d nom - 50 mm ≤ d cal = 0,95 d nom ≤ d nom - 20 mm

59.7 Plain concrete footings

The depth and width of a plain concrete footing supported on the ground should be
determined so that the design virtual tensile values and shear strengths of the concrete are not
exceeded.

The reference section S1 that is to be considered in bending calculation may be defined

as follows:

It is flat, perpendicular to the base of the footing, and takes into account the total section
of the same footing. It is parallel to the face of the column or wall and is located behind this face,
at a distance equal to 0.15a, where a is the dimension of the column or wall measured
orthogonal to the section being considered. The total depth h of this reference section should
be taken as being equal to the total depth of the section parallel to section S1 which is located
at the face of the column or wall. In the above, it is assumed that the column or wall is a
concrete element; if it is not, the quantity 0.15a should be replaced with:

- 0.25a, in the case of brick or masonry walls.

- Half the distance between the face of the column and the edge of the metal
plate, in the case of metal supports on steel support plates.

The reference section being considered for shear design should be located at a distance
that is equal to the depth from the face of the column, wall or pedestal, or from the mid-point
between the face of the column and the edge of the steel plate in the case of metal columns on
steel load distribution plates. This reference section is flat, perpendicular to the base of the
footing, and takes into account the total section of the same footing.

The reference section to be considered in punching shear design should be

perpendicular to the footing base and should be defined so that its perimeter is minimum and is
not located closer than half the total depth of the footing from the perimeter of the column, wall
or pedestal.

The factored bending moment and shear force in the corresponding reference section
will cause tensile stresses due to bending and mean tangential stresses, the value of which
should be less than the design virtual strength of the concrete to flexural tension and shear.

Bending design should be carried out on the basis of a state of plane stress and strain
and on the assumption that the concrete within the section is whole and not cracked.

The footing should be checked for shear and punching shear stresses in the reference
sections, as defined above, with the shear strength being governed by the more restrictive of
the conditions.

The design tensile and shear strength of the concrete should be taken as being the
value fct,d as stated in 52.2.

For the purposes of the verification for punching shear, the value 2fct,d should be taken.

COMMENTS
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 In accordance with that already established, there is no requirement to carry out any verification of
shear or punching shear in footings that are supported on the ground where the offset, as measured from the
column face in the two main directions, is less than half the total depth.

The design of plain concrete pile caps supported by piles is forbidden.

59.8 Minimum dimensions and reinforcement for footings, pile caps and raft
foundations

59.8.1 Minimum depths and dimensions

The minimum depth at the edge of plain concrete footings should not be less than 35
cm.

The minimum total depth at the edge of reinforced concrete foundation elements should
not be less than 25 cm if they are supported by the ground or 40 cm in the case of pile caps.
Additionally, in the latter case the thickness at any point should not be less than the diameter of
the pile.

The distance between any point on the pile’s perimeter and the outer limit of the pile
cap base should not be less than 25 cm.

59.8.2 Layout of reinforcement

The longitudinal reinforcement should meet the provisions in Article 42. The minimum
quantity applies to the sum of the reinforcement in the upper face, the top face and the side
walls in the direction under consideration.

The reinforcement distributed in the top, bottom and side faces should have a spacing
with intervals no greater than 30 cm.

COMMENTS

It is recommended that the minimum diameter of the reinforcement be distributed in a foundation

element be not less than 12 mm.

59.8.3 Minimum vertical reinforcement

In flexible footings and pile caps it will not be necessary to arrange for any transverse
reinforcement provided that this is not required by the design and the concrete is placed
without any form of discontinuity.

If the footing or pile cap essentially behaves as a wide beam and is designed as a
linear element in accordance with 59.4.2.1.2.1, then the transverse reinforcement should be in
agreement with the provisions of Article 44.

If the footing or pile cap behaviour is rather in two directions, and is designed for
punching shear in accordance with 59.4.2.1.2.2, then the transverse reinforcement should be in
agreement with the provisions of Article 44.

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Article 60 Concentrated loads on solid blocks

60.1 General

A concentrated load that is applied to a solid block constitutes a D region.

Because it is a D region, the general method of analysis is the one indicated in Article
24. The verifications of struts, ties and nodes, and the properties of the materials that are to be
taken into consideration, are those established in Article 40.

The equivalent strut-and-tie model, in the case of a centred load as shown in figure
60.1.a, is that indicated in figure 60.1.b.

COMMENTS

Just as was defined in Article 24, a concentrated load on a solid block produces a static type of
discontinuity.

From the results of a linear condition analysis, it may be seen that if the concentrated load is applied
to a solid block having a width of l, the load will be uniformly distributed at a depth h that is approximately
equal to l (figure 60.1.c).

The compression flow deviation produces transversal stresses that condition the reinforcement
dimensioning.

60.2 Verifying nodes and struts

The maximum compressive force acting at the Ultimate Limit State may act on a
restricted surface (figure 60.1.a) of area Ac1 located concentrically and homothetically within
another area Ac, that is assumed to be flat, and may be calculated from the following formula:
N d ≤ Ac1 f 3cd
Ac
f 3cd = f cd ≤ 3,3 f cd
Ac1
provided that the element on which the load is acting has no internal cavities and has a
thickness h such that h ≥ 2Ac / u, with u being the perimeter of Ac.

If the two surfaces Ac and Ac1, do not have the same centroid, then the outline of Ac
should be replaced with an internal outline, homothetic to Ac1, which delimits an area Ac’ having
a centroid at the point of application of the stress N, with the formulae given above applying to
areas Ac1 and Ac’.

