Melbourne Water’s Winneke Treatment plant is one of the utility’s primary water treatment sites for
Melbourne’s potable drinking water. Each day, around 350 million litres of water moves through the
plant before being distributed to millions of homes and businesses across the City. The plant has a
daily targeted flow rate for water production to ensure the City always has the right amount of water.
This rate varies each day, and so different pumps run at different speeds. Melbourne Water is trialling
a customised, in-house built, AI programme that mines historical pump operational data to ‘learn’ the
most efficient pump configuration for any time of the day or week, ensuring the utility’s pumps operate
at maximum efficiency while ensuring the required flow rate. It is estimated that the project will reduce
Melbourne Water’s pump station energy costs at the site by around 20 percent per annum.35
116 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

7.2 Managing customers of the future

Water utilities need to move away from viewing customers as recipients of services
and instead view them as active participants in the delivery of those services.
Customers and communities also have knowledge, skills, and creativity that can
solve problems and help find ways to innovate. At the same time, there are growing
customer expectations of the level of service delivered by water utilities.36,37

7.2.1 Customer participation

Ofwat defines customer participation as “the active involvement of customers in the

design, production, delivery, consumption, disposal and enjoyment of water, water serv-
ices and the water environment in the home, at work and in the community”. There are
different levels of customer engagement and involvement that water utilities can in-
corporate in their strategies to enhance customer participation, including:
– Level 1: Listening and understanding: Understanding what is important about
water in the lives of different customer groups
– Level 2: Listening and acting: Listening to different customer groups and acting
on what is heard to achieve business objectives
– Level 3: Engaging and involving: Involving customers or their representatives by
making it easy for them to propose specific ideas or solutions to achieve change
– Level 4: Customer participation: Increasing active customer participation to bring
these ideas to life

There is a range of benefits that customers can receive through participation includ-
ing influencing the future, protecting lifestyles, improving local environments, im-
proving customer service, saving money, saving water, avoiding the risk of flooding,
avoiding the risk of sewer flooding, and feeling in control.38

7.2.1.1 Strategic framework to increase customer participation

Ofwat has proposed a strategic framework (Table 7.3) that water utilities can follow
when aiming to increase customer participation. The framework allows a water util-
ity to achieve a variety of ambitions, including:
– Co-imaging the future with their customers
– Co-creating the future with their customers
– Engaging customers to adopt actions or behaviours at scale to achieve real
change
– Engaging citizens to own improvements to water resilience in their communities
– Giving customers more control over water in their homes
– Giving customers more control over their service experience39
 7.2 Managing customers of the future 117

Table 7.3: Strategic Framework to Increase Customer Participation.

Area Aim Benefits

Futures: Customer Enhancing customer – Increased customer support for plans

participation in the participation to improve the – Improvements to customer
sector’s future current and future satisfaction and customer trust
sustainability of water in the – Innovative ideas from customers to
lives of customers help achieve sector goals
– Active engagement to create a
resilient future for water

Action: Increasing Increasing customer – Increases the opportunity for financial

customer action to behaviour change actions, benefits
improve resilience including saving water – Reduces costs
– Improves sector resilience

Community: Increasing People acting together in – A feeling of shared ownership in local

community ownership local areas can make communities
and participation improvements to their local – Increased understanding of the
water environment importance of water
– Peer group persuasion

Experience: Increasing Increasing customer control – Customer satisfaction increasing

participation in the of water in their home or of following contact
customer experience the customer service – Reduced repeat calls on customer
experience service issues
– Product and service improvement
ideas from customers

7.2.1.2 Strategies and tools to increase customer participation

A variety of strategies and tools can be implemented by water utilities to increase
customer participation, including the following:
– Personalisation: Customer participation strategies need to make the customer
feel special which promotes loyalty, which in turn makes the customer become
an ambassador of the brand
– Exclusivity: Customer participation can reward loyal customers with access, infor-
mation, and exclusive offers. Making a customer feel like a VIP enhances the con-
nection between the customer and the brand, which increases the likelihood of the
customer promoting the brand inside their social environment online and offline
– Smartphone apps: Smartphone apps provide customers with new ways of man-
aging, calculating, communicating, and evaluating environmental information,
potentially empowering customers to play an important role in the promotion
of sustainable consumption
– Gamification: Gamification is the use of game designs in non-game contexts.
Gamification encourages customers to adopt the behaviour associated with the
118 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

game. Specifically, gamification can guide and motivate customers to change

their behaviours and achieve meaningful long-term objectives. Customers can
also share their game results with friends, increasing the social network influ-
ence of the brand40–42

Case 7.9: Personalisation: Austin’s Green Business Leaders saving water

The City of Austin runs the Austin Green Business Leaders programme which offers official recognition
for businesses that take actions to protect the local environment while at the same time saving money
and attracting new customers. Regarding water, Austin Green Business Leaders can participate in the
3C Business Challenge. To receive the 3C Business Challenge Certificate, businesses must:
– Sign and submit a completed form and checklist
– Identify and fix any leaks and adjust existing water-using equipment so that they are operating
efficiently and without waste
– Make sure plumbing fixtures and water using equipment comply with existing codes and
ordinances
– Evaluate the replacement or retrofit of equipment to more efficient models using Austin Water
rebate opportunities or successfully participate in the utility’s audit rebate programme

Overall, businesses that excel in the Austin Green Business Leaders programme are formally recog-
nised as Silver, Gold, or Platinum Green Business leaders, have their business featured on the
City’s website and can place the programme logo on the storefront window and company website,
and join the network of Austin’s top sustainable companies, enabling them to make new connec-
tions, share best practices, and learn from peers at members-only events.43

Case 7.10: Exclusivity: Ventura Water’s Capture Conservation contest

Over the summer period of 2016, Ventura Water in California ran its Capture Conservation contest
which aimed to highlight the community’s response to the call to water conservation. As part of
Ventura Water’s annual summer awareness campaign, residents were invited to share photos of
how the drought has inspired them to save water. Contestants took a photo that captured their
water conservation story and posted the photo to Instagram, Facebook, or Twitter with the hashtag
#keepsavingventura. The winners went above and beyond the call of duty to minimise their water
footprint. Contest winners were awarded the following prizes:
– Five Deluxe car washes compliments of Final Details
– Four Golf N’ Stuff tickets
– 40 percent off coupon to Patagonia
– Two tickets to Santa Cruz Island
– $100 gift card to Green Thumb Nursery44

Case 7.11: Smartphone apps: The City of San Diego’s ‘Waste No Water’ smartphone app
The City of San Diego’s ‘Waste No Water’ smartphone app discourages wasteful use of water. The app,
available for iPhone and Android, enables users to report sightings of violations of the City’s water
restrictions. The basis of the app is that addressing and correcting waste serves as a valuable conser-
vation tool and helps educate the public on what restrictions are currently in place. The app allows
users to report water waste immediately by photographing the issue and obtaining the offending ad-
dress through the app’s GPS, then submitting the information to the City’s Conservation Department.
A complaint file number is generated for staff to address. To use the app, users can either sign in
 7.2 Managing customers of the future 119

under their profile or as a guest. However, only users with a profile can track the complaint submitted.
App users signed in under their profile can, in addition to submitting trackable complaints, receive
important notifications such as changes in watering restrictions and changes in time-of-day watering.
They can also request a water survey of their residence or business to help optimise water use, con-
nect with Waste No Water’s social media accounts, and access the City’s water rebate programs.45

Case 7.12: Gamification: The SmartH2O project

The SmartH2O project was funded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program for Research
and Innovation. The programme aimed to create a communication channel and a continuous feedback
loop between water users and utility companies, providing customers with information on their con-
sumption in near real-time while enabling water utilities to plan and implement strategies to reduce
or reallocate water consumption. Specifically, the project involved:
– Creating an ICT platform to capture and store near real-time, high-resolution residential water
usage data measured with smart meters
– Inferring the main determinants of residential water uses and building customer behaviour
models
– Predicting how customer behaviour can be influenced by various water demand management
strategies, ranging from dynamic water pricing schemes to social awareness campaigns

To encourage water savings, a gamified social game was created where consumers were encouraged
to save water in return for points, badges, and prizes based on their actions. Leaderboards and
weekly/monthly competitions provided a social dimension to the game and increased engagement and
motivation to participate by creating a sense of community. Users of the game were encouraged to
provide detailed profile information about their demographics and their household configuration.46,47

7.2.1.3 Social media strategies to increase customer participation

Water utilities are utilising a range of social media channels, including Twitter,
Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube among others, to engage with customers, build
brand visibility and popularity, inform customers of products, and offer customer
services. Social media strategies that aim to increase customer participation can in-
clude the following:
1. Build consumer connections: Most often a water utility’s social media practice
revolves around outage notifications and communication, with water utilities
using social media channels to proactively inform customers about a planned
outage and quickly respond to a large base of customers regarding an outage,
breakdown or disruption due to natural calamities. Water utilities can integrate
their social media communication with their CRM function with social media
communications going out in a few seconds of an outage, followed by calls,
emails, and physical customer care visits within hours of the outage
2. Create customer awareness: Water utilities can use social media to educate their
customers on topics such as water conservation, advantages of smart meters, and
industry trends. Social media can also be utilised to generate user-specific aware-
ness regarding changes in pricing or billing. Smart meter customer awareness
120 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

revolves around increasing awareness on issues such as ‘what are the benefits for
customers’, ‘how can the consumer manage consumption’, ‘how can the con-
sumer be impacted during installation’
3. Create brand awareness: Customers are increasingly using social media to build
or destroy the reputation of their service providers. Social media provides water
utilities with the opportunity to manage brand perception and map customer
sentiments towards the brand. Brands can also use their social media presence
to manage customer satisfaction effectively
4. Offer water advice and tips: Social media can be used to educate customers
about water conservation and water efficiency technologies. Water utilities can
use social media to reach out to customers rather than adopting the expensive
traditional ways of creating and managing audio-visual campaigns. This mode
can be used to promote web-based tools to help consumers analyse their
monthly usage and work towards a lower bill. Many water utilities are pursuing
two-way discussions with customers on ways to save water, as well as energy,
and the importance of water conservation. Real-time communication with cus-
tomers across multiple platforms tends to increase engagement and allow ‘vir-
tual’ conversations with the customer48

Case 7.13: Summary of social media strategies to engage customers

A few water utilities have initiated a range of social media strategies on Twitter to engage customers,
examples of which are provided in Table 7.4.49

Table 7.4: Examples of Social Media Strategies on Twitter to Engage Customers.

Water Utility Social Media Strategy

San Antonio Water San Antonio Water System’s Twitter feed includes educational information,
System for example, what to flush/what not to flush/where to take the things you
should not flush, community cheerleading, for example, ‘go, go high
schoolers’, and talk on food, in particular on good tacos

Northumbrian Water Northumbrian Water’s Twitter feed includes shots of the region’s waterways
and protection efforts, strangest things to find in pipes, along with a mix of
serious and humorous tweets

San Jose Water San Jose Water tweets almost exclusively about customer desires, from
outages to meet-and-greets. They sometimes provide a recipe that can be
made with San Jose water

Yarra Valley Water Yarra Valley Water informs its customers daily on issues along with tweets to
encourage the use of reusable bottles and to ‘Be Smart. Choose Tap’

Southern Water Southern Water provides educational polls, heartfelt videos, and detailed
snapshots of daily life inside the utility
 7.2 Managing customers of the future 121

With regards to measuring customer participation across social media, there are
three main metrics available that can be followed up:
– Commitment metrics: Commitment metrics are based on the percentage of cus-
tomers committed, which is determined by basics such as site traffic, fans, fol-
lowers, likes, and shares etc.
– Customer metrics: Customer metrics can be used to focus on enhancing custom-
ers’ loyalty, for example, net promoter score is the percentage of customers rat-
ing their likelihood of recommending a company, a product, or a service to a
friend or colleague
– Financial impact: Financial impact involves identifying customer profiles and
then conducting targeted campaigns such as contests and promotions to deter-
mine a return on investment50

7.2.2 Enhancing customer experiences across the water distribution network

There are a variety of strategies water utilities can implement to enhance customer
experiences across the water distribution network, including the following summar-
ised in Table 7.5.51,52

Table 7.5: Strategies to Enhance Customer Experiences.

