Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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3D printing methods and materials for sensor fabrication

Soumya Bhandari, Krishnanand, Alok Singh, Mohammad Taufik ⇑
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT), Bhopal 462 003, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recent advancement in the 3D printing process also brings interest in improving the sensor fabrication
Available online xxxx process. There is a huge demand for sensors in various applications. Industry 4.0 revolution’s main aim
is to bring advancement and improve productivity. In this paper, we have reviewed recent work in 3D
Keywords: printed sensors, an overview of the sensor, traditional fabrication techniques and 3D printing techniques.
3D printing classification This paper focused on 3D-printing engineering application sensors. For a better understanding of 3D
Sensors printing technology, its classification is also discussed in detail so that we can understand commonly
3D printed sensor
used 3D printing techniques. For studying sensor fabrication commonly used materials are also discussed
Materials for sensor fabrication
and with a lot of drawbacks that need to be improved in sensor fabrication.
Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th Innovative Product
Design and Intelligent Manufacturing Systems.

1. Introduction term to discuss is materials in 3D printing various materials are

used based on the application of the product. Metal, ceramic, and
3D Printing is a term can write as additive manufacturing. By polymer are used in 3d printing and are further classified [5,6].
using 3D printing, complex parts can be fabricated within less Currently, this process is used for fabrication in various fields like
time, at a low cost and with many materials.3D Printing or Additive aerospace, automotive, industry, machinery, medical, farming,
manufacturing is a layer-by-layer material addition process. Before transportation, and custom parts, and nowadays fabrication of sen-
that, it goes through various steps, first is the preparation of a Com- sors by additive manufacturing is becoming popular. In this review
puter Aided Design (CAD) model using various CAD software and paper, our main focus will be on the fabrication of a 3d printed sen-
then the slicing model by using slicing software followed by the sor by Additive manufacturing before that we will go through the
printing process and finishing process [1,2]. 3D printing process basics of 3d printing and sensor [7]. A sensor is a device which is
has been classified in many ways because every process may vary like a transducer that receives a signal in the form of a physical
on the bases of the method of layer manufacturing, usage of mate- quantity and converts it into electrical value. A sensor has input
rial and machining technique. Hence ASTM classified 3D printing in many forms and output is in electrical forms like voltage,
into seven categories they are: binding jetting, directed energy charges or current. sensor technology is a very rapidly growing
deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, technology. Increasing interest in sensor technology also brings
sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization [3,4]. In the next interest in its fabrication process and currently many researchers
topic, we will discuss these processes in detail for better under- are working on 3D printed sensors [8]. The fabrication method of
standing.3D printing is also classified based on techniques used sensors shows several drawbacks like it as time-consuming,
for printing parts. They are powder-based systems and liquid- tedious fabrication steps, lack of scalability, high fabrication cost,
based systems solid based systems which will be further classified. and less customization.
Before discussing any manufacturing process, the most important Hence, 3D printed sensors have many advantages as compared
to traditional fabrication whether we print sensors by embedding
sensors or by printing the entire sensor. It has low manufacturing
Abbreviations: AM, Additive Manufacturing; CAD, Computer Aided Design; FDM, cost, ease of customization, less time consumption, and labor costs
Fused Deposition Modeling; DLP, Digital Light Processing; SLA, Stereolithography;
UV, Ultraviolet; SLS, Selective Laser Sintering; LENS, Laser Engineered Net Shaping.
are also decreased [9]. There are many sensors which can be 3D
⇑ Corresponding author. printed. They are classified as physical sensors, biosensors,
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Taufik). and chemical sensors. These sensors are further classified as

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.06.146
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th Innovative Product Design and Intelligent Manufacturing Systems.