60.3 Transverse reinforcement

The ties Td indicated in figure 60.1.b should be dimensioned for the design tension
forces given in the following expressions:
 a - a1 
T ad = 0,25 N d   = As f yd in a direction parallel to a, and
 a 

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 Figure 60.1.a

COMPRESSION
TENSION

Figure 60.1.b

Figure 60.1.c

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  b - b1 
T bd = 0,25 N d   = As f yd
 b  in a direction parallel to b, with fyd Ý 400 N/mm2 (40.2).

60.4 Reinforcement distribution criteria

The corresponding reinforcement should be distributed at a distance of between 0.1a

and a, and 0.1b and b, respectively. These distances should be measured perpendicularly the
surface Ac.

The use of stirrups which improve the concrete confinement is recommended.

COMMENTS

Figure 60.4 shows the distribution of transverse forces parallel to side a (an identical distribution
would correspond to the transverse forces parallel to side b).

COMPRESSION TENSION

Figure 60.4

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Article 61 Anchoring zones
The anchorage of prestressing steel makes up a D region in which the distribution of
strains is not linear on a section level. Therefore, the general method established in Articles 24
and 40 or the results of experimental studies should be employed in its design.

In those cases where the stresses due to the anchorages and those produced by
support reactions and shear stresses may combine at the ends of members, such as beams, it
will be necessary to take this combination into consideration, along with the fact that in pre-
tensioned reinforcement, the prestressing only produces its full effect from the transmission
length.

COMMENTS

Just as was stated in Article 42, an anchorage zone is a static “D” region due to the appearance of
concentrated loads.

In general, high tensile stresses are produced in the distribution zone of concentrated forces, making
it necessary to limit their values in order to prevent any possible cracking. When necessary, the transversal
dimensions of the member should be increased, especially in the case of relatively powerful tendons.

It is accepted that, as from a certain distance h from the far face in the case of post-tensioned
reinforcement, the stress distribution is uniform. This distance h is assumed as being equal to the longest
dimension of the member’s transverse section.

In the case of prestressed reinforcement, it is accepted that the stress distribution is uniform at a
distance of h+lbpt where lbpt is the transfer length of the prestressing steel.

Article 62 Deep beams

62.1 General

Deep beams are straight beams that, in general, have a constant cross-section where
the ratio of span l to total depth h is less than 2 for simply supported beams or 2.5 for
continuous beams.

In deep beams, the span of a bay is taken as being:

- The distance between support axes, provided this distance is not more than
15% greater than the free distance between the faces of the supports.
- This is taken as being 1.15 times the free span in all other cases.

With this type of element, the Bernouilli-Navier hypotheses do not apply, and therefore
the method indicated in Articles 24 and 40 should be used for their design.

COMMENTS

In accordance with the given definition, the concept of a deep beam (or wall beam) does not possess
an absolute character, but instead, depends on the depth/span ratio of the member.

In accordance with that stated in Article 24, a deep beam is a generalised “D” region.

XII - 36
62.2 Minimum width

The minimum width is limited by the maximum value for compression in the nodes and
struts in accordance with the criteria given in Article 40. Possible out-of-plane buckling of
compression fields should be analysed where necessary in accordance with Article 43.

62.3 Simply supported deep beams

62.3.1 Determination of the reinforcement

In the case of a uniformly distributed load applied to the upper surface, the model is the
one shown in figure 62.3.1.a and the main reinforcement should be calculated by taking the
position of the lever arm as z = 0.6l, for a tensile force that is equal to:
T d = 0,2 p d l = 0,4 R d = As f yd
2
with fyd Ý 400 N/mm (40.2).

The support node should be verified in accordance with the model shown in figure
62.3.1.b.

a)MODEL b) REINFORCEMENT COMPRESSON

TENSION

Figure 62.3.1 a.

In addition to the main reinforcement corresponding to Td, a minimum of 0.1%

reinforcement should be placed in each direction in each face of the element:

Special attention should be paid to the anchorage of the main reinforcement (see figure
62.3.1.c), the anchorage length of which shall lie between the support axis and the end of the
member.

XII - 37
 Figure 62.3.1.b

BEARING AXIX

ANCHORAGE OF PRINCIPAL
REINFORCEMENT

Figure 62.3.1.C

Where required, additional reinforcement may be distributed in the supports in

accordance with Article 60.

COMMENTS

In the case of other loading configurations, or where cavities are present, the equivalent strut and tie
model should be studied in accordance with that established in Article 24 and 40.

In the special case of uniform load applied to the lower part of the beam, it is sufficient to add to the
previously calculated reinforcement the suspended reinforcement T2d indicated in figure 62.3.1.d, which is
distributed uniformly over the two faces of the beam and anchored from an upper level of the lever arm z.

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Figure 62.3.1.d HANGING REINFORCEMENT

a) MODEL b) ADDITIONAL REINFORCEMENT

62.3.2 Verifying nodes and struts

When verifying nodes and struts, it is sufficient to check that the compression at the
supports is as follows:
Rd ≤
f 2cd
ab
where:

a, b The support’s dimensions.

f2cd Design value of concrete cylinder compressive strength.
f 2cd = 0,70 f cd

62.4 Continuous deep beams

In the case of a uniformly distributed load applied on the upper surface, the model is the
one described in figures 62.4.a and b.

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Figure 62.4.a

a) MODEL

b) REINFORCEMENT SECTION

XII - 40