Strategy Description Examples

Analytics Predictive analytics and modelling – Postcode-driven early warning

can pre-empt issues and encourage messages can inform customers of
proactive action by customers planned works that will reduce water
pressure
– Integrating weather and temperature
data can help customers take
preventative action to avoid frozen
pipes or anticipate the risk of flooding

Automation Automation can deliver service – Robots can detect leaks in the
improvements with new technologies distribution system
such as robots and sensors able to – Sensors can detect water quality
detect problems in the water network issues in reservoirs and water
before they affect customers pipelines

Influencing Smartphone apps and digital devices – A higher than normal bill could trigger
behaviour can deliver timely and targeted water-saving advice along with
change prompts to help people to keep track examples of how much water can be
of the water they are using saved on the next bill via Internet
portals or app channels
122 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

Table 7.5 (continued )

Strategy Description Examples

Community Customer engagement can extend – Online community platforms make it

engagement beyond functional customer service easier for customers to engage with
contact and problem resolution. utilities on issues
Utilities can run schemes that help – AI can deliver bespoke flooding
local communities information to customers, making sure
they know how to respond when
problems occur
– Interactive maps can be used to enable
customers to report leaks

Self-service Self-service allows customers to forgo – Apps that allow customers to make
call centres. This means water payments, submit meter readings, and
utilities are more accessible and view payment history
responsive to customers /. – Report leaks
Developments in conversational
technology including chatbots, voice
interfaces, and conversational search
are helping customers find the
information they need more easily

Case 7.14: Analytics: Hamburg’s online, real-time heavy rain map

Hamburg Wasser has created an online heavy rain map that provides residents with information on
rainfall intuitively and transparently. The tool lets users see how much precipitation has occurred,
making it easier for people to classify and compare rainfall. The heavy rain is divided into 12 lev-
els – from moderate to extreme. The colour representation in the index ranges from green to yel-
low, orange to red and to violet. Very rarely is the threshold for heavy rain reached with 90 percent
of all rain in Germany not considered to be heavy. The online tool shows in real-time whether,
where, and to what extent it is raining in Hamburg and the metropolitan region. For this purpose,
radar data from the German Weather Service and rain data from Hamburg Wasser’s own measuring
points are combined. The information is assigned to fields with a size of 500x500 metres on a map
of the metropolitan region, totalling around 24,000 fields. This gives a very precise picture of the
current rainfall on a site. The online map is updated every five minutes, and users can set the time
period up to a maximum of three days back. The fields are coloured according to the amount of
rain: light rain in shades of blue and heavy rain from green to violet. When zooming in, rain levels
and heavy rain indices are also displayed as a value. This information enables Hamburg residents
to become sensitive to the effects of climate change. It encourages property owners to become
aware of green infrastructure solutions to heavy rainfall events, such as permeable car parks. The
City itself is also preparing to become a ’sponge city’ with the aim of relieving the sewage system
by temporarily storing the rainwater and then slowly releasing it again by unsealing areas, creating
more green roofs or turning parks, squares or streets into temporary water storage areas.53
 7.2 Managing customers of the future 123

Case 7.15: Automation: Singapore’s robotic swans testing water quality

Singapore’s Public Utilities Board (PUB) has created the Smart Water Assessment Network (SWAN)
robot to monitor water quality in the five reservoirs of Marina, Punggol, Serangoon, Pandan, and
Kranji. In the past, water sampling was conducted manually and through stationary online water
quality profiler stations that continuously monitored basic water quality. SWAN complements this
process by automating the process of monitoring raw water quality in real-time and in hard-to-
reach locations, with each SWAN collecting pH, conductivity, chlorophyll levels, and turbidity. To
ensure the robot does not disturb the natural environment while collecting the data, designers
from PUB and the National University of Singapore’s Environmental Research Institute and Tropical
Marine Science Institute came up with the swan design. Each SWAN is fitted with a water quality
sampler and water quality profiler to monitor water in real-time with data sent back to PUB live.
The SWANs also have an inbuilt camera to capture photos of the water surface. With this range of
technology, the robots can work autonomously only requiring basic monitoring and operational
maintenance, freeing up resources to perform other tasks.54

Case 7.16: Influencing behaviour change: Singapore’s smart water meter trial
PUB is rolling out the first phase of its Smart Water Meter Programme. This will involve the installa-
tion of 300,000 smart water meters in new and existing residential, commercial, and industrial
premises by 2023. By leveraging digital technologies, PUB aims to encourage behavioural change
towards water conservation, optimise water demand management, and achieve greater operational
efficiencies. Two trials have been undertaken to date in 2016 and 2018, where a total of 800 house-
holds reported average water savings of five percent due to early leak detection and adoption of
water-saving habits. As part of the trial, households were given a smart meter that registers and
transmits water usage readings wirelessly to PUB. A smartphone app for trial participants to down-
load allowed them to access their daily water consumption data. By viewing the daily usage trend
in the app, the participants were able to monitor their water usage and make water-saving adjust-
ments as needed.55

Case 7.17: Community engagement: Essex and Suffolk Water’s leaks in your area map
Essex and Suffolk Water have developed an online water leak map where customers can inform the
water company about a leak in their area and track the water company’s progress in solving the
issue. The leaks the company knows about are marked with an icon with customers able to click on it
to find out more information. If there is no icon on the map for a leak, then the water company does
not know about it, and so customers can fill out an online form to update the map. When customers
report a leak, the following steps are taken:
– Step 1: The information about the leak is recorded, and the water company will send a leakage
technician to the leak location within 1–5 days, depending on the severity and location of the
leak. If the leak is on the water company’s pipes, the company will schedule a repair
– Step 2: If the leak is on a private pipe work, the company will advise the owner and agree to a
date that the leak should be repaired by
– Step 3: Because the water pipes run under roads and footpaths, the water company often
requires permission from local councils before it can start digging. To ensure the safety of
road users, pedestrians, and the water company’s crews, there may be the need for temporary
traffic lights or diversion of traffic. If this is the case, the council will carry out an assessment,
and if they feel there is too much work already going on in the area they will provide a date for
which the water company can return to fix the leak, which may be up to 21 days later
124 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

– Step 4: A water company repair crew will visit the site, dig up the road or footpath to repair
the leak followed by reinstatement of the area
– Step 5: A permanent repair to the hole in the road or footpath will be made56

Case 7.18: Self service: Southern Water’s report a leak service

Customers of Southern Water can report a leak using an online form. First, customers can use the
postcode checker to see whether the leak is located within the water company’s region. If it is,
customers can tell the company about the leak by answering the following questions:
1. How bad is the leak? Running water or trickling?
2. Is the water clear? Yes or no
3. Where is the leak? Images included in the report can help the water company make better as-
sessments and fix leaks quicker. If possible, customers can attach a photo of the leak and the
surrounding area. The specific questions customers are to answer are:
a. Location (nearest landmark, for example, shop, door number, building)
b. What is the Street, Town, and Postcode?
c. Where is the leak coming from?
i. Through the ground
ii. From a cover
iii. Other
4. Contact details (name, contact number, email, and whether the customer wishes to be kept up
to date with the leak via a call or text)57

Notes

1 Ofwat, “Tapped in – from Passive Customer to Active Participant Report,” (2017), https://www.
ofwat.gov.uk/publication/tapped-in-from-passive-customer-to-active-participant/.
2 ADB, “Public-Private Partnerships and Smart Technologies for Water Sector Development,”
(2013), http://events.development.asia/system/files/materials/2018/07/201807-public-private-
partnerships-and-smart-technologies-water-sector-development-summary.pdf.
3 IWRA and K-Water, “Smart Water Management Case Study Report,” (2018), https://www.iwra.
org/swmreport/.
4 ADB, “Public-Private Partnerships and Smart Technologies for Water Sector Development”.
5 IWRA and K-Water, “Smart Water Management Case Study Report”.
6 Ibid.
7 Kazeem B. Adedeji et al., “Pressure Management Strategies for Water Loss Reduction in Large-
Scale Water Piping Networks: A Review” (paper presented at the Advances in Hydroinformatics,
Singapore, 2018// 2018).
8 WHO, “Leakage Management and Control – a Best Practice Training Manual,” https://www.
who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/leakage/begin.html#Contents.
9 S. Geetha and S. Gouthami, “Internet of Things Enabled Real Time Water Quality Monitoring
System,” Smart Water 2, no. 1 (2017).
10 A. K. Mamun et al., “Smart Water Quality Monitoring System Design and Kpis Analysis: Case
Sites of Fiji Surface Water,” Sustainability 11, no. 24 (2019).
11 Wesley Schultz, Shahram Javey, and Alla Sorokina, “Smart Water Meters and Data Analytics
Decrease Wasted Water Due to Leaks,” Journal – AWWA 110, no. 11 (2018).
 Notes 125

12 Nourhan Samir et al., “Pressure Control for Minimizing Leakage in Water Distribution Systems,”
Alexandria Engineering Journal 56, no. 4 (2017).
13 YSI, “Ysi Technology Used to Monitor Source Water before Reaching Treatment Plants in Nyc,”
(2016), https://www.ysi.com/File%20Library/Documents/Application%20Notes/A507-Monitoring-
Source-Water-Before-It-Reaches-Treatment-Plants-in-New-York-City.pdf.
14 Yorkshire Water, “Open Data,” https://www.yorkshirewater.com/open-data/
15 United Utilities, “Final Water Resources Management Plan” (2015), https://www.unitedutilities.
com/globalassets/z_corporate-site/about-us-pdfs/water-resources/wrmpmainreport_acc17.pdf.
16 WaterBriefing, “United Utilities Awards Amp7 Contracts for Supply of Pressure Management
Valve Controllers,” https://www.waterbriefing.org/home/contracts/item/17094-united-utilities-
awards-amp7-contracts-for-supply-of-pressure-management-valve-controllers.
17 G.J. Kirmeyer and AWWA Research Foundation, Guidance Manual for Maintaining Distribution
System Water Quality (AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association, 2000).
18 Kentucky Water Resources Research Institute, “Water Distribution System Toolkit,” http://
www.uky.edu/WDST/SCADA.html.
19 Process Technology, “Scada Upgrade Benefits Yarra Valley Water,” https://www.processonline.
com.au/content/process-control-systems/article/scada-upgrade-benefits-yarra-valley-water-340743931.
20 ADB, “Public-Private Partnerships and Smart Technologies for Water Sector Development”.
21 Umwelt und Informationstechnologie Zentrum, “Gis in Water Resource Monitoring,” http://ui
zentrum.de/en/gis-in-water-resource-monitoring-2/
22 Software Advice, “How to Optimize Utility Asset Management with Gis,” https://www.softwar
eadvice.com/resources/optimize-utility-asset-management-with-gis/.
23 Esri, “Transforming Business Processes Enterprise-Wide,” https://resource.esriuk.com/
esri-resources/thames-water/.
24 Schultz, Javey, and Sorokina, “Smart Water Meters and Data Analytics Decrease Wasted Water
Due to Leaks.”
25 ADB, “Public-Private Partnerships and Smart Technologies for Water Sector Development”.
26 DC Water, “High Usage Alerts,” https://www.dcwater.com/high-usage-alerts.
27 Singapore Public Utilities Board, “Managing the Water Distribution Network with a Smart
Water Grid,” Smart Water 1, no. 1 (2016).
28 A. Cominola et al., “Data Mining to Uncover Heterogeneous Water Use Behaviors from Smart Meter
Data,” Water Resources Research 55, no. 11 (2019).
29 SA Water, “Smart Water Network,” https://www.sawater.com.au/current-projects/smart-water-
network
30 “Smart Tech Success in Sa’s Sewers,” https://www.sawater.com.au/news/smart-tech-success-
in-sas-sewers.
31 PwC, “Fourth Industrial Revolution for the Earth Harnessing Artificial Intelligence for the
Earth,” (2018), https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/sustainability/assets/ai-for-the-earth-jan-2018.pdf.
32 IWA, “Ai Basics for Advanced Water Wise Utilities – Part 1,” https://iwa-network.org/ai-basics-
for-advanced-water-wise-utilities-part-1/.
33 Silo.AI, “How Artificial Intelligence Is Transforming the Water Sector: Case Ramboll,” https://
silo.ai/how-artificial-intelligence-is-transforming-the-water-sector-case-ramboll/.
34 IWA, “Ai Basics for Advanced Water Wise Utilities – Part 1”.
35 R.C. Brears, “The Rise of the Machines (in Managing Water),” Mark and Focus, https://medium.
com/mark-and-focus/the-rise-of-the-machines-in-managing-water-96e8c0426178.
36 Ofwat, “Tapped in – from Passive Customer to Active Participant Report”.
37 C. D. Beal and J. Flynn, “Toward the Digital Water Age: Survey and Case Studies of Australian
Water Utility Smart-Metering Programs,” Utilities Policy 32 (2015).
126 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

38 Ofwat, “Tapped in – from Passive Customer to Active Participant Report”.

39 Ibid.
40 Olli Tyrväinen, Heikki Karjaluoto, and Hannu Saarijärvi, “Personalization and Hedonic
Motivation in Creating Customer Experiences and Loyalty in Omnichannel Retail,” Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services 57 (2020).
41 Andreas B. Eisingerich et al., “Hook Vs. Hope: How to Enhance Customer Engagement through
Gamification,” International Journal of Research in Marketing 36, no. 2 (2019).
42 Christian Fuentes and Niklas Sörum, “Agencing Ethical Consumers: Smartphone Apps and the
Socio-Material Reconfiguration of Everyday Life,” Consumption Markets & Culture 22, no. 2 (2019).
43 City of Austin, “Austin Green Business Leaders,” https://austintexas.gov/department/austin-
green-business-leaders.
44 Ventura Water, (2016), https://www.cityofventura.ca.gov/DocumentCenter/View/8309/
Pipeline_nov16_print?>bidId=
45 R.C. Brears, “The ‘Waste No Water’ Smart App,” Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/mark-
and-focus/the-waste-no-water-smart-app-a54d0bef738f.
46 Andrea Cominola et al., “The Smarth2o Project: A Platform Supporting Residential Water
Management through Smart Meters and Data Intensive Modeling,” in American Geophysical Union
2014 Fall Meeting (2014).
47 P. Tsakalides et al., Smart Water Grids: A Cyber-Physical Systems Approach (Boca Raton,
Florida: CRC Press, 2018).
48 WNS, “The Social Media Manual for the Utility Industry: Guidelines, Best-Practices and-
Outsourcing-Strategies,” https://www.wns.com/insights/articles/articledetail/71/the-social-media-
manual-for-the-utility-industry-guidelines-best-practices-and-outsourcing-strategies.
49 Oracle, “New Additions! The Best Water Utility Social Media Accounts You Should Be
Following Right Now,” https://blogs.oracle.com/utilities/the-best-water-utility-social-media-
accounts-you-should-be-following-right-now.
50 A. Moreno-Munoz et al., “Mobile Social Media for Smart Grids Customer Engagement: Emerging
Trends and Challenges,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016).
51 Ecoconsultancy, “How Can Water Companies Use Digital to Improve Customer Experience?,”
https://econsultancy.com/digital-customer-experience-water-ofwat/.
52 West Monroe, “3 Enablers to Water Utility Customer Centricity,” https://blog.westmonroepart
ners.com/does-your-water-utility-have-a-customer-centric-workforce/.
53 R.C. Brears, “Hamburg’S Online, Real-Time Heavy Rain Map,” Mark and Focus, https://me
dium.com/mark-and-focus/hamburg-s-online-real-time-heavy-rain-map-407e64777cc9.
54 “Singapore’s Robotic Swans Testing Water Quality,” Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/
mark-and-focus/singapores-robotic-swans-testing-water-quality-30a97b666679.
55 PUB, “About the Smart Water Meter Programme,” https://www.pub.gov.sg/smartwatermeter
programme/about.
56 Essex and Suffolk Water, “Leaks in Your Area,” https://eswcommunityportal.co.uk/Leaks
57 Southern Water, “Report a Leak,” https://www.southernwater.co.uk/help-advice/leaks/report-
a-leak
 References 127