Please cite this article as: S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al., 3D printing methods and materials for sensor fabrication, Materials Today: Proceedings,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.06.146
S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

mechanical sensors, pressure sensors, microbial sensors, cell-based Electron beam, or visible range of electromagnetic radiation. In this
sensors, gas sensors etc. these sensors are discussed in further type of system, A vat of photopolymer liquid is used and this liquid
topics [10,11]. In this study, a detailed review has been done on when exposed to a Laser and convert into a solid state this process
the application of 3D printing technologies for sensor fabrication. works on the principle of the photopolymerization process in
First various 3D printing techniques have been discussed, then which small molecules are cured together and form a large mole-
principles of working of various sensors and their types have been cule. In this way layer by layer, curing is continued until the entire
discussed. In the last, various sensors fabricated using 3D printing part is completed. The vat is drained, and the part is ready. There
has been explored along with comparison with conventional sen- are techniques used which are a liquid Base system of additive
sor fabrication techniques. manufacturing. They may differ based on the type of liquid pho-
topolymer resin, their scanning method and laser light exposure
1.1. A brief description of 3D Printing type [1,5]. These techniques are discussed below:

3D printing can also be termed additive manufacturing. It starts  The Stereolithography process is the very first commercialized
by creating a CAD model of the product or geometry we want to 3D printing process. It works with photopolymer liquid resin
produce. There are two ways before printing a product weather which when exposed to laser gets solidified. The Stereolithogra-
creates a new design of the product in various CAD software or if phy apparatus consists of a vat which contains photocurable
we want to copy any product which can be done by scanning liquid resin and an elevator, which can move upward and
through a three-dimensional scanner after creating a 3D model it downward and place below the liquid. A laser which is con-
needs to be converted into STL file in which geometry surface trolled by a computer solidifies the required thickness of liquid
divided into triangular sections and stores information of geome- resin and after that elevator drops down again a liquid layer
try. After that geometry is sliced using slicing software and sliced covers it up for the next layer and then the laser solidifies a
according to the layer thickness. The printing process will start it new layer. This process continued to build part shown in Fig. 2.
will take time according to the size, layer thickness, etc.3D printing  Direct light processing (DLP) process is like SLA. The only differ-
can be classified in many ways. ence is that DLP uses a light source as the lamp to polymerize
material instead of UV light and cure the layer at once which
1.1.1. Classification of 3D printing based on raw material is faster than SLA.DLP process can be used with intricate parts.
3D Printing/Additive manufacturing (AM) can be classified in The most common material used with DLP are photopolymers
three categories based on the form of material used for part fabri- and sometime thermoplastic materials are also used shown in
cation. These three categories are - liquid based system, powder figure.
based system, and solid based system, as shown in Fig. 1. If feed
material is in the form of liquid, powder or solid - the 3D printing
process will be, liquid based system, powder based system or solid Solid-based system. The material used to form parts is used in solid-
based system, respectively. All these three categories of 3D print- state whether that material can be in liquid form earlier, except
ing techniques haave been further expalined below. powdered material. The solid material can be in the form of rolls,
laminates, wire, pellets, etc. Based on different materials wire pulse
Liquid Polymer System. This system is called a liquid-based system arc additive manufacturing, Fused deposition modelling, Electron
because the material is used in liquid form. These liquids are pho- beam fabrication and Laminated object manufacturing is the very
topolymers which solidify when exposed to any X-ray, UV light, first solid-based additive technology [12].

 Fused deposition Modeling (FDM) is an extrusion-based system

and comes under a solid-based system. It consists of a heating
Type of 3D printing on chamber to melt polymer which is inserted in filament form.
the basis of raw material

Liquid polymer Powder Solid based

system particles system system

Fused
Stereo- Laser metal
Deposition
lithography deposition
model

Digital light Direct metal Electron beam

processing laser sintering fabrication

Electron beam Wire pulse arc

melting additive mfg.

Selective laser
sintering

Fig. 1. Type of 3D printing [5]. Fig. 2. Schematic of Stereolithography [5].

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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Schematic Digital light processing [5].

