University of Basrah

College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (ME317), 3rd Year (2019-2020)
Lecturer: Dr. Rafid Jabbar Mohammed

Bulk Deformation Processes

- The initial form is bulk rather than sheet including cylindrical bars and
billets, rectangular billets and slabs. Figure (3-10) shows some steel products
made in rolling mill.

Figure (3-10) steel products made in rolling mill.

Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

The commercial and technological importance of bulk deformation processes

derives from the following:

- When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve significant

change in the shape of the workpart.
- When performed as cold working operations, they can be used to increase its
strength through strain hardening.
- These processes produce little or no waste as a byproduct of the operation.
Some bulk deformation operations are near net shape or net shape processes.

1. Rolling Processes
Definition: it is a deformation process in which the thickness of the w.p. is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls as illustrated in
figure (3-11).

Figure (3-11) The Rolling Process (Flat Rolling).

Hot Rolling:

- It is preferred owing to large amount of deformation required.

- It is generally free of residual stresses.
- Its properties are isotropic.
- The product cannot be held to close tolerances (disadvantage).
- The surface has a characteristic oxide scale (disadvantage).

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Cold Rolling:

- Strengthens the metal.

- Permits a tighter tolerance on thickness.
- The surface of cold-rolled sheet is absent of scale and superior to the
corresponding hot-rolled product.

Refer to figure (3-10) to explain the following items:

- Ingot: casted metal block ready for forming operations.

- Bloom: rolled from ingots and having sq. cross sec. (150mmX150mm) or
larger.
- Slab: rolled from ingot or bloom and having rect. cross sec. (250mm width
or more X 40mm thickness or more). Products like plates, sheets, and strips.
Plates are used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers and welded structures, tubes
and pipes.
- Billets: rolled from bloom and having sq. cross sec. (40mm larger). Products
like bars and rods.

Flat Rolling and Its Analysis:

- It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets and plates of workpiece having
a rectangular cross-section (width >> thickness). Figure (3-12) explains the
flat rolling.

vr

to tf

vf
vo

vr

Figure (3-12) Nomenclatures of Flat Rolling (side view).

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

vr: roll speed,

vo: entering speed of w.p.,

vf: exiting speed of w.p.,

to: original thickness of w.p.,

tf: final thickness of w.p.,

ɵ: angle of contact with rolls.

1. Thickness Reduction:

d = to – tf d: draft (reduced amount of thickness)

𝒅
𝒓= r: reduction in single rolling operation
𝒕𝒐

𝒅𝟏 +𝒅𝟐 +𝒅𝟑 +⋯
𝒓= r: reduction in a series of rolling operation
𝒕𝒐

2. Volume Flow of Material:

- Rolling increases w.p. width (spreading is cleared with low w/t and low
friction).
- Conservation of matter:

to wo Lo = tf wf Lf
- Volume rate of material flow:
to wo vo = tf wf vf
Note: to keep the volume rate of metal flow constant, the w.p. speed must
increase as it moves through the roll gap as in the incompressible flow
through a converging channel.
wo: original width of w.p., wf: final width of w.p.,
Lo: original length of w.p.,
Lf: final length of w.p.,

3. The Slip:
vr > vo
vr < vf
- The amount of slip between the rolls and the w.p. is determined by the
forward slip s (it is a measure of the relative velocities involved):

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

𝒗 𝒇 − 𝒗𝒓
𝒔=
𝒗𝒓
- No-slip point (neutral point) is located on contact arc at which (vr = speed of
w.p.).
- Slipping and friction occur on either side of this point.

4. Stress and Strain:

𝒕𝒐
- True strain: 𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒕𝒇

𝒏
̅ 𝒇 = 𝑲𝜺
- Average flow stress: 𝒀
𝟏+𝒏

̅ 𝒇 : average flow stress

𝒀

ε: maximum strain value during the rolling process.

5. Friction:

Figure (3-13) explains the frictional forces acting in rolling process.

Before no-slip
point Vroll > No-Slip Point
Froll
Vw.p., and after vr
it Vw.p. > Vroll ɵ

vo vf

Ff right
Ff left
vf
vr
vo

Figure (3-13) Frictional force acting along the w.p-roll interfaces

𝑭𝒇 = 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝝁
Ff left > Ff right always so that the net friction force and the roll speed are in the
same direction from left to right to make the rolling process possible.
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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

µ: friction coefficient,

Ff: friction force,

Froll: roll force,

Ff left: left friction force,

Ff right: right friction force,

- Maximum Possible Draft:

𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝟐 𝑹
R: roll radius.