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partnerships-and-smart-technologies-water-sector-development-summary.pdf.
Adedeji, Kazeem B., Yskandar Hamam, Bolanle T. Abe, and Adnan M. Abu-Mahfouz. “Pressure
Management Strategies for Water Loss Reduction in Large-Scale Water Piping Networks:
A Review”. Paper presented at the Advances in Hydroinformatics, Singapore, 2018// 2018.
Beal, C. D., and J. Flynn. “Toward the Digital Water Age: Survey and Case Studies of Australian
Water Utility Smart-Metering Programs”. Utilities Policy 32 (2015/03/01/ 2015): 29–37.
Brears, R.C. “Hamburg‘S Online, Real-Time Heavy Rain Map”. Mark and Focus, https://medium.
com/mark-and-focus/hamburg-s-online-real-time-heavy-rain-map-407e64777cc9.
———. “The Rise of the Machines (in Managing Water)”. Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/
mark-and-focus/the-rise-of-the-machines-in-managing-water-96e8c0426178.
———. “Singapore’s Robotic Swans Testing Water Quality”. Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/
mark-and-focus/singapores-robotic-swans-testing-water-quality-30a97b666679.
———. The ‘Waste No Water’ Smart App”. Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/mark-and-focus/
the-waste-no-water-smart-app-a54d0bef738f.
City of Austin. “Austin Green Business Leaders”. https://austintexas.gov/department/austin-green-
business-leaders.
Cominola, A., K. Nguyen, M. Giuliani, R. A. Stewart, H. R. Maier, and A. Castelletti. “Data Mining to
Uncover Heterogeneous Water Use Behaviors from Smart Meter Data”. Water Resources
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Cominola, Andrea, Rohan Nanda, Matteo Giuliani, Dario Piga, Andrea Castelletti, Andrea-Emilio
Rizzoli, Alexandros Maziotis, Paola Garrone, and Julien Harou. “The Smarth2o Project: A
Platform Supporting Residential Water Management through Smart Meters and Data Intensive
Modeling”. In American Geophysical Union 2014 Fall Meeting, 2014.
DC Water. “High Usage Alerts”. https://www.dcwater.com/high-usage-alerts.
Ecoconsultancy. “How Can Water Companies Use Digital to Improve Customer Experience?”
https://econsultancy.com/digital-customer-experience-water-ofwat/.
Eisingerich, Andreas B., André Marchand, Martin P. Fritze, and Lin Dong. “Hook Vs. Hope: How to
Enhance Customer Engagement through Gamification”. International Journal of Research in
Marketing 36, no. 2 (2019/06/01/ 2019): 200–15.
Esri. “Transforming Business Processes Enterprise-Wide”. https://resource.esriuk.com/esri-
resources/thames-water/.
Essex and Suffolk Water. “Leaks in Your Area”. https://eswcommunityportal.co.uk/Leaks
Fuentes, Christian, and Niklas Sörum. “Agencing Ethical Consumers: Smartphone Apps and the
Socio-Material Reconfiguration of Everyday Life”. Consumption Markets & Culture 22, no. 2
(2019/03/04 2019): 131–56.
Geetha, S., and S. Gouthami. “Internet of Things Enabled Real Time Water Quality Monitoring
System”. Smart Water 2, no. 1 (2017/07/27 2017): 1.
IWA. “Ai Basics for Advanced Water Wise Utilities – Part 1”. https://iwa-network.org/ai-basics-for-
advanced-water-wise-utilities-part-1/.
IWRA and K-Water. “Smart Water Management Case Study Report”. (2018). https://www.iwra.org/
swmreport/.
Kentucky Water Resources Research Institute. “Water Distribution System Toolkit”. http://www.
uky.edu/WDST/SCADA.html.
128 Chapter 7 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future

Kirmeyer, G.J., and AWWA Research Foundation. Guidance Manual for Maintaining Distribution System
Water Quality. AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association, 2000.
Mamun, A. K., R. F. Islam, R. Haque, G. M. M. Khan, N. A. Prasad, H. Haqva, R. R. Mudliar, and
S. F. Mani. “Smart Water Quality Monitoring System Design and Kpis Analysis: Case Sites of
Fiji Surface Water”. Sustainability 11, no. 24 (2019).
Monroe, West. “3 Enablers to Water Utility Customer Centricity”. https://blog.westmonroepartners.
com/does-your-water-utility-have-a-customer-centric-workforce/.
Moreno-Munoz, A., F. J. Bellido-Outeirino, P. Siano, and M. A. Gomez-Nieto. “Mobile Social Media
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ofwat.gov.uk/publication/tapped-in-from-passive-customer-to-active-participant/.
Oracle. “New Additions! The Best Water Utility Social Media Accounts You Should Be Following
Right Now”. https://blogs.oracle.com/utilities/the-best-water-utility-social-media-accounts-
you-should-be-following-right-now.
Process Technology. “Scada Upgrade Benefits Yarra Valley Water”. https://www.processonline.
com.au/content/process-control-systems/article/scada-upgrade-benefits-yarra-valley-water-
340743931.
PUB. “About the Smart Water Meter Programme”. https://www.pub.gov.sg/smartwatermeterprog
ramme/about.
Public Utilities Board, Singapore. “Managing the Water Distribution Network with a Smart Water
Grid”. Smart Water 1, no. 1 (2016/07/21 2016): 4.
PwC. “Fourth Industrial Revolution for the Earth Harnessing Artificial Intelligence for the Earth”.
(2018). https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/sustainability/assets/ai-for-the-earth-jan-2018.pdf.
SA Water. “Smart Tech Success in Sa’s Sewers”. https://www.sawater.com.au/news/smart-tech-
success-in-sas-sewers.
———. “Smart Water Network”. https://www.sawater.com.au/current-projects/smart-water-network
Samir, Nourhan, Rawya Kansoh, Walid Elbarki, and Amr Fleifle. “Pressure Control for Minimizing
Leakage in Water Distribution Systems”. Alexandria Engineering Journal 56, no. 4 (2017/12/
01/ 2017): 601–12.
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Decrease Wasted Water Due to Leaks”. Journal – AWWA 110, no. 11 (2018/11/01 2018): E24–E30.
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ai/how-artificial-intelligence-is-transforming-the-water-sector-case-ramboll/.
Software Advice. “How to Optimize Utility Asset Management with Gis”. https://www.softwaread
vice.com/resources/optimize-utility-asset-management-with-gis/.
Southern Water. “Report a Leak”. https://www.southernwater.co.uk/help-advice/leaks/report-a-leak
Tsakalides, P., A. Panousopoulou, G. Tsagkatakis, and L. Montestruque. Smart Water Grids: A
Cyber-Physical Systems Approach. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 2018.
Tyrväinen, Olli, Heikki Karjaluoto, and Hannu Saarijärvi. “Personalization and Hedonic Motivation
in Creating Customer Experiences and Loyalty in Omnichannel Retail”. Journal of Retailing and
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trum.de/en/gis-in-water-resource-monitoring-2/
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Controllers”. https://www.waterbriefing.org/home/contracts/item/17094-united-utilities-
awards-amp7-contracts-for-supply-of-pressure-management-valve-controllers.
WHO. “Leakage Management and Control – a Best Practice Training Manual”. https://www.who.
int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/leakage/begin.html#Contents.
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Outsourcing-Strategies”. https://www.wns.com/insights/articles/articledetail/71/the-social-
media-manual-for-the-utility-industry-guidelines-best-practices-and-outsourcing-strategies.
Yorkshire Water. “Open Data”. https://www.yorkshirewater.com/open-data/
YSI. “Ysi Technology Used to Monitor Source Water before Reaching Treatment Plants in Nyc”.
(2016). https://www.ysi.com/File%20Library/Documents/Application%20Notes/A507-
Monitoring-Source-Water-Before-It-Reaches-Treatment-Plants-in-New-York-City.pdf.
Chapter 8
Innovative financial instruments and approaches
for water projects

Abstract: Global demand for water is increasing due to population growth, urbanisa-
tion, economic development, and changing consumption patterns. Climate change will
increase the numbers of people exposed to both flooding and droughts. Meanwhile,
various climatic and non-climatic trends will reduce water quality in waterways, affect-
ing both humans and nature. However, there is significant underinvestment in water
resources management, including nature-based solutions, to meet these challenges
globally. Nonetheless, there are various innovative financial instruments and ap-
proaches available to ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient, and afford-
able water and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations in the future.

Keywords: Water Financing, Economic and Financial Instruments, Tradable Permits,

Payment for Ecosystem Services, Green Bonds, Public-Private Partnerships

Introduction

Global demand for water is increasing due to population growth, urbanisation, eco-
nomic development, and changing consumption patterns. Climate change will in-
crease the numbers of people exposed to both flooding and droughts. Meanwhile,
various climatic and non-climatic trends will reduce water quality in waterways, af-
fecting both humans and nature. However, there is significant underinvestment in
water resources management, including nature-based solutions, to meet these chal-
lenges globally.1–3 This chapter first discusses the initial lack of financing available
for water projects before discussing the various innovative financial instruments
and approaches available to ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient,
and affordable water and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations
in the future.

8.1 Overcoming barriers to water financing

Globally, there needs to be an additional investment of $1.7 trillion to ensure uni-

versal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all, which is
around three times the current investment levels. Meanwhile, the scale of invest-
ments in water security needs to increase significantly, with estimates ranging
from $6.7 trillion by 2030 to $22.6 trillion by 2050. Nonetheless, there are a few

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-008
132 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

barriers that create a gap between current financing and future needs, including
the following:
– Water is generally an under-valued resource, not properly accounted for by in-
vestors that depend on or affect its availability in other sectors such as urban
development, agriculture, and energy etc.
– Water services are often under-priced, resulting in low cost-recovery for water
investments
– Water infrastructure is generally capital intensive, with high sunk costs and
long pay-back periods
– Water management provides both public and private benefits, many of which
cannot be easily monetised. This reduces potential revenue flows
– Water projects are often too small or too context-specific, raising transaction
costs and making innovative financing models difficult to scale-up
– Business models often fail to support operation and maintenance efficiency,
hampering the ability to sustain service at least cost over time4–7

To overcome these barriers, the High Level Panel on Water has defined a range of
principles that should be followed to help finance investments, enhance water serv-
ices, mitigate water-related risks, and contribute to sustainable growth:
– Maximise the value of existing assets for water-related investments: Service pro-
viders can reduce overall investment needs and improve capital efficiency
through improving the operational efficiency and effectiveness of existing in-
frastructure. Improvements can result from good operation and maintenance of
infrastructure and demand management
– Design investment pathways that maximise water-related benefits over the long-
term: The multiple benefits that water-related investments generate depend on
how investments are designed and sequenced to meet strategic goals, includ-
ing climate change adaptation. This means projects should be designed to be
scalable and adjustable to changing conditions
– Ensure synergies and complementarities with investments in other sectors: Policies
outside of the water sector should be encouraged to factor in water risks, which
in turn stimulates water-wise investments
– Attract more financing by improving the risk-return profile of water investments:
Governments can employ a range of fiscal policy instruments to recover the
costs of investments from beneficiaries, improve the financial viability of utili-
ties, and provide a revenue stream to improve the risk-return profile of water-
related investments8
 8.2 Water prices 133

8.1.1 Economic and financial instruments

Economic instruments enable environmental or social costs to be incorporated into

the price of goods, services or activities that give rise to them. This sends a price
signal to users or consumers to reduce inefficient and wasteful use of resources and
foster their optimal allocation. Economic instruments can be used to promote eco-
efficient economic activities, therefore promoting innovation and competitiveness.
Regarding pollution, economic instruments enable the implementation of the pol-
luter-pays principle, making the polluter instead of society as a whole pay for the
damage they cause. At the same time, ensuring the provision of sustainable, reli-
able, resilient, and affordable water and water-related services will require signifi-
cant investments and therefore financing.9,10

8.2 Water prices

Water prices have the primary goal of financing water supply infrastructure. The
price of water should be set at a level that ensures the recovery of costs for each
sector (agriculture, households, and industry) and the allocation of costs to each
sector (avoiding cross-subsidies). Water prices should relate to three types of cost:
– Direct economic costs: Full recovery of the economic costs of the water services
requires the water price to include:
– Operational and maintenance costs of water infrastructure
– Capital costs for the construction of this water infrastructure
– Reserves for future investments in water infrastructure
– Social costs: The social costs, direct and indirect, of providing water services
varies mainly with respect to specific contextual settings. As such, calculating
and comparing these costs across different settings is generally not feasible
– Environmental costs: The environmental costs of economic activities are gener-
ally not reflected in the prices established in the market but appear as external-
ities. The principle of full cost recovery requires that these costs be taken into
consideration

Overall, water prices which represent full costs (economic and environmental costs)
provide price signals to water users to be more efficient while generating the means
for ensuring sustainable water infrastructure.11,12

Case 8.1: City of Toronto’s water and wastewater consumption rate increase
The City of Toronto Water and Wastewater Program is currently fully funded on a ‘pay-as-you-go’
basis through a combined water and wastewater rate. The providing of water and wastewater serv-
ices does not rely on property taxes or borrowing/debenture financing. Based on the updated
134 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

water consumption forecast and the city’s Capital Plan, the City Council has recommended a
three percent increase in water and wastewater consumption rates, effective January 1st, 2020. The
rate increase applies to both residential (Block 1) and industrial customers (Block 2 water rate)
(Table 8.1). The three percent increase will raise an additional $37.17 million in revenue for the
Program. The recommended rate increase will result in the average household, consuming 230 cubic
metres/year, paying an extra $27 over the calendar year while the impact of the increase on a com-
mercial customer at the Block 1 rate and an industrial consumer at the Block 2 rate with annual con-
sumption of 100,000 cubic metres will be $11,860 and $8,478 respectively (the latter reflecting a
30 percent discount over the Block 1 rate for eligible industrial consumers with the City’s Industrial
Water Rate Program). Meanwhile, the impact on a large industrial consumer of 1,000,000 cubic
metres eligible for the Block 2 rate will be $83,178.
The Industrial Water Rate Program offers a discounted water rate to manufacturers in Toronto to
help support economic growth and encourage water conservation (known as the Block 2 water
rate). The Program is open to manufactures that:
– Use more than 5,000 cubic metres of water annually
– Fall within the industrial property tax class
– Are in full compliance with Toronto’s Sewers By-law
– Submit a comprehensive water conservation plan to the satisfaction of the General Manager,
Toronto Water13

Table 8.1: Toronto Water’s Water and Wastewater Rate Increase.