Material extrudes from the nozzle and the part that starts print-
ing is shown in Fig. 5. The part made of FDM is strongest as
compared to other polymer base processes works on principles
Fig. 5. Schematic of Fused deposition modelling [5].
of surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layered manufactur-
ing. The material hardened immediately after extruding from  Direct energy deposition: This process is used to add a layer to
the nozzle and bonds to the previous layer. The commonly used an existing product which needs repairing. The product made
material is ABS, and polycarbonate [1,5]. through this process is good in quality and grain structure. This
Powder particle system. In this type of system materials used for process is the same as material extrusion. The nozzle used in
making products are in powder form. Powder must have thermo- this process can work in multiple directions. The commonly
plastic behaviour so that it can melt and bond to the previous layer. used material is ceramic, polymer and metal which is in wire
The techniques working on powdered-based systems are selective or powder form. The techniques that work on the principle of
laser sintering, 3DP process, and laser metal deposition [1]. direct energy deposition are laser deposition & laser-
engineered net shaping (LENS) [5,14].
 Selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the powder-based 3D  Material extrusion: Material extrusion is one of the 3D printing
printing processes. In this process, the powdered material is technologies which can print multiple materials and colored
spread on the bed by roller and the powder must be heated fusi- products. The cost of this technique is low and functional parts
ble. There is no need for support structures. SLM utilizes a high- can be built. FDM is one of the best examples of material extru-
force laser to melt powdered material. Large-size functional sion. It consists of a heating chamber to melt polymer which is
parts can be made using SLS. Commonly used materials are inserted as a filament. Material extrudes from the nozzle and
nylon, polystyrene, metal etc. To improve mechanical property printing starts [12,4].
part must be infiltrated because the powdered form of the  Material jetting: the process in which the build material is
material part becomes porous shown in Fig. 4 [12] (Fig. 3). deposited in droplet form. It consists of a print head with dis-
pensed drops of material that solidifies under ultraviolet light.
1.1.2. Classification of 3D printing techniques according to ASTM The parts made of material jetting are having smooth surface
finish. Commonly used materials are polymer, ceramic, com-
 Binder jetting: In this process, a liquid binder is used to bind posite, etc. [1].
powder particles which are chemical binders to form a layer.  Powder bed fusion: Many printing techniques come under PFD
We can use a variety of materials with binder jetting like metal, some of them are electron beam melting, and selective laser sin-
sands, polymers, hybrid, and ceramics. This process is very fast, tering (SLS). To fuse material this technique can use a laser or
less costly, and less complex [5,13]. electron beam. Commonly used material is polymer, ceramic,
composite, etc. but material handling is difficult because the
material is in the powdered form [1].
 Sheet lamination: the sheet of material is bonded together to
form a required product. This type of technique comes under
sheet lamination, laminated object manufacturing, Ultrasound
additive manufacturing and material handling are easier than
other techniques.
 Vat polymerization: This process works on the principle of
photopolymerization which means curing a polymer liquid
resin by using laser light or ultraviolet light. The most common
example of these type of process is stereolithography and Direct
light processing [5] (Fig. 6).

2. Sensors and their basic principles

2.1. Sensor

A sensor consists of a sensing element to detect changes in

physical parameters Whenever a physical parameter changes sen-
sitivity element changes its properties, and these changes are
Fig. 4. Schematic of Selective laser melting [5]. determined by measuring parameters. Sensors can be classified
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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

type of 3D prinng according to ASTM

direct vat
Binder material material powder sheet
energy polymeriza
jeng extrusion jeng bed fusion laminaon
deposion on

Fig. 6. Type of 3D printing according to ASTM [15].

as input parameters depending on desired output, sensing element 2.2. Material and fabrication techniques
and their working principles, and output of the sensor. Sensors can
be classified on the bases of input parameters they are Active sen- Sensor fabrication methods and materials may vary according
sors and passive sensors. An active sensor is required in continuous to the type of sensor and its application. The materials which are
form so that the desired output can be received from the sensing commonly used to make sensors are silicon, metal, plastic, ceramic,
element. These sensors need a continuous power supply. Whereas glass, etc. The most used material for the substrate is silicon
passive sensor does not require continuous form so that desired because silicon is the most abundant and less costly. Silicon can
output can be received from the sensing element. These sensors deposit on thin films easily. Other than silicon, germanium and gal-
need a power supply during output result time, classified based lium arsenide can also be used as substrates, but the most impor-
on sensing element and their working principles: they are electri- tant feature of silicon is that it is converted into an insulator called
cal, mechanical, and chemical sensors. The electrical sensor is silicon dioxide. Silicon has electrical properties due to its homoge-
those in which the sensing element detects the parameters and neous crystallographic structure & having mechanical properties
gives electrical output. In automation most sensors are electrical. which is the higher elastic limit in both compression and tension.
The mechanical sensor is those in which mechanisms are used to Other than substrate there are some additional materials used to
detect changes in physical parameters and get output in electrical add film and material onto substrate they are silicon, silicon diox-
signals. And chemical sensors are those which detect chemical ide, metals and metallic compounds, ceramics, organics, etc. [17].
reactions. Classification based on an output of sensor: there are Traditional fabrication techniques for the sensor are Vacuum depo-
two types of output: digital, and analogue. The digital output gives sition, Sputtering, Chemical vapour deposition, Electroplating, Pho-
output in two forms they are discrete and binary. Whereas the ana- tolithography etc. one of the fabrication techniques is shown in
logue output is continuous [16]. Figs. 8 and 9. There are many types of sensors commonly used