If µ = 0.0, d=0.0 then no rolling.

µ depends on: 1- lubrication, 2- w.p. material, 3- working temperature.

- In cold rolling : µ ≈ 0.1

- In warm rolling: µ ≈ 0.2
- In hot rolling: µ ≈ 0.4

Notes:
- In hot rolling a condition is often occur called “sticking”.
- In sticking: hot w.p. surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc.
Sticking is often occur in the rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys.
- At sticking, the µ can be as high as 0.7.
- The consequences of sticking is: speed of surface layers of w.p. having the
same speed of Vr and deformation of below surface is more severe in order
to allow passage of the w.p. through the roll gap.

6. Roll Force:

- The roll force is required to maintain separation between the two rolls.
- It can be calculated by integrating the unit roll pressure over the roll-w.p
contact area as in figure (3-14):
𝑳
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒘 ∫ 𝒑𝒅𝑳
𝟎

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

w: width of w.p. being rolled

p: roll pressure
L: contact length

The area beneath the

curve, representing
the integration in roll
force equation.

Figure (3-14) pressure variation in flat rolling

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

- For low frictional conditions, the roll force can be calculated as:

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳

𝒀𝒇 : average flow stress experienced by the w.p. in the roll gap

- For the higher frictional conditions, the roll force can be calculated as:

𝝁𝑳
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳 (𝟏 + )
𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒗
tav: average thickness of w.p. (tav=(to+tf)/2)

- By aiding of figure (3-15), the contact length L can be determine as:

𝑳 = √𝑹(𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 )

o ɵ

L R
(to-tf)/2

Figure (3-15) Contact length in flat rolling.

7. Torque and Power:

a- Torque:
- It is estimated by assuming that the roll force acts in the middle of the
contact arc (this results in a moment arm of 0.5L):

Then the torque per roll is: 𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

- It is found that (0.5L moment arm) is good estimate for hot rolling and
(0.4L moment arm) is a better estimate for cold rolling.

b- Power:
- It is given by:

𝑷 = 𝑻𝝎
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝑵/𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳
𝟔𝟎
𝝅𝑵𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳
∴𝑷= per roll
𝟔𝟎
And
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳
𝑷= for 2 rolls
𝟔𝟎
T: roll torque (N.m)

𝜔: angular velocity of roll (rad/s)

N: rotational velocity of roll (rpm)

P: rolling power (W)

Example (1):

A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered
rolls each of radius =250 mm. The w.p. thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one
pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The w.p. material has a flow curve defined by
K=275 MPa and n=0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the
w.p. is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the
rolling operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and
horsepower.
Solution:
d = to-tf = 25 – 22 = 3mm

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

dmax = µ2R = (0.122)(250) = 3.6mm

Since dmax > d then the rolling process is feasible. Answer

Since the friction coefficient is low then we can use the equation:

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳

𝑳 = √𝑹(𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 ) = √(𝟐𝟓𝟎)(𝟑) = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝒎𝒎

𝑲𝜺𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝟐𝟓
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 , 𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟖
𝒏+𝟏 𝒕𝒇 𝟐𝟐

(𝟐𝟕𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟎.𝟏𝟓 )
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟕𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏
∴ 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = (𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟕)(𝟑𝟎𝟎)(𝟐𝟕. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝒌𝑵 Answer
𝟐𝟕.𝟒
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟒) ( ) = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝒌𝑵. 𝒎 Answer
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)(𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟐𝟓𝟒)(𝟐𝟕.𝟒)(𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )
𝑷= = = 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟏𝒌𝑾 Answer
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎

or 1horsepower= 745.7 W

𝟐𝟎𝟕.𝟏(𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
∴ 𝑯𝑷 = = 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝒉𝒑 Answer
𝟕𝟒𝟓.𝟕

Example (2):

A 9" wide 6061-O aluminum strip is rolled from a thickness of 1" to 0.8". If the
roll radius is 12" and the roll rpm is 100. Calculate the HP required for rolling
operation. Take: K=30,000psi, n=0.2.