Annual Consumption Paid on or before the Paid after the

due date, $/m due date, $/m

Block  water rate: All consumers of water, including the . .
first , cubic metres per year consumed by Industrial
users

Block  water rate: Industrial water consumption is over . .

, cubic metres per year, representing a  percent
reduction from the Block  water rate

8.3 Stormwater fee discounts

Cities can incentivise developers and property owners to manage stormwater as

well as preserve open space and protect or plant trees by offering stormwater fee
discounts. Stormwater fee discounts aim to reduce the required capacity and cost of
stormwater treatment practices. They allow property owners to reduce the amount
of stormwater fees they pay by decreasing impervious surfaces or by using green
infrastructure techniques that reduce the amount of stormwater runoff. Before
setting the discount, the agency in charge should set appropriate management
goals and determine how to credit private property owners for the action being
incentivised. It is common for cities to provide a percent discount for the level of
 8.4 Stormwater volume credit trading 135

performance. This discount is usually given for stormwater quantity reductions.

Discounts can also be offered for impervious surface reductions or for implement-
ing specific green infrastructure practices.14–16

Case 8.2: City of Guelph’s stormwater service credits for businesses

The City of Guelph, Canada, provides a stormwater service credits programme where industrial,
commercial, institutional, and multi-residential properties of six units or more may qualify for a
credit on their stormwater bill of up to 50 percent. Reducing runoff in the city prevents floods, pro-
tects Guelph’s water supply and wildlife habitat, and reduces costs for property owners and the
City of Guelph. Stormwater credits are available in four categories, which align with the city’s over-
all goals of its stormwater management programme (Table 8.2).17

Table 8.2: City of Guelph‘s Stormwater Credit Categories.

Credit Description Maximum Credit

Category (capped at  percent)

Peak flow Facilities that control the peak flow of stormwater  percent
reduction discharged from the property based on the outlet rate in
comparison to natural hydrologic conditions

Runoff volume Facilities that control the amount of stormwater retained  percent
reduction on the property, based on retention volume resulting
from increased infiltration, evapotranspiration, or reuse

Water quality Facilities that control the quality of stormwater  percent

treatment discharged from the property, based on treatment type,
pollutant load reduction, or Ministry of the Environment
and Climate Change Resources level of protection

Operations Non-structural measures including education programmes  percent

and activities and pollution prevention/risk management practices

8.4 Stormwater volume credit trading

Stormwater volume credit trading provides an onsite compliance option for property
developers or owners who are subject to stormwater management regulations. In
many cases, regulations include onsite retention or detention requirements for new
developments or redevelopment projects over a certain size. A credit trading pro-
gramme enables developers or property owners subject to these regulations to meet
all or a portion of their requirements offsite by buying volume-based stormwater
136 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

credits. These credits are generated from the installation and maintenance of green
infrastructure projects located offsite. Specifically, credits can be generated by:
– Developers or property owners who voluntarily implement green infrastructure
retrofit projects on properties that are not subject to post-construction green in-
frastructure requirements
– Developers or property owners who are subject to green infrastructure require-
ments but build green infrastructure projects that exceed minimum stormwater
requirements

A trading programme requires a local entity to oversee and manage the trading mar-
ketplace and ensure that the green infrastructure projects that generate the credits
are properly maintained over time. This function is usually provided by a stormwater
agency, but an independent entity can be created to administer the programme.
Some of the main benefits of a stormwater volume credit programme include
the following:
– It allows flexibility for developers and property owners as they can choose the
cheaper option. In some cases, it will be cheaper to buy credits from an offsite
provider than managing stormwater onsite
– Buying credits can allow developers or property owners to make use of addi-
tional buildable areas onsite, including rooftop or underground areas
– Overall water quality in a city or watershed can improve as a trading pro-
gramme allows for a greater number of small green infrastructure installations
across an area in comparison to a smaller number of larger green infrastructure
practices, all onsite18

Case 8.3: Washington, DC’s Stormwater Retention Credit Trading Program

Washington, DC’s Department of Energy and Environment (DOEE) runs the Stormwater Retention
Credit (SRC) Trading Program that enables property owners and developers to earn revenue for
projects that reduce stormwater runoff by installing green infrastructure or by removing impervious
surfaces. Sellers of SRCs can lock in a sale price by selling to DOEE through the SRC Price Lock
Program as well as through the open market to properties that have regulatory requirements for
managing stormwater. The SRC Price Lock Program enables SRC generators to sell SRCs to DOEE at
fixed prices, creating a price floor in the SRC market and offering certainty about the revenue from
an SRC-generating project. If participants sell to another buyer, DOEE also pays a portion of the
purchase price on behalf of the buyer. Furthermore, DOEE offers SRC Aggregator Startup Grants of
up to $75,000 to support SRC-generating businesses. The grant can be used for the businesses to
evaluate sites for the feasibility of green infrastructure retrofits, with the funds able to be used to
support technical and outreach work to identify and aggregate SRCs from green infrastructure proj-
ects in the Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System, typically across multiple sites. Through the
technical and outreach work funded by the grant, businesses can identify a pool of projects that
are suitable to generate SRCs and participate in the SRC Price Lock Program. It is expected that the
SRC Price Lock Program and the SRC Aggregator Startup Grants will make it easier to generate
SRCs on land owned by non-profits, such as churches, cemeteries, schools, and similar institutions
with DOEE prioritising funding for these projects.19
 8.5 Environmental taxes 137

8.5 Environmental taxes

According to the OECD, environmental taxes directly address the market failure that
causes markets to ignore environmental impacts. A well-designed environmental tax
increases the price of a good or activity to reflect the cost of the environmental harm
that it imposes on others. The harm to others, an externality, is internalised into mar-
ket prices. This ensures that economic actors, including consumers and firms, take
these costs into account in their decision-making. Environmental taxes provide other
benefits including an ongoing incentive to abate (they provide a continuous incentive
for the abatement of pollution), improving the competitiveness of environmentally-
friendly alternative technologies (helping make alternatives more viable without the
need for direct subsidies), and providing a strong incentive to innovate (taxes in-
crease the cost to a polluter of generating pollution, providing firms with an incentive
to develop innovations and adopt existing ones). Meanwhile, an alternative to envi-
ronmental taxes is the providing of tax incentives to subsidise environmentally bene-
ficial goods or actions. In the context of water resources management, environmental
taxes are compulsory payments to fiscal authorities for behaviours that lead to the
degradation of the water environment, with the objective being to encourage alterna-
tive behaviour to the one targeted by the tax, for example, the use of less polluting
techniques and products. Overall, environmental taxes should:
– Be designed to target the pollutant or polluting behaviour with few exceptions
– Be as broad as the scope of the environmental damage
– Be commensurate with the environmental damage
– Be credible and its rate predictable to motivate environmental improvements
– Assist fiscal consolidation or help reduce other taxes
– Be clearly communicated to ensure public acceptance20,21

Case 8.4: Denmark’s pesticide tax

Denmark’s pesticide tax is closely related to the aim of reducing the pesticide load indicator.
Effective from July 1st, 2013, the tax paid on pesticides is based on how large the impacts from the
pesticides are on health, nature, and groundwater. The tax is a sales tax per unit litre or kilogram
of an agent, with the tax for each product determined based on:
1. Health load (Charge: DKK 107 per litre or kilogram of medium per load unit)
2. Environmental impact load (Tax: DKK 107 per kilogram or litre of medium per load unit)
3. Environmental behavioural load (Fee: DKK 107 per kilogram or litre of medium per load unit)
4. Active substance concentration/basic charge (Charge: DKK 50 per kilogram or litre of active
substance22)
138 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

8.6 Subsidies

The OECD defines subsidies as “government interventions through direct and indirect
pay amends, price regulations, and protective measures to support actions that favour
environmentally unfriendly choices over environmentally friendly ones”. Nonetheless,
subsidies are economic instruments that can be used as an incentive to stimulate
change in user behaviour towards environmentally friendly conduct or encourage
investments in environmentally friendly production techniques, mitigating or elimi-
nating adverse effects.23 The following principles should be followed to ensure sub-
sidies promote environmentally friendly conduct or technologies:
– Subsidies should achieve the intended policy outcome: Subsidies require a smart
design and clarity about what the policy objectives and short- and long-term
objectives are
– Subsidies should reach the intended target groups: They require clarity on who
is the intended target group and how they can best be reached. It also requires
rigorous monitoring to track how subsidies are reaching the intended groups
– Subsidies should be financially sustainable: A thorough understanding of the
potential costs of the programme is required. Costs include both upfront capital
costs and long-term operational and maintenance costs
– Subsidies should integrate local peoples’ needs: To guarantee the sustainability
of the subsidised environmental technology, it is of prime importance to facili-
tate the integration and participation of the local beneficiaries and to develop a
sense of ownership towards the new infrastructure
– Subsidies should be implemented clearly and transparently: As subsidies involve
public funds, subsidy programmes need to be clear and transparent, enabling
eligible households or communities to access them and providing clear recourse
mechanisms in cases where there is a suggestion of impropriety24

Case 8.5: Flanders’ subsidies for environmentally friendly investments

Flanders, Belgium provides investment grants to encourage environmentally friendly green invest-
ments. Flanders Innovation and Entrepreneurship (VLAIO) provides two types of subsidies for green
investments:
– Ecology Premium-Plus (EP-Plus): The EP-Plus is granted to investments in technologies that
feature on a limitative technology list (LTL). The list contains around 40 technologies divided
into the five categories of cooling, transport, lighting, water, and diverse. The subsidy amount
is dependent on the size of the company, the performance of the technology, and type of
technology. The support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can be as much as
55 percent (45 percent for large enterprises). The total amount available is limited to a
maximum of €1 million every three years
– Strategic Ecology Support (STRES): STRES is available for companies using technologies that,
due to their exceptional and unique character, are not on the LTL list. This subsidy is intended
for strategic environmental projects that contribute to global solutions (environmental or
energy issues), focus on closed circuits (renewable energy, sustainable use of material,
 8.7 Tradable permits 139

recovery of material), and provide integrated solutions. The investment must be at least
€3 million, with the size of the subsidy dependent on the type of investment, the performance
of the technology, and size of the company. The support for SMEs can be as much as 40 percent
(30 percent for large enterprises). The total amount available is limited to a maximum of
€1 million every three years. To be eligible, a feasibility study must be conducted25

8.7 Tradable permits

With a variety of climatic and non-climatic trends resulting in water scarcity and pollu-
tion, a range of locations have implemented market mechanisms based on consump-
tion rights and pollution in the management of water resources. Specifically, tradable
permits are one of the most efficient market-based instruments for allocating water re-
sources and for mitigating pollution of water resources.26 There are two main tradable
permit systems: Tradable water abstraction rights and tradable water pollution rights.

8.7.1 Tradable water abstraction rights

These rights are for quantitative water resource management with water rights
being either permanent and unlimited (property rights to the water resource) or
temporary and limited (transferable rights to use water without right of abuse). In a
tradable water abstraction rights regime, the water authority sets a water consump-
tion cap, which is the maximum amount of water that can be abstracted. It allocates
the abstraction rights among the basin users, who then can exchange them based
on their present and/or future expected water consumption demand. Water users
are encouraged to use water efficiently for two reasons. First, it reduces the need to
purchase costly abstraction rights and second, they can gain revenue from selling
excess water rights once they reduce their water consumption.

8.7.2 Tradable water pollution rights

Tradable water pollution rights are used for the protection and management of
water quality. The water management authority establishes the maximum amount
of emissions according to the carrying capacity of the ecosystem that is focussed
on. The total amount of emissions is divided into a fixed number of permits or rights
to pollute, which can be initially allocated to economic actors according to their
past levels of pollution, known as grandfathering, or via auction. The holders can
then trade the rights purchased in a secondary permit market. This means a pollut-
ing point source, which has low abatement costs, can sell permits to sources with
140 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

high clean-up costs. The result is the total cost of reducing pollution is minimised
as pollution-reduction efforts are carried out by economic actors who can do it at
the lowest cost.27,28

Case 8.6: Tradable water abstraction rights: Fox Canyon Water Market
Ventura County, California, generates $2.1 billion from agriculture. At the same time, there is signifi-
cant population pressure with around 450 people per square mile: around five times the average pop-
ulation density of the United States. With groundwater being a critical resource, the state passed the
Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) in 2014 to ensure the future sustainability of
groundwater supplies. Following the passage of SGMA, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) applied for a
Conservation Innovation Grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to develop the Fox
Canyon Water Market. The grant enabled TNC to provide support to the Fox Canyon Groundwater
Management Agency and project partner California Lutheran University in their effort to establish a
market-driven, producer-led approach to reducing groundwater pumping. Under a cap-and-trade-like
system, agricultural producers in the Fox Canyon area are subject to fixed groundwater allocations
based on historical use. Producers can then purchase or sell their unused allocation. The market is
online, anonymous, and uses an algorithm-driven matching platform, resulting in a level playing field
and a fairer deal for farming operations of all sizes. After years of development, the market exchange
opened in March 2020. Still in its pilot phase, the market has already seen 58-acre feet of pumping
allocations change hands. The successful launch of the pilot is due to a variety of factors including:
– Water scarcity: Water scarcity requires innovative solutions
– Fixed allocations: Participating producers voluntarily agreed to a fixed allocation of groundwater
– Agricultural stakeholder support: From the beginning, the project has been collaborative, and
producer-driven
– Market design expertise: The project leveraged the experience of TNC and partners in
designing environmental markets, including robust pilot testing
– Capacity and funding: TNC provided robust planning and oversaw stakeholder engagement
efforts to provide expertise and gain support from the USDA29