Fig. 7. 3D printed flexible strain sensor [8].

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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. Lithography system [17].

depending on the application, techniques and detecting

parameters-Temperature sensor, pressure sensor, proximity sen-
sor, motion sensor, force sensor, optical sensor, biosensor etc.
shown in Fig. 7 Some of the materials most often used are silicon,
plastic, metal, ceramic and glasses.

3. 3D printed sensor and recent progress

The traditional fabrication method of the sensor shows several

drawbacks like it is time-consuming, tedious fabrication steps, lack
of scalability, high fabrication cost, and less customization. Hence,
Fig. 11. 3D printed stain sensor by FDM [8].
3D printed sensors have many advantages as compared to tradi-
tional fabrication. The material selection is a very important step

Fig. 9. Maskless lithography system [17].

3D Printed Sensor Classificaon

Medical Applicaon Sensor Or Bio

Engineering Applicaon Sensor Sensos

Mechanica Electrical Chemical Microbial Biomolecular Cell Based Bionic

l Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor

Fig. 10. 3D printing classification [10].

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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

in starting sensor fabrication. Sensitivity and accuracy are very and capacitance mechanism.3D printed strain sensors can be
important characteristics of sensors which can achieve by proper printed using a metal layer of silver, gold, and copper. To pre-
selection of material. The boom in 3D printing eliminates all such vent mechanical failure made by non-stretchable material and
problems in traditional sensor fabrication to a greater extent. It to overcome this they utilize metal–metal composition which
has low manufacturing cost, ease of customization, less time con- is prepared by using silver nano-wired and silver flake ink from
sumption, and labour costs are also decreased. There are various Henkel. Further study can be done to increase the sensitivity of
3D printing technologies which depend on material selection and the sensor [18]. Another 3D printed sensor is a flexible strain
material selection depends on melting temperature and solidifying sensor. There are many traditional fabrications processes used
temperature [11]. There are two ways to fabricate a sensor, embed- for flexible strain sensors and they are a very time-consuming
ding the sensors as a printed structure or printing the entire sen- process. To overcome these drawbacks flexible strain sensors
sor. There are different successfully printed using 3D printing are fabricated using 3D printing techniques. They are Fused
technology (Fig. 10). deposition modelling, digital light processing and direct ink
writing. These sensors can mostly transduce using resistance
3.1. Engineering application sensor and capacitance mechanism. Commonly used material for strain
sensors is Poly lactic acid, Polyethene glycol, Poly urethane,
 Strain sensor: The strain sensor is also known as a strain gauge Acrylamide, Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, silver nanoparti-
which can convert tensile and compressive strain to an electri- cles, polyvinyl alcohol silver nanowire, silver nanoflake, etc.
cal signal. These sensors can mostly transduce using resistance [8] (Fig. 11).

Fig. 12. 3D printed strain sensor by DLP [8].

Fig. 13. 3D printed accelerometer sensor testing [19].