Solution:

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳
𝑷=
𝟔𝟎
𝑳 = √𝑹(𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 ) = √(𝟏𝟐)(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟗" ÷ 𝟑𝟗. 𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑𝒎 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟑𝒎𝒎

1m=39.4in, 1in=25.4mm

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

Since the friction coefficient is low then we can use the equation:

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳
𝑲𝜺𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝟏
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 , 𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟑
𝒏+𝟏 𝒕𝒇 𝟎.𝟖

𝟎.𝟐 )
̅ 𝒇 = (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟑
𝒀 = 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝒑𝒔𝒊 = (𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟖. 𝟑)(𝟔𝟖𝟗𝟒. 𝟖)=127.7MPa
𝟎.𝟐+𝟏

1psi=6894.8pa
∴ 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = (𝟏𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝑬𝟔)(𝟗 ÷ 𝟑𝟗. 𝟒)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑) = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝒌𝑵
𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎)(𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟒)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑)
𝑷= = 𝟒𝟕𝟐𝒌𝑾
𝟔𝟎
𝟒𝟕𝟐(𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
∴ 𝑯𝑷 = = 𝟔𝟑𝟑𝒉𝒑 Answer
𝟕𝟒𝟓.𝟕

Example (3):

A 12" wide strip is rolled from a thickness of 1" to 0.875" in one pass. The roll
radius and roll speed are 10" and 50rpm respectively. Material having the
following properties: K=40,000psi, n=0.15 and µ=0.12. Is this process feasible? If
so, determine roll force, torque and required HP.

Solution:

d = to-tf = 1 – 0.875 = 0.125in

dmax = µ2R = (0.122)(10) = 0.144in

Since dmax > d then the rolling process is feasible. Answer

Since the friction coefficient is low (0.12) then we can use the equation:

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳

𝑳 = √𝑹(𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 ) = √(𝟏𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟒𝒎 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟒𝒎𝒎

𝑲𝜺𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝟏
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 , 𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟒
𝒏+𝟏 𝒕𝒇 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝟓

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

(𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟎.𝟏𝟓 )
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝒑𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏
∴ 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = (𝟏𝟕𝟕. 𝟒)(𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐𝟓. 𝟒)(𝟐𝟖. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟓. 𝟔𝒌𝑵 Answer
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟓. 𝟔)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟒) = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝒌𝑵. 𝒎 Answer
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑳 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)(𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟓.𝟔)(𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟒)
𝑷= = = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝒌𝑾 Answer
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎

Or
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑷 = 𝑻𝝎 = 𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝒌𝑾
𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟐𝟖.𝟑(𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
∴ 𝑯𝑷 = = 𝟑𝟎𝟔𝒉𝒑 Answer
𝟕𝟒𝟓.𝟕

Note:

- According to maximum shear stress criterion (Tresca criterion) that yielding

occurs when:
𝑲𝜺𝒏
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 ̅𝒇 =
=𝒀
𝒏+𝟏

- According to the distortion-energy criterion (von Mises criterion) for the

plane strain:
𝟐 𝑲𝜺𝒏
̅𝒇 =
𝒀 can be also used to determine Froll.
√𝟑 𝒏+𝟏

Plane Stress: is the state of stress in which one or two of the pairs of faces on an
element are free from stress.

Plane Strain: is the state of strain where one of the pairs of faces on an element
undergoes zero strain.

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Chapter Three Metal Forming Processes

8. Forces in Hot Rolling:

- The force in hot rolling process can be estimated approximately because of
(1) variations in (µ) at elevated temperatures, (2) variations of strain-rate
sensitivity (m) at elevated temperatures.
- The following relations are used to estimate the rolling force in hot rolling:
In case of very high friction
condition we can use: 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳

𝝁𝑳 𝒀𝒇 = 𝑪𝜺̅̇𝒎
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳 (𝟏 + )
𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒗 𝜺
𝜺̅̇ =
𝒕
𝒕𝒐
𝜺 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒕𝒇
𝑳 𝐷 2𝜋𝑁
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑅𝜔 =
𝒕= 2 60
𝒗𝒓
𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝑚
𝑣𝑟 = ( )
𝒗𝒓 = 𝝅𝑫𝑵 (m/min) 60 𝑠
𝑚
𝒗 𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝑣𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁 ( )
∴ 𝜺̅̇ = 𝐥𝐧 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑳 𝒕𝒇
Torque and Power are calculated as in the preceding discussion.

Where:

𝜀̅̇: average strain rate

t: time required for an element to undergo this strain in the roll gap

D: roll diameter

Homework:

In hot rolling process, the following data was collected:

N=20rpm, R=20cm, to=40mm, tf=35mm, C=415MPa.s, m=0.02, w=60cm,

one pass rolling. Find Froll, T and Power.

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