Case 8.7: Tradable water pollution rights: Ohio River Basin Trading Project
The Ohio River Basin Trading Project is the United States’ first interstate trading plan signed by Ohio,
Indiana, and Kentucky in 2012, making it the world’s largest water quality trading programme. The
project, which has been extended through 2020, achieves water quality goals by allowing permitted
dischargers to purchase nutrient reductions from another source. The cost of reducing nutrient dis-
charges can differ from one emitter to another, and water quality trading provides an option for meet-
ing discharge requirements in a cost-effective manner. The project is voluntary with the incentive to
participate based on credit sellers receiving attractive financial benefits from the selling of credits
and the permitted dischargers having the flexibility to cost-effectively meet their environmental per-
mit requirements. Measures of success during the pilot include:
– Identifying and overcoming barriers to successful full-scale roll-out
– Implementing trading mechanisms that are ecologically effective and acceptable to participants
and other stakeholders
– Promoting early, voluntary participation
– Measuring the extent to which the broader ecosystem services can be supported through the
project
– Establishing the full suite of systems and protocols needed for a complete and compliant
programme30
 8.8 Payment for watershed ecosystem services 141

8.8 Payment for watershed ecosystem services

A Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme is defined as a voluntary, condi-

tional agreement between at least one seller and one buyer over a well-defined
ecosystem service, or land use that is assumed to produce that service. Globally,
there are hundreds of PES initiatives that provide direct payments to landowners
for undertaking specific land-use practices that can increase the provision of biodi-
versity conservation, prevent erosion, enhance carbon sequestration, and improve
scenic beauty, as well as provide other ecosystem services that are of interest, di-
rectly or indirectly, to humans. PES initiatives must achieve the same level of envi-
ronmental benefits at a lower cost than other possible policies to be effective.31,32
Payment for Watershed Ecosystem Services (PWES) have been widely implemented
in both developed and developing countries at different scales to resolve upstream-
downstream conflicts, with the most common focus being on water quality, water
quantity, and flow regulation.33 For PES and PWES schemes to be both environmen-
tally beneficial and cost-effective, the OECD recommends a set of 12 criteria to be
followed when these schemes are developed:
1. Remove perverse incentives: For a scheme to be clear and effective, there should
be no conflicting market distortions, such as environmentally harmful subsi-
dies available
2. Clearly define property rights: The individual or community whose land-use de-
cisions affect the provision of ecosystem services must have clearly defined and
enforceable property rights over the land
3. Clearly define goals and objectives: The scheme should have clear goals to help
guide the design of the programme, enhance transparency, and avoid political
influence
4. Develop a robust monitoring and reporting framework: The monitoring and re-
porting of biodiversity and ecosystem services is fundamental, enabling the as-
sessment of the programme’s performance and improvements over time
5. Identify buyers and ensure sufficient long-term financing: There must be suffi-
cient and sustainable financing of the scheme to ensure its objectives can be
achieved
6. Identify sellers and target ecosystem service benefits: Payments should be priori-
tised to areas that provide the highest benefits
7. Establish baselines and target payments to ecosystem services that are at risk of
loss, or to enhance their provision: The programmes should only make payments
for ecosystem services that are additional to the business-as-usual baseline, in
other words in the absence of the programme
8. Differentiate payments based on the opportunity costs of ecosystem service provi-
sion: Programmes that reflect ecosystem providers’ opportunity costs via differ-
entiated payments can achieve greater aggregate ecosystem service provision
per unit cost
142 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

9. Consider bundling or layering multiple ecosystem services: Joint provision of

multiple services can increase the benefits of the programme while reducing
transaction costs, especially if finance for multiple benefits is available
10. Address leakage: Leakage occurs when the provision of ecosystem services in
one location increases pressure for conversion in another. If leakage is poten-
tially high, the monitoring and accounting framework can be expanded to enable
assessment of potential leakage so measures can be implemented to address it
11. Ensure permanence: Events, such as disasters, may undermine the ability of a
landowner to provide an ecosystem service as stipulated in the agreement. If
the risks are high, this will impede the effective functioning of the market, and
so insurance mechanisms need to be considered
12. Deliver performance-based payments and ensure adequate enforcement: Payments
should be ex-post, conditional on ecosystem performance. If this is not possible,
effort-based payments, for example, improvements in management practices, are
a suitable alternative. There should also be disincentives for breaching the agree-
ment which is enforced34

Case 8.8: Milwaukee River Pay-for-Performance Project

Over the period 2013–2017, the Milwaukee River Pay-for-Performance Project, funded by the Great
Lakes Protection Fund, rewarded farmers for improving water quality by reducing phosphorous loss
from agricultural land in the West Branch of the Milwaukee River, a 58 square-mile Wisconsin wa-
tershed. Farmers were rewarded according to science-based outcomes where the environmental
impacts of farmer-selected conservation practices were tracked, and payments made based on ver-
ified environmental improvements. A pay-for-performance approach was taken as it is data-driven
and science-based, results in measurable water quality improvements, is cost-effective for farmers
and conservation programmes, provides flexibility and allows for farmer innovation, and expands
market opportunities for water quality trading. The project had five steps:
1. Farmers implement the most appropriate and cost-effective strategies for their farm
2. Science-based models predict less phosphorous entering the stream
3. Farmers are paid based on modelled farm-level results
4. Water quality improvements are monitored and verified
5. Farmers are paid based on monitored watershed-level results

The farmers were paid by wastewater treatment plants or other downstream entities that needed to
meet water quality obligations as well as conservation programmes that wished to show measur-
able water quality outcomes. Overall, by changing field management practices, participating farm-
ers reduced phosphorous losses by as much as 40 percent.35,36

8.9 Green bonds

Green bonds can help mobilise resources from domestic and international capital
markets for climate adaptation and other climate and environmentally friendly proj-
ects. They are like conventional bonds, but the proceeds are invested in projects
 8.9 Green bonds 143

that generate climate and environmental benefits such as sustainable land use, bio-
diversity, and clean water.37 To ensure green bonds genuinely contribute to climate
and environmental targets, the following initiatives have been developed.

8.9.1 The Green Bond Principles

The Green Bond Principles (GBP), established by the International Capital Market
Association, are voluntary process guidelines that recommend transparency and dis-
closure and promote integrity in the development of the green bond market by clarify-
ing the approach for issuance of a green bond. The GBP recognises several categories
of eligible green projects that contribute to the climate and environment, including
climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, natural resource conservation,
biodiversity conservation, and pollution prevention and control. With regards to water
management, the GBP provides an overview of eligible projects including sustainable
infrastructure for clean drinking water, wastewater treatment, sustainable urban
drainage systems, and river training and other forms of flood mitigation.38

8.9.2 Labelling scheme for green bonds

The Climate Bonds Initiative’s Climate Bonds Standard and Certification Scheme is
a labelling scheme for bonds. The scheme uses a rigorous scientific criterion to en-
sure the green bonds are consistent with the Paris Agreement and is used by bond
issuers, governments, investors, and financial markets to prioritise investments
that make genuine contributions to addressing climate change. The new Water
Infrastructure Criteria has been developed that lays out the requirements that water
infrastructure assets and/or projects must meet to be eligible for inclusion as a
Certified Climate Bond, as summarised in Table 8.3.39

Table 8.3: The Water Infrastructure Criteria.

Step Description

1. Comply with mitigation Greenhouse gas emissions from water projects are not to
component increase. Instead, they are to comply with business-as-usual
baselines or aim for emission reduction over the operational
lifetime of the water asset or project
144 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

Table 8.3 (continued )

Step Description

2. Comply with adaptation The water infrastructure and 1. Allocation: Addressing how
and resilience component its surrounding ecosystem are water is shared by users
resilient to climate change and within a given basin or
have sufficient adaptation to aquifer
address climate change risks. 2. Governance: Addressing
To demonstrate this, the how/whether water will be
issuers should complete a formally shared,
scorecard made up of five negotiated, and governed
sections: 3. Technical diagnostic: How/
whether changes to the
hydrologic system are
addressed over time
4. Nature-based solutions:
For nature-based and
hybrid infrastructure, the
issuers need to have
sufficient understanding of
ecological impacts at/
beyond project site with
ongoing monitoring and
management capacity
5. Assessment of the
adaptation plan: There
needs to be a check of how
complete the coping
mechanisms are to identify
climate vulnerabilities

Case 8.9: DC Water’s green bonds

In 2014, the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (DC Water) issued its inaugural green
bond to finance a portion of the DC Clean Rivers Project. The $350 million issuance was the first
certified green bond in the US debt capital markets with an independent second party sustainabil-
ity opinion. It was also the first municipal century bond issued by a water utility in the United
States. The proceeds of the green bond are used to construct green infrastructure practices to im-
prove water quality by remediating combined sewer overflows, promote climate resilience through
flood mitigation, and improve quality of life by protecting biodiversity and restoring waterfronts.
By the end of 2019, DC Water’s total green bond issuance was $650 million.40
 8.10 Public-private partnerships 145

8.10 Public-private partnerships

Public-private partnerships (PPP) are long-term, contractual agreements between a

public entity and a private operator/company (or a consortium), under which a ser-
vice is provided. PPPs involve a process where private operators bid for a contract
to design, finance, and manage the risks involved in delivering public services or
assets. In return, the private contractor receives fees from the public body and/or
user charges for the long-term operation and maintenance of the asset. There are
two types of green PPP projects:
– Greenfield projects: These projects develop new infrastructure, such as a new
wastewater treatment plant
– Brownfield projects: In these projects, the private sector participates (as invest-
ors and operators) in existing infrastructure facilities41

For PPPs to be successful, a range of conditions need to be met:

– Effective partnerships: Effective partnerships are crucial to the success of PPPs.
Unlike traditional procurement for assets or services, which use short-term con-
tracts to acquire or renovate public assets, a PPP is a global contract that may
last anywhere from 15 to sometimes more than 90 years. As such, establishing
a real partnership based on cooperation, expertise, and credible commitment is
essential. Also, the public body must acquire internal knowledge and expertise
necessary to define the terms of the agreement
– Interaction and negotiation: Interaction and negotiation with an operator or op-
erators during the call for bidders’ phase can clarify objectives of the partner-
ship and provide innovative technological solutions not yet envisioned by the
public body. This is helpful for PPPs negotiated in an uncertain environment
with complex technologies that vary in speed of obsolescence. For this phase
to be successful, the public body needs to invest in gaining expertise and gen-
erating enough competition to challenge private operators
– Clear environmental objectives: Clear environmental objectives and their weights
in the procedure to award PPP projects need to drive effective environmental-
related PPPs. The addition of green requirements to the project specification after
PPP design will be costly and likely incompatible with technological choices put
in place. Also, environmental targets need to be measurable and clearly defined,
with agreed-upon approaches for ex-post monitoring
– Flexibility: Flexibility is a crucial element of PPPs. Discussion with private oper-
ators for a PPP should focus on efficient and flexible solutions that allow for a
quick response to changing requirements and new technologies. Also, the con-
tract should describe and anticipate how the relationships evolve over time as
soon as unanticipated events occur42
146 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

Case 8.10: The largest public-private partnership for wastewater operations in the United States
The City of Wilmington, Delaware, has selected an international engineering firm to operate and
manage its wastewater treatment plant, combined sewer overflow facilities, and its Renewable
Energy Biosolids Facility. The city is Delaware’s largest with a wastewater operation serving more
than 400,000 residents. The agreement, which combines the operations and maintenance of all
facilities under the engineering company’s management, has provisions for additional engineering
studies and design-build projects to renew existing structures and develop value-added projects.
The City estimates the base contract is valued at $20 million per year for an initial 20-year term,
with options for two additional two-year extensions, for a possible contract term of 24 years. With
the wastewater treatment plant having a maximum design flow of 168 million gallons per day
(MGD) and up to 320 MGD in wet weather, the contract is one of the largest PPPs for wastewater
operations in the United States. As part of the contract, the engineering company will improve the
plant’s performance and ensure it becomes a net-zero energy facility that reduces greenhouse gas
emissions.43

8.10.1 Public-private partnerships for ecosystem restoration

Existing financial, legal, and policy mechanisms of PPPs are suitable for major eco-
system restoration initiatives, including protecting and restoring the health of riv-
ers, improving water quality, restoring and enhancing significant areas of habitat,
and sequestering significant quantities of carbon dioxide. PPPs are suitable for
major ecosystem restoration initiatives as they provide a suitable framework for:
– Sharing costs and benefits between governments, investors, businesses, and
the environment
– Leveraging private sector skills, capacity, and capital with strategically directed
public funds
– Generating new models of achieving ecosystem restoration outcomes and im-
proving cost effectiveness of ecosystem restoration programmes
– Combining public and private sector knowledge, skills, land, and capital in
ways that could result in landscape-wide benefits
– Turning large scale landscape change into business opportunities, creating
new asset classes

For the PPPs in ecosystem restoration to be successful, there needs to be:

– Measurable performance standards developed
– Government payments that flow to projects sequentially when they meet speci-
fied environmental service standards
– A relatively long-term commitment with the term depending on the nature of
the project
– Either a dedicated party responsible for contracting with multiple providers or
a government agency contracting directly to multiple providers
 8.10 Public-private partnerships 147

– Risk allocation defined at the contracting phase

– Outcomes monitored to determine the delivery of the specified ecosystem serv-
ices and accompanying payment
– Where possible, project costings will be determined by competitive tendering
processes or equivalent44