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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

electrode and top electrode which are fixed on the flexible sub-
strate as a result sensor can differentiate micro displacement as
shown in Fig. 14 [21].
 Pressure sensor: Change in pressure can be measured using a
pressure sensor. There are many different pressure sensors
produced using the 3D printing technique. To fabricate pres-
sure sensors commonly used methods are FDM and poly jet
3D printing techniques. A beam-based pressure sensor can
be fabricated using FDM. It consists of two parts the center
part consists of a three-part top load cube, middle vertical
beam & rigid bottom. ABS is the main printing filament and
HIPS is the supporting material. This type of sensor is
designed to measure target pressure and tested through an
impact test for which DITCI is a simple instrument. Another
one consists of three layers a substrate, electrode and
piezoresistive elements. This pressure sensor is fabricated
using the DIW technique to deposit ink and a base made of
silicon-based ink [22].
 Force sensor: The force sensor can also fabricate using 3D
printing technology. The commonly used processes are FDM
Fig. 14. Three-axis accelerometer sensors [20]. and VAT polymerization. For transduction, a Piezoresistive and
capacitive mechanism is used and the material is Poly lactic
 Accelerometer sensor: Among different types of sensors acid, photopolymer resin and nanocomposite [7]. There are
Accelerometer sensor is also one of the sensors used in Indus- many forces sensor fabricated some of them are, force sensor
tries. 3D printed accelerometer sensors can be fabricated using which is based on the fibre optic transduction principle used
different various technologies some of them are fused deposi- another one is micro force sensor which load cell is there and
tion modelling, stereolithography and 3DP. These are some fabricated using FDM & cantilever beam using the SLA process
commonly used 3D printing technologies with which two mate- [11]. There are many types of 3D printed force sensors as shown
rials are commonly used they are silver nanoparticles, thermo- in Fig. 13 capacitive force sensor, flexible capacitive force sensor
plastic [9]. There are many types of accelerometer sensors based on TPU, sensor embedded on robotics foot, a flexible sen-
fabricated using FFF-based driving principles, in which wheat sor which is based on micro pyramids and hydrogel-based force
stone bridge was used to increase sensing performance as sensor.
shown in Fig. 12. Another advancement in accelerometer sen-
sors is the combination of 3D printing and wet-metallization
used in fabrication, by which a three-axis accelerometer is fab-
ricated with differential capacitive sensing as shown in Fig. 13
[19,20].
 Displacement sensor: Displacement sensors use capacitance
and gravity mechanisms, and commonly used 3D printing tech-
nique are FDM and Poly jet [9]. There are many ways to fabri-
cate these sensors one of them is the prototype of a
displacement sensor fabricated using the integration of 3D
printing and an inkjet printer. This sensor consists of the bottom

Fig. 15. Displacement sensor prototype [21]. Fig. 16. Pressure sensor by FDM [22].

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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 17. Pressure sensor by DIW [22].

Fig. 18. 3D printed force sensor [11].

 Other sensors: we already discussed mechanical sensors but

Table 1 many sensors like biosensors and many other physical sen-
Various sensor fabricated using 3D printing technologies. sors. Flex sensors can be fabricated using 3D printing technol-
SN Sensor 3D Printing Technology Year
ogy with conformal & extensible elastomeric matrices. It can
also be fabricated in the form of the shape of a glove which
1 Hydrogel-based sensor Syringe Extrusion based 2020 [24]
can monitor the movement of hands digitally [23]. Another
process
2 Electrochemical Sensor FDM 2020 [25] sensor is the temperature sensor which is a very important
3 Electroencephalography Material Jetting 2012 [26] part of many engineering applications. The temperature sen-
(EEG) sor was fabricated using the FDM 3D printing technique in
4 Electrocardiography (ECG) 2019 [27]
which PLA & Graphene rods were used. Other than this there
5 Pressure sensors 2019 [28]
6 RF strain sensor FDM 2015 [29] are many physical sensors like tactile sensors, particle sen-
7 Lactate, glucose, and DLP Polyjet 2019 [30] sors, flow rate sensors, stress sensors, etc. [7] (Figs. 15–18
glutamate and Table 1).
detection
8 ECG/EEG sensing FDM 2020 [31],
2015 [32] 4. Conclusion
9 Tactile sensing FDM 2019 [33]
10 Wound oxygenation DLP 2015 [34]
monitoring In this paper, 3D printing technology and its classification are
discussed. There are many applications of 3D printing which
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S. Bhandari, Krishnanand, A. Singh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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