Case 8.11: The United Kingdom’s Natural Environment Impact Fund partnering with the private sector
The Government of the United Kingdom’s 25 Year Environmental Plan has made clear that while the
public sector will continue to be an essential source of funding for the natural environment, this
must be alongside private sector investment to protect and enhance the environment. In support,
the government has committed £10 million in the Budget, from 2021, to support natural environ-
ment projects that attract private sector investment through the Natural Environmental Impact
Fund. As part of this, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), Esmée
Fairbairn Foundation (EFF), and Triodos Bank UK have formed a collaborative partnership to encour-
age private sector investment in environmental projects that help tackle climate change and re-
store nature. Four projects that protect and restore valuable habitat have been selected to receive
funding in a pilot scheme to encourage sustainable private sector investment in the natural envi-
ronment. The projects, having been sourced and evaluated by Triodos Bank UK, will receive grant
funding from Defra, the EA, and EFF to support their development, complete business plans to at-
tract private sector investment, and deliver long-term environmental benefits and sustainable fi-
nancial returns. The four projects are:
– Devon Wildlife Trust’s restoration of the Caen wetlands: The wetlands site is one of the UK’s
most important sites for wetland birds but is under pressure from human impacts, climate
change, and rising sea levels. The project is a bold and innovative proposal to create a
stunning habitat and visitor resource in northern Devon. Alongside the restoration of the
habitat, the development of the site for ecotourism through a visitor centre and other facilities
will provide a source of income, with the seed funding being used by Devon Wildlife Trust to
develop a business case for investment in this project
– Rivers Trust’s work on natural flood management in the Wyre catchment in Lancashire: Hard
engineering alone will not address future flood risk challenges, and natural solutions must
supplement them. The seed funding will allow The Rivers Trust to work with the Wyre Rivers
Trust, Environment Agency, United Utilities, Triodos Bank UK, Co-op Insurance, and Flood Re, to
develop a financial instrument that would allow upfront investment from the private sector to be
reimbursed by the beneficiaries of a healthier environment
– National Farmers Union’s (NFU) work to reduce nitrate pollution in Poole Harbour: One of the
largest natural harbours in the world, Poole Harbour in Dorset is of international importance to
wildlife. However, it is under pressure, with nutrients such as nitrate from agriculture in its
catchment flowing down into the harbour and leading to a rapid growth of algae which
smothers the estuarine habitat and reduces the amount of food available for birds. Through the
Poole Harbour Nutrient Management Scheme, the NFU is aiming to work with and support the
farmer-led collaboration in the catchment, equipping them with tools to reduce their use of
nitrates. The proposed innovative, industry-led model is designed to offer both environmental
benefits and productivity gains for farming businesses while the local community, water
companies, and local government will all see benefits from the improved water quality
– Moors for the Future Partnership’s restoration and conservation of peatlands in the Pennines:
Peatlands have a vital part to play in tackling climate change, storing more carbon than all other
types of vegetation in the world combined, and damage to peatlands is a significant source of
148 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

carbon emissions. The Moors for the Future Partnership is already working to restore and
conserve peatland in the area but needs to attract greater investment to carry out this work on a
larger scale to protect more of this vital habitat. It is hoped this project will be successful in
developing a range of returns, including financial, for investors45

Notes

1 OECD, “Financing Water: Investing in Sustainable Growth,” https://www.oecd.org/water/Policy-

Paper-Financing-Water-Investing-in-Sustainable-Growth.pdf.
2 UN-Water, “The United Nations World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-Based Solutions
for Water,” (2018), https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261424.
3 Our Future Water and Climate Markets and Investment Association, “Investing in a Water-
Secure Future,” (2020), https://www.ourfuturewater.com/investing-in-a-water-secure-future/.
4 OECD, “Financing Water: Investing in Sustainable Growth”.
5 Céline Kauffmann, “Financing Water Quality Management,” International Journal of Water
Resources Development 27, no. 1 (2011).
6 R.C. Brears, “Financing Water Security,” Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/mark-and-
focus/financing-water-security-a7cf7caf8881.
7 Stanford Water in the West, “Water Finance: The Imperative for Water Security and Economic
Growth” (2018), https://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Water_Finance_Water_
Security_Economic_Growth.pdf.
8 High Level Panel on Water, “Making Every Drop Count: An Agenda for Water Action,” (2018),
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17825HLPW_Outcome.pdf.
9 Ecologic Institute, “Economic Instruments for Water Management: Experiences from Europe and
Implications for Latin America and the Caribbean,” (2003), https://www.ecologic.eu/1118.
10 Our Future Water and Climate Markets and Investment Association, “Investing in a Water-
Secure Future”.
11 Ecologic Institute, “Economic Instruments for Water Management: Experiences from Europe
and Implications for Latin America and the Caribbean”.
12 R.C. Brears, Urban Water Security (Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016).
13 Toronto Water, “2020 Water and Wastewater Consumption Rates and Service Fees,” (2019),
https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2019/bu/bgrd/backgroundfile-139975.pdf.
14 US EPA, “Stormwater,” (2015), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/docu
ments/epa-green-infrastructure-factsheet-4-061212-pj.pdf.
15 U.S. EPA, “Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure Municipal Handbook: Incentive
Mechanisms” (2009), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/gi_muni
chandbook_incentives_0.pdf.
16 F. A. Tasca, L. B. Assunção, and A. R. Finotti, “International Experiences in Stormwater Fee,”
Water Science and Technology 2017, no. 1 (2018).
17 City of Guelph, “Stormwater Service Credits for Business,” https://guelph.ca/living/environ
ment/water/rebates/stormwater-service-fee-credit-program/.
18 Stormwater Currency, “Establishing a Stormwater Volume Credit Trading Program: A Practical
Guide for Stormwater Practitioners,” (2019), https://www.wef.org/globalassets/assets-wef/3—re
sources/topics/o-z/stormwater/stormwater-institute/ar_stormwatervolumecredittrading_final_re
vised100919.pdf.
19 DOEE, “Stormwater Retention Credit Trading Program,” https://doee.dc.gov/src.
 Notes 149

20 OECD, “Environmental Taxation: A Guide for Policy Makers,” (2011), https://www.oecd.org/

env/tools-evaluation/48164926.pdf.
21 Manuel Lago et al., “Defining and Assessing Economic Policy Instruments for Sustainable
Water Management,” in Use of Economic Instruments in Water Policy: Insights from International
Experience, ed. Manuel Lago, et al. (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015).
22 Skat Denmark, “Ea7.7.5 Size and Calculation of the Charge,” https://skat.dk/skat.aspx?oid=
1946630.
23 Ecologic Institute, “Economic Instruments for Water Management: Experiences from Europe
and Implications for Latin America and the Caribbean”.
24 Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, “Public Funding for Sanitation – the Many
Faces of Sanitation Subsidies,” (2009), https://www.wsscc.org/resources-feed/public-funding-
sanitation/.
25 Invest in Flanders, “Flanders Actively Supports Ecological Investments,” https://www.flander
sinvestmentandtrade.com/invest/en/investing-in-flanders/grant-incentives/flanders-actively-supports-
ecological-investments.
26 Dionisios Latinopoulos and Eftichios S. Sartzetakis, “Using Tradable Water Permits in Irrigated
Agriculture,” Environmental and Resource Economics 60, no. 3 (2015).
27 Ecologic Institute, “Economic Instruments for Water Management: Experiences from Europe
and Implications for Latin America and the Caribbean”.
28 Simone Borghesi, “Water Tradable Permits: A Review of Theoretical and Case Studies,” Journal
of Environmental Planning and Management 57, no. 9 (2014).
29 U.S. Department of Agriculture, “The Fox Canyon Water Market: A Market-Based Tool for
Groundwater Conservation Goes Live,” https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2020/05/08/fox-canyon-
water-market-market-based-tool-groundwatergroundwater-conservation-goes-live.
30 Electric Power Research Institute, “Ohio River Basin Trading Project,” https://wqt.epri.com/
buy-credits.html.
31 Carolyn Kousky et al., “Strategically Placing Green Infrastructure: Cost-Effective Land
Conservation in the Floodplain,” Environmental Science & Technology 47, no. 8 (2013).
32 Carlos Eduardo Frickmann Young and Leonardo Barcellos de Bakker, “Payments for Ecosystem
Services from Watershed Protection: A Methodological Assessment of the Oasis Project in Brazil,”
Natureza & Conservação 12, no. 1 (2014).
33 Marcela Muñoz Escobar, Robert Hollaender, and Camilo Pineda Weffer, “Institutional Durability
of Payments for Watershed Ecosystem Services: Lessons from Two Case Studies from Colombia and
Germany,” Ecosystem Services 6 (2013).
34 OECD, “Paying for Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem
Services,” (2010), https://www.oecd.org/env/paying-for-biodiversity-9789264090279-en.htm.
35 Winrock International, “Milwaukee River Pay-for-Performance Project,” https://www.winrock.
org/project/running-off-pollution-paying-midwestern-farmers-to-improve-water-quality/.
36 Delta Institute, “A New Approach to Conservation,” http://deltainstitute.github.io/pay-for-
performancepay-for-performance/#landscape.
37 World Bank, “Financing Climate Change Adaptation in Transboundary Basins: Preparing Bankable
Projects,” (2019), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/172091548959875335/Financing-Climate-
Change-Adaptation-in-Transboundary-Basins-Preparing-Bankable-Projects.
38 International Capital Market Association, “Green Bond Principles. Voluntary Process Guidelines
for Issuing Green Bonds,” (2018), https://www.icmagroup.org/green-social-and-sustainability-
bonds/green-bond-principles-gbp/.
39 Climate Bonds Initiative, “Water Infrastructure” https://www.climatebonds.net/standard/
water.
40 DC Water, “Green Bonds,” https://www.dcwater.com/green-bonds.
150 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

41 OECD, “Financing Green Urban Infrastructure,” in OECD Regional Development Working Papers
(OECD, 2012).
42 Ibid.
43 Jacobs, “Jacobs Selected to Operate and Manage One of the Country’s Largest Public-Private
Partnerships for Wastewater Operations,” https://invest.jacobs.com/investors/Press-Release-
Details/2020/Jacobs-Selected-to-Operate-and-Manage-One-of-the-Countrys-Largest-Public-Private-
Partnerships-for-Wastewater-Operations/default.aspx.
44 Jason Alexandra and Curtis Riddington, Public-Private Partnerships for Reforestation: Potential
Frameworks for Investment (Kingston, ACT: The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation, 2007).
45 Government of the United Kingdom, “Green Projects Given Support to Attract Private Sector
Investment,” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/green-projects-given-support-to-attract-
private-sector-investment.

References

Alexandra, Jason, and Curtis Riddington. Public-Private Partnerships for Reforestation: Potential
Frameworks for Investment. Kingston, ACT: The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation, 2007.
Borghesi, Simone. “Water Tradable Permits: A Review of Theoretical and Case Studies”. Journal of
Environmental Planning and Management 57, no. 9 (2014/09/02 2014): 1305–32.
Brears, R.C. “Financing Water Security”. Mark and Focus, https://medium.com/mark-and-focus/
financing-water-security-a7cf7caf8881.
———. Urban Water Security. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
City of Guelph. “Stormwater Service Credits for Business”. https://guelph.ca/living/environment/
water/rebates/stormwater-service-fee-credit-program/.
Climate Bonds Initiative. “Water Infrastructure” https://www.climatebonds.net/standard/water.
DC Water. “Green Bonds”. https://www.dcwater.com/green-bonds.
Delta Institute. “A New Approach to Conservation”. http://deltainstitute.github.io/pay-for-
performance/#landscape.
DOEE. “Stormwater Retention Credit Trading Program”. https://doee.dc.gov/src.
Ecologic Institute. “Economic Instruments for Water Management: Experiences from Europe and
Implications for Latin America and the Caribbean”. (2003). https://www.ecologic.eu/1118.
Electric Power Research Institute. “Ohio River Basin Trading Project”. https://wqt.epri.com/buy-
credits.html.
Government of the United Kingdom. “Green Projects Given Support to Attract Private Sector
Investment”. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/green-projects-given-support-to-attract-
private-sector-investment.
High Level Panel on Water. “Making Every Drop Count: An Agenda for Water Action”. (2018).
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17825HLPW_Outcome.pdf.
International Capital Market Association. “Green Bond Principles. Voluntary Process Guidelines for
Issuing Green Bonds”. (2018). https://www.icmagroup.org/green-social-and-sustainability-
bonds/green-bond-principles-gbp/.
Invest in Flanders. “Flanders Actively Supports Ecological Investments”. https://www.flandersin
vestmentandtrade.com/invest/en/investing-in-flanders/grant-incentives/flanders-actively-
supports-ecological-investments.
 References 151

Jacobs. “Jacobs Selected to Operate and Manage One of the Country’s Largest Public-Private
Partnerships for Wastewater Operations”. https://invest.jacobs.com/investors/Press-Release-
Details/2020/Jacobs-Selected-to-Operate-and-Manage-One-of-the-Countrys-Largest-Public-
Private-Partnerships-for-Wastewater-Operations/default.aspx.
Kauffmann, Céline. “Financing Water Quality Management”. International Journal of Water
Resources Development 27, no. 1 (2011/03/01 2011): 83–99.
Kousky, Carolyn, Sheila M. Olmstead, Margaret A. Walls, and Molly Macauley. “Strategically
Placing Green Infrastructure: Cost-Effective Land Conservation in the Floodplain”.
Environmental Science & Technology 47, no. 8 (2013/04/16 2013): 3563–70.
Lago, Manuel, Jaroslav Mysiak, Carlos M. Gómez, Gonzalo Delacámara, and Alexandros Maziotis.
“Defining and Assessing Economic Policy Instruments for Sustainable Water Management”. In
Use of Economic Instruments in Water Policy: Insights from International Experience, edited by
Manuel Lago, Jaroslav Mysiak, Carlos M. Gómez, Gonzalo Delacámara and Alexandros
Maziotis, 1–13. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015.
Latinopoulos, Dionisios, and Eftichios S. Sartzetakis. “Using Tradable Water Permits in Irrigated
Agriculture”. [In English]. Environmental and Resource Economics 60, no. 3 (Mar 2015 2015-
02-20 2015): 349–70.
Muñoz Escobar, Marcela, Robert Hollaender, and Camilo Pineda Weffer. “Institutional Durability of
Payments for Watershed Ecosystem Services: Lessons from Two Case Studies from Colombia
and Germany”. Ecosystem Services 6 (2013/12/01/ 2013): 46–53.
OECD. “Environmental Taxation: A Guide for Policy Makers”. (2011). https://www.oecd.org/env/
tools-evaluation/48164926.pdf.
———. “Financing Green Urban Infrastructure”. In OECD Regional Development Working Papers
OECD, 2012.
———. “Financing Water: Investing in Sustainable Growth”. https://www.oecd.org/water/Policy-
Paper-Financing-Water-Investing-in-Sustainable-Growth.pdf.
———. “Paying for Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem
Services”. (2010). https://www.oecd.org/env/paying-for-biodiversity-9789264090279-en.htm.
Our Future Water and Climate Markets and Investment Association. “Investing in a Water-Secure
Future”. (2020). https://www.ourfuturewater.com/investing-in-a-water-secure-future/.
Skat Denmark. “Ea7.7.5 Size and Calculation of the Charge”. https://skat.dk/skat.aspx?oid=
1946630.
Stanford Water in the West. “Water Finance: The Imperative for Water Security and Economic
Growth” (2018). https://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Water_Finance_
Water_Security_Economic_Growth.pdf.
Stormwater Currency. “Establishing a Stormwater Volume Credit Trading Program: A Practical Guide for
Stormwater Practitioners”. (2019). https://www.wef.org/globalassets/assets-wef/3—resources/
topics/o-z/stormwater/stormwater-institute/ar_stormwatervolumecredittrading_final_
revised100919.pdf.
Tasca, F. A., L. B. Assunção, and A. R. Finotti. “International Experiences in Stormwater Fee”.
[In English]. Water Science and Technology 2017, no. 1 (Apr 2018 2020-03-30 2018): 287–99.
Toronto Water. “2020 Water and Wastewater Consumption Rates and Service Fees”. (2019).
https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2019/bu/bgrd/backgroundfile-139975.pdf.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. “The Fox Canyon Water Market: A Market-Based Tool for
Groundwater Conservation Goes Live”. https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2020/05/08/fox-
canyon-water-market-market-based-tool-groundwater-conservation-goes-live.
U.S. EPA. “Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure Municipal Handbook: Incentive
Mechanisms” (2009). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/
gi_munichandbook_incentives_0.pdf.
152 Chapter 8 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water projects

UN-Water. “The United Nations World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-Based Solutions for
Water”. (2018). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261424.
US EPA. “Stormwater”. (2015). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/
epa-green-infrastructure-factsheet-4-061212-pj.pdf.
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council. “Public Funding for Sanitation – the Many
Faces of Sanitation Subsidies”. (2009). https://www.wsscc.org/resources-feed/public-
funding-sanitation/.
Winrock International. “Milwaukee River Pay-for-Performance Project”. https://www.winrock.org/
project/running-off-pollution-paying-midwestern-farmers-to-improve-water-quality/.
World Bank. “Financing Climate Change Adaptation in Transboundary Basins: Preparing Bankable
Projects”. (2019). http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/172091548959875335/
Financing-Climate-Change-Adaptation-in-Transboundary-Basins-Preparing-Bankable-Projects.
Young, Carlos Eduardo Frickmann, and Leonardo Barcellos de Bakker. “Payments for Ecosystem
Services from Watershed Protection: A Methodological Assessment of the Oasis Project in
Brazil”. Natureza & Conservação 12, no. 1 (2014/06/01/ 2014): 71–78.
Chapter 9
Best practices and conclusion

Abstract: To ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable

water and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations in the future,
water managers will need to implement innovative water management technologies
to conserve and recycle and reuse water, produce renewable energy and recover
valuable nutrients from wastewater, protect and restore water quality at various
scales, and improve the overall management of water resources. The financing of
these technologies can be implemented through a variety of innovative financial in-
struments and approaches.

Keywords: Water conservation, Water Recycling, Renewable Energy, Nutrient

Recovery, Green Infrastructure, Water Quality, Smart Meters, Economic Instruments,
Finance Instruments

Introduction

Based on the case studies, the following best practices have been identified for other
regions of the world implementing innovative water management technologies that
ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and
water-related services that meet customers’ expectations in the future.

9.1 Conserving and recycling and reusing water

From the case studies of locations conserving and recycling and reusing water, a
variety of best practices have been identified for other locations to implement:
– Uniform water rates for equitability: Uniform water tariffs across regions pro-
mote transparency, cost-effectiveness, and equitability for all water users
– Water rates based on reliability of supply: Water rates can be lowered for farm-
ers in exchange for lower water supply reliability during water shortages or
emergencies, allowing the water to be reallocated to commercial and industrial
customers, who pay for full reliability benefits
– Smart meters and leak detection: Smart meters can send high-resolution water
flow information back to water utilities, enabling the quick identification of
leaks in the system
– Real-time leak detection: Fibre optic cables can be used to detect, in real-time,
leaks in water pipe networks. The technology enables engineers to continually

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-009
154 Chapter 9 Best practices and conclusion

monitor the pipeline for leaks and other events in the network by creating thou-
sands of virtual sensors along the sections of the pipeline being monitored
– Enforcement fines during drought restrictions: During times of droughts, water
restrictions can include the use of fines for non-compliance
– Water efficiency labelling schemes: Water efficiency labelling schemes reduce
the demand for high-quality drinking water by informing consumers about
water efficiency at the point of sale. Effective labels are those that allow con-
sumers to quickly compare the water efficiency of different products as well as
see the product’s rate of water consumption
– Water conservation education programmes: Water utilities can offer a range of
programmes to help communities learn about water conservation and related
issues. A variety of formats can be used including:
– Utility representatives speaking at community events on request
– Conducting musical plays for children to learn about the importance of
saving water
– Creating mobile water labs for students to learn about water pollution as
well as the importance of conserving water
– Demonstration projects: Water utilities can create demonstration landscape gar-
dens to show customers that water-wise plants are not only sustainable but
beautiful as well. The gardens can have interactive features, including each
plant having a unique QR code for information on watering requirements. An
interactive website can be established for customers to make lists of their fa-
vourite plants and download garden design plans
– Decoupling wastewater flows: Newly constructed housing can decouple waste-
water flows, with blackwater, greywater, and stormwater separated and then
treated separately:
– Water-saving toilets concentrate blackwater for later biogas production
– Greywater can be used for watering the garden or toilet flushing
– Stormwater can be used to improve the local climate and recharge
groundwater
– Recycled water for non-potable use: Wastewater treatment plants can produce
recycled water for non-potable municipal use such as irrigation of sporting
fields, industrial use in powerplants and mining activities, and agriculture use
in irrigation systems
– Indirect potable reuse systems: These systems enable reclaimed water to be
pumped into recharge basins for eventual use in drinking water supplies
– Direct potable reuse systems: These systems can be developed that meet the
World Health Organization Guidelines
– Recycled water blended with drinking water supplies: Recycled water can be
blended with treated surface water and/or groundwater to provide an addi-
tional level of safety
 9.2 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from wastewater 155

9.2 Generating renewable energy and recovering resources from

wastewater
From the case studies of locations generating renewable energy and recovering re-
sources from wastewater, a variety of best practices have been identified for other
locations to implement:
– Biogas for vehicle fuel use: Sewage treatment plants can produce biogas for use as
a vehicle fuel with additional biogas used for heating and electricity generation
– Anaerobic digester gas: Anaerobic digester gas can power combined heat and
power (CHP) systems, with the electricity sold to energy utilities and the reve-
nue generated used to offset the costs of operating the plant
– Co-digesting of food waste and sewage sludge: Food waste and sewage sludge
can be co-digested with the biogas used to generate electricity to supplement
the sewage treatment facilities’ internal power consumption
– Renewable energy from biosolids: Wastewater utilities that currently provide bi-
osolids for pasture improvement can also assess the feasibility of generating
renewable energy from the biosolids along with other commercial opportuni-
ties for generating renewable energy from other organic waste streams
– District heating networks: Water utilities can use CHP units to provide low-
carbon heat to district heating networks in the form of hot water
– Floating solar panels: Large-scale floating solar panels can be deployed on treated
wastewater ponds
– Decentralised renewable energy systems: Wastewater treatment plants can meet
their total energy demand through individual, decentralised renewable energy
systems, including wind turbines, CHP units, and solar photovoltaic systems
– Hydropower energy recovery: Water utilities can install hydro-electric genera-
tors at wastewater treatment plants to capture energy from wastewater passing
down drop shafts to ocean outfalls
– Energy efficiency: Water utilities can upgrade their wastewater treatment plants
to reduce energy consumption, including the use of real-time control equip-
ment to constantly monitor processes to ensure optimal conditions are main-
tained, using only the minimum amount of energy
– Biosolids for farmers: Water utilities can provide biosolids to farmers and offer
a variety of services to help farmers maximise the potential of biosolids while
complying with regulations
– Recovery of resources from wastewater: A variety of resources can be recovered
from wastewater, including:
– Cellulose: Wastewater treatment plants can use filters to separate cellulose
fibres from toilet paper to produce commercial cellulose that has been
cleaned, dried, and disinfected
– Bioplastic: Bacteria can produce PHA plastic from wastewater treatment
facilities
156 Chapter 9 Best practices and conclusion

– Sewage ash for brick production: Water utilities can deliver leftover ash
from waste-to-energy incinerators to brick producers for the manufacturing
of energy-efficient, heavy-duty bricks for the construction industry
– Minerals: A variety of minerals can be recovered from industrial wastewa-
ter for reuse in other industries

9.3 Greening of grey water infrastructure

From the case studies of locations implementing green infrastructure solutions to

manage stormwater and improve water quality, a variety of best practices have
been identified for other locations to implement:
– Rebates for rainwater harvesting systems: Water utilities can provide rebates for
the installation of rainwater harvesting systems. The application can require
property owners to attend a workshop to learn about best management practi-
ces (BMPs), and how to develop a rainwater harvesting project plan
– Green infrastructure community adoption: Water utilities can create green infra-
structure community adoption projects to foster community engagement and
ensure they are managed effectively with the regular removing of rubbish and
reporting of any issues
– Renaturalising waterways: Cities can renaturalise concrete canals, turning them
into picturesque rivers that foster wildlife, while green infrastructure solutions
can be installed on adjacent parkland to store excess stormwater while also fil-
tering contaminants
– Multipurpose stormwater management ponds: Cities can create stormwater man-
agement ponds that, in addition to managing excess stormwater, provide water
conservation opportunities with the pond’s water used for irrigation during the
summer months
– Smart blue-green roofs: Public-private partnerships can be formed to build in-
terconnected networks of smart blue-green roofs in cities. Each roof can have
smart flow controls that anticipate heavy rain or drought, releasing or retaining
water accordingly. The blue-green roofs can be connected in a smart grid, en-
abling real-time data exchange for dynamic water level management
– Retrofit of streets with permeable pavement: City departments can partner with
the private sector to retrofit streets upstream of flood-prone areas with durable,
permeable pavers
– Green street technical guidelines: Cities can develop green street technical
guidelines that provide standards for the development of streets with green in-
frastructure solutions that manage stormwater runoff as well as yield signifi-
cant environmental benefits
 9.4 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins 157

– Multifunctional flood retention areas: Water authorities can build new multi-
functional flood retention areas to protect urban locations with sporting fields,
public facilities as well as farmland used as temporary flood storage areas

9.4 Protecting and restoring water quality in river basins

From the case studies of locations implementing river basin planning and other ini-
tiatives to protect and restore water quality, a variety of best practices have been
identified for other locations to implement:
– Monitoring networks: River basin authorities can establish monitoring networks
that monitor physical, chemical, and biological conditions in the river and its
tributaries. Yearbooks can be published that provide an annual overview of
pollution levels as well as long term trends for water quality in the basin
– River basin water quality trading programmes: These programmes can be estab-
lished to fund agricultural practices that either solely focus on reducing nutrient
loading of waterways and ecosystems, or improve water quality while achieving
a range of secondary benefits, such as habitat enhancement and increased social
benefits to farmers
– Funding Agricultural Best Management Practices: Farm stewardship programmes
can be developed to provide agriculture producers with funding to implement
BMPs that improve water quality, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance the
resilience of the agricultural sector, and maintain biodiversity
– Stormwater credit programmes: Cities can create stormwater credits that are per-
formance-based to encourage creativity, provide flexibility, and enable property
owners to pursue technologies best suited for their properties and needs, as per-
mitted by existing by-laws, codes, and regulations
– Public demonstrations: Water utilities can use small-scale, hands-on models
that demonstrate at public events how green infrastructure can reduce storm-
water flooding and improve water quality in bays and other waterbodies
– Land acquisition programmes: Water utilities can implement land acquisition
programmes to protect drinking water reservoirs and the watershed lands that
surround them
– Partnerships: Water utilities can partner with non-profits to help farmers imple-
ment BMPs to control runoff
– Cooperation with regulatory agencies: Water utilities can work with regulatory
agencies to review new developments in watersheds to ensure streams and res-
ervoirs are protected
158 Chapter 9 Best practices and conclusion

9.5 Smart digital water management and managing customers

of the future
From the case studies of locations implementing smart digital water management
initiatives, a variety of best practices have been identified for other locations to
implement:
– Water quality monitoring systems: Water utilities can use water quality monitoring
systems to ensure early warning detection of issues in their reservoirs. Monitoring
buoys can send water quality data to operators to download and analyse, ensur-
ing the best operational decisions are made
– Predicting and preventing leaks: Water utilities can take a data-led ‘Internet of
Things’ approach towards predicting and preventing leaks in the water distribu-
tion network. Data generated from acoustic devices can be analysed to help con-
trol the flow of water and prevent pipe bursts and leaks happening. It also enables
water utilities to repair any issues rapidly, minimising disruptions to customers
– Optimising water pressure: Water utilities can combine pressure management
valve controllers with data systems to optimise water pressure across the net-
work, which in turn reduces leakage
– Real-time monitoring of distributed assets: Upgraded SCADA systems allow
water utilities to monitor distributed assets and perform predictive and reactive
maintenance and are better able to respond to incidents, such as environmen-
tal spills promptly. Real-time and historical information can be made available
to operations and strategic planning staff for informed decision-making
– GIS platforms facilitating rapid repairs: GIS platforms enable:
– Employees to instantly see the locations of the water utility’s assets and
the property of other utilities, enabling the workers to speed up repairs and
minimise public inconvenience
– Asset management teams to assess the condition of the company’s assets
then analyse asset performance and make informed decisions about which
assets need replacing first and where investments should be directed
– High water usage alerts: Water utilities can offer customers high water usage
alerts when water usage is higher than average. The alert can be delivered via
email or text message etc. The alert system can be provided in tandem with
high-resolution data that enables customers to see their water consumption on
a daily, monthly, and yearly basis
– Smart networks: Water utilities can install smart networks in city centres that
provide near real-time information about what is occurring in the water net-
work 24/7, helping utilities to identify and proactively fix leaks before they im-
pact customers and commuters
 9.5 Smart digital water management and managing customers of the future 159

– Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence programmes at water treatment plants

enable water utilities to mine historical pump operational data and learn the
most efficient pump configuration for any time of the day or week, reducing
pump-related energy costs significantly

From the case studies of locations managing customers of the future, a variety of
best practices have been identified for other locations to implement:
– Green business challenges: Cities and water utilities can create green business
challenges that recognise businesses that take actions to protect the local envi-
ronment while saving money and attracting new customers. Challenges can in-
clude water conservation with participants:
– Fixing leaks
– Ensuring water-using fixtures and equipment comply with existing codes
and ordinances
– Replacing or retrofitting water-using equipment
– Water conservation contests: These can be developed that encourage residential
customers to show on social media how they are conserving water, with a
range of prizes available for category winners
– Smartphone apps: Apps can be developed that enable users to report sightings
of violations of water restrictions, with users able to photograph the water
waste and then submit it to the water utility for further action
– Real-time consumption data: Water utilities can provide customers with their
consumption data in near real-time. In addition to promoting water conserva-
tion, it enables utilities to plan and implement strategies to reduce or reallocate
water consumption
– Gamification: Gamified social games can be created where consumers are en-
couraged to save water in return for points, badges, and prizes based on their
actions
– Social media: Water utilities can use social media to engage customers on
water conservation and protecting the environment in a light-hearted manner,
including on the topics of how to save water, what should not be flushed down
the toilets, and use of reusable bottles and drinking of tap water
– Enhancing customers’ experience: Water utilities can enhance customers’ expe-
rience across the water distribution network by:
– Providing real-time maps: Providing online, real-time maps of rainfall
events to encourage property owners to become aware of green infra-
structure solutions
– Automatically detecting water quality issues: Utilising robotic technologies
to automatically detect any water quality issues that may arise in the water
distribution system
– Installing smart meters: Distributing smart meters to all new and existing do-
mestic and non-domestic customers to encourage behavioural change towards
160 Chapter 9 Best practices and conclusion

water conservation, optimise water demand management, and achieve greater

operational efficiencies
– Providing online leak detection maps: Developing online water leak maps
where customers can inform the water utility about a leak in their area and
track the water company’s progress in fixing it
– Providing online customer forms: Providing online forms for customers to
report leaks, with a questionnaire so the water utility gains as much insight
as possible before sending out a repair crew

9.6 Innovative financial instruments and approaches for water

projects
From the case studies of locations implementing various innovative financial in-
struments and approaches to ensure the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient,
and affordable water and water-related services that meet customers’ expectations
in the future, a variety of best practices have been identified for other locations to
implement:
– Increasing water and wastewater rates: Water utilities can increase water and
wastewater rates for both residential and industrial customers to raise addi-
tional revenue for capital expenditures
– Water rate discounts: Industrial water users can be offered discounted water
rates if they implement water conservation initiatives
– Stormwater fee credits: Water utilities can provide stormwater fee credits for
property owners that reduce runoff by implementing green infrastructure BMPs.
The discount on the stormwater component of the water bill not only saves cus-
tomers money but the utility too, all the while protecting and enhancing nature
– Stormwater credit trading: Water utilities can develop stormwater credit trading
programmes where property owners and developers can earn revenue from in-
stalling green infrastructure on their properties. Grants can be provided to non-
profits, including schools and institutes, to help them generate stormwater
credits from their land
– Pesticide taxes: Pesticide taxes can be developed to reduce loadings of water-
ways, with the tax paid based on how much of an impact the pesticide has on
health, nature, and groundwater
– Subsidies for water technologies: Governments, including water utilities, can
provide subsidies for investments in pre-approved green technologies, includ-
ing those that are water related, as well as subsidies for investments in bespoke
green technologies, including water-related technologies, that promote circular
economy thinking
– Tradable water abstraction rights programmes: These programmes can be devel-
oped by partners across the public, private, and non-profit sectors to encourage
 Conclusion 161

agricultural producers to use their water efficiently and enable reallocation of

water resources to those that value it the most
– Tradable water pollution rights programmes: These programmes can be devel-
oped by partners across the public, private, and non-profit sectors to enable
permitted dischargers to meet their environmental permit requirements cost-
effectively
– Pay-for-performance projects: These projects can be developed to reward farm-
ers for improving water quality by implementing agricultural verified BMPs,
with payments made by wastewater treatment plants or other downstream enti-
ties that need to meet water quality obligations
– Green bonds: Water utilities can issue green bonds with the proceeds used to
construct green infrastructure practices to:
– Improve water quality by remediating combined sewer overflows
– Promote climate resilience through flood mitigation
– Improve quality of life by protecting biodiversity and restoring waterways
– Public-private partnerships: There are a variety of ways public-private partner-
ships (PPP) can be implemented, including the following:
– Municipalities can implement PPPs for the operation and maintenance of
wastewater treatment plants, with contracts stipulating upgrades in opera-
tional efficiency and the meeting of renewable energy goals
– Government agencies can financially support natural environment projects
that attract private sector investment by developing dedicated natural envi-
ronmental impacts funds. Collaborative partnerships encourage private sector
investment in environmental projects that help tackle climate change and re-
store nature, including developing natural flood management schemes and
working with farmers to improve water quality

Conclusion

In conclusion, as the century progresses, the water sector is facing increasing pres-
sure from a wide range of climatic and non-climatic trends that challenge its ability
to provide sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related
services that meets customers’ expectations in the future. Traditionally, the water
sector has been typically slow to evolve and incorporate new innovative solutions
into existing systems in response to various challenges due to a number of barriers.
Nonetheless, a failure to implement innovations in water management will expose the
water sector to a variety of risks to human health, the environment, and infrastructure
as well as reductions in the level of service customers have come to expect. To ensure
the provision of sustainable, reliable, resilient, and affordable water and water-related
services that meet customers’ expectations in the future, water managers will need to
162 Chapter 9 Best practices and conclusion

implement innovative water management technologies to conserve and recycle and

reuse water, produce renewable energy and recover valuable nutrients from wastewa-
ter, protect and restore water quality at various scales, and improve the overall man-
agement of water resources. The financing of these technologies can be implemented
through a variety of innovative financial instruments and approaches.
Index
Advanced Metering Infrastructure 29 Economic instruments 133
Ageing infrastructure 1 Education 33–35, 41, 103
Agriculture 9, 19, 29, 33, 38, 40, 55, 60, Egypt 7
102–103, 149 Electricity 45, 59
air pollution 53 Energy 5, 8, 18–20, 41, 45, 48–54, 57–60, 79,
Amsterdam 72 101, 115, 126, 136, 146, 153, 155
Anaerobic digestion 46 energy efficiency 52–54, 77, 108
Anglian Water 31, 41 Environmental Assessment 90
Artificial intelligence 114, 159 environmental permitting 89–90
Auckland 51 Environmental taxes 137
Australia 7, 20, 33, 38, 49, 59, 150 Essex and Suffolk Water 123, 126
Automated Meter Reading 29 Ethiopia 7
European Union 72, 119
Biodiversity 11, 19, 149 Eutrophication 6
Biogas 38, 46–47, 58–59, 155
Bioinfiltration 76, 78 Flanders, Belgium 138
Bioplastic 56, 155 Floating PV 50
Biosolids 48–49, 55, 58, 60, 146, 155 Food 5, 9, 19–20, 41, 48, 58, 100, 147, 155
Bioswales 67–68, 78
Blackwater 37 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 109
Blue roof 71 Germany 19, 51, 122, 149
Green bonds 142, 161
cellulose 56, 155 green infrastructure 2, 13, 63, 66, 68, 74–76,
Charlotte Water 47 98, 122, 134, 136, 144, 156–157, 159–161
cisterns 37, 63–64 Green roof 69–70
City of Atlanta 74, 79 Green Street 63, 74–75, 77–80
City of Austin 118, 126 greenhouse gas emissions 1, 10, 53, 95–96,
City of Guelph 98, 103, 135, 148 146, 157
City of San Diego 118 Greywater 37–38, 154
City of Toronto 69, 77, 79–80, 133 groundwater 5–6, 9–11, 26, 38, 40, 63–64,
City of Tucson 65, 78 66–67, 74, 85, 95, 97–98, 100, 108, 112,
City of Winterthur, Switzerland 77 137, 140, 154, 160
Climate change 1, 5, 131 groundwater recharge 63, 66–67, 74
co-digestion 48
combined heat and power 38, 46, 155 Hamburg Wasser 41, 122
Combined sewer systems 63 Heat recovery 49
Helix Water District 35, 41
Demand management 13, 25–26 Hong Kong 48
Democratic Republic of Congo 7 Hunter Water 38, 41, 49, 58
Denmark 137, 149 Hydropower 51, 59, 155
Direct potable reuse 154
District heating and cooling 49 indirect potable reuse 38
District Metered Areas 110 Indonesia 7
District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority Infrastructure 1, 10, 15, 18–20, 63, 78, 80, 103,
(DC Water) 144 143, 148–150, 153, 156

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110685640-010
164 Index

innovation 2–3, 5, 12, 14–17, 20, 91, 110, river basin management 86, 88
133, 142 River basins 85
Irish Water 27–28, 40
irrigation 9, 13, 28, 32, 35, 37–38, 64–65, SA Water 114, 125
69–70, 95, 107, 154, 156 Saltwater intrusion 6
San Antonio Water System 120
Leak Detection 30, 110 San Diego County Water Authority 29, 34,
Leakage 29, 40, 124–125, 142 40–41
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission 66
Machine learning 115 San Jose Water 120
Melbourne Water 100, 115 Saskatchewan 95, 103
Milwaukee 142, 149 sewage treatment 47–49, 51, 54, 155
Singapore 68, 123–126
natural flood management 147, 161 Smart digital water management 107–109
New York City 101, 110 smart water grid 113
New Zealand 7, 51, 59 Smart Water Meters 107, 113, 124–125
nitrogen 8–9, 45–46, 53–54, 56, 93, 95, 97 Social media 119–120, 159
Northumbrian Water 120 Solar Energy 50
Nutrient Management 94, 147 solar PV 50–51
nutrient recovery 45 Source Water Protection 98, 100, 103
South Australia 114
Ofwat 20, 116, 124–126 Southern Water 120, 124, 126
Ohio 93, 140, 149 Stockholm 47, 58
Orange County 39, 41 Stormwater 18, 38, 63, 69, 74–76, 78–80, 96,
98–99, 103, 134–136, 148, 154, 157, 160
Pakistan 7 stormwater bump-out 75
pay-for-performance 142 Stormwater Credit 98, 135
Payment for Ecosystem Services 131, 141 Stormwater fee 134, 160
Payment for Watershed Ecosystem Services 141 stormwater planter 74
Permeable pavement 72, 74–75 stormwater runoff 6, 65, 67, 69, 71–72, 74–76,
Permits 85, 89–90, 102, 131, 139, 149 96–99, 134, 136, 156
Pervious concrete 73 Stormwater volume credit 135
pesticide tax 137 Struvite 55, 59
Phosphorous 59 Subsidies 138, 149, 160
Pollution 9, 79, 100, 102–103, 139–140 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Polymers 56 (SCADA) system 109
Porous pavement 73 Sydney 32, 41, 52, 59
Pressure management 110 Sydney Water 52, 59
Public Utilities Board 68, 123, 125
Public-private partnerships 14, 145, 156, 161 Tanzania 7
Thames Water 53, 57, 112
Rain gardens 65–66 thermal conversion 45, 48
Rainwater harvesting 37, 63–64 Tradable permits 90
Regulations 16 Tradable water abstraction rights 139, 160
renewable energy 2, 45–46, 49–54, 138, 155, tradable water pollution rights 91, 139
161–162 Tucson Water 65
restoration 1, 11, 88, 101, 146–147
retention basin 69 U.S. Department of Agriculture 140, 149
Riparian buffers 94 United Kingdom 31, 147, 150
 Index 165

United States of America 7 Water Pricing 25–26, 40

United Utilities 111, 125, 147 water quality 1–2, 6, 8, 10–11, 13, 30–31, 36,
urban heat island 67, 71–72, 74 39, 50, 63, 65–67, 69, 74, 77, 85, 88–89,
Urbanisation 1, 7–8 91–95, 98–99, 107–110, 113–114, 121, 123,
131, 136, 139–142, 144, 146–147, 156–159,
Ventura County, California 140 161–162
Ventura Water 118, 126 Water quality monitoring 109, 158
water quantity 11, 13, 108, 141
wastewater 1–2, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16–17, 19, 36–39, water recycling 2, 25, 36
45, 47–57, 63, 67, 89, 101, 107–108, 115, Water Restrictions 25, 31–32, 41
133, 142–143, 145–146, 154–156, 160–162 water reuse 36, 38
wastewater treatment 2, 6, 8, 16, 45, 47–50, water tariff 26–27, 153
52–57, 63, 67, 89, 108, 142–143, 145–146, Watercare 51, 59
155, 161 Welsh Water 55, 60
water conservation 11, 13, 16, 25–26, 31, wetlands 2, 96, 99, 147
33–35, 118–120, 123, 134, 154, 156, Wind Power 51
159–160 Windhoek, Namibia 39, 42
water efficiency 13, 17, 32–33, 35, 107, 120, 154 World Health Organization 39, 154
water governance 13
Water Metering 25, 29 Yarra Valley Water 111, 120, 125
Water prices 133 Yorkshire Water 29, 40, 110, 125