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Unit 1: Focus on the 21st Century Learner

B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Estimated Duration for Study: 3 hours

Learner – Centered Psychological Principles

Introduction

In its history, psychology has provided valuable information on human thinking,

growth and motivation for the design of schooling based on theory and study. Advances
in our comprehension of perception, memory, and cognitive and motivational processes
will directly lead to changes in teaching, learning, and the entire schooling enterprise.
Beginning in 1990, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a special Task
Force on Psychology in Education, one of whose purposes was to integrate research and
theory from psychology and education in order to surface general principles that have
stood the test of time and can provide a framework for school redesign and reform.

In addition, these principles reflect conventional and scientific wisdom. They

comprise not only systematically researched and evolving learner-centered principles that
can lead to effective schooling but also principles that can lead to positive mental health
and productivity of our nation`s children, their teachers, and the systems that serve
them. These principles emphasize the active and reflective nature of learning and
learners. Thus, in this lesson, you will be oriented with the fourteen learning principles
that would guide the facilitating of learning in your classrooms. Application of these
principles in the actual classroom settings is also included in this lesson.

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

A. recognized the 14 learner–centered principles and formulated pedagogical

implications for future applications in the classroom;
B. written a reflective essay by sharing and indicating your classroom experiences as
student and relating these experiences to any of the 14 leaner – centered
principles learned; and
C. created a poster advocating the use of the 14 Learning – Centered Psychological
Principles in teaching and applications of these principles in the classroom.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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Let’s Warm - up!

Using the concept map, indicate words or terms related to learner – centered classroom.

Learner-
Centered

Elaborate your concept of a learner–centered classroom.

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Let’s Discover!

The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four domains. These

categories group the principles into research-validated domains important to learning:
metacognitive and cognitive factors, affective and motivational factors, developmental
and social factors, and individual difference factors. An understanding of these domains
and the principles within them establishes a framework for designing learner-centered
practices at all levels of schooling. It also helps define what "learner-centered" means
from a research-validated perspective.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
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Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation
in motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or
cognitive skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-
directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their
own learning.

Message for Teachers: Use techniques that aid students in constructing meaning
from information, experiences, and their own thought and beliefs.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To

construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students'
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening
their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.

Message for Teachers:

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3. Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links

between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The
nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop
may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying talents,
interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer
readily to new situations.

Message for Teachers: Assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge

by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of
varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking

and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,

reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to
apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their
repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work
well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models.

Message for Teachers:

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5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning
strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In
addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they
are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and
utility of the goal).

Message for Teachers:

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Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

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6. Context of learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role

with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group
influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such
as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies
and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.

Message for Teachers:

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Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere the learner's quality of thinking and
information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the
nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information
processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions,
such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g.,
worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.

Message for Teachers:

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8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity

all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.

Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major

indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a
function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal
control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity
and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to
real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.

Message for Teachers: Encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity

and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice
and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended

learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to
learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of

complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner
energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need
to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.

Message for Teachers:

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10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints

for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.

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Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental

level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual
development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on
one type of developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--
may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other
areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of
individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental
involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way
communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children
with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the
creation of optimal learning contexts.

Message for Teachers: Be aware of and understand developmental differences

among students with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,

and communication with others.

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact

and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow
for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and
social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts,
individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that
may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as
self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring
can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and
provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal
support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that
interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a
particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and
undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to
establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such
contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.

Message for Teachers:

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Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
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Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for

learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning
goals.

Message for Teachers:

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13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic,

cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.

The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction

apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and
socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors
in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and
implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that
their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are
valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of
motivation and achievement are enhanced.

Message for Teachers:

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Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the

learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at

all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel
challenged to work towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the
learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and
skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree
of difficulty. On-going assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about
progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress
and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement
levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types of
programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of
learning progress can also improve students self - appraisal skills and enhance
motivation and self-directed learning.

Message for Teachers:

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* The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the

research supporting that principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of
the Task Force and Work Group members facilitated an examination of each
principle from a number of different research perspectives.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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Let’s Check!

Mechanics

1. Think of your experiences in any of your classes

(elementary, high school, college) where you
can connect the principles that you have learned
in this lesson.
2. Write a paragraph narrating your experiences in
not less than 200 words and not more than 250
words.
3. In the next paragraph, write a reflection (not
less than 250 words and not more than 300
words) by connecting your experiences to the
14 principles we have discussed. Specify the
principles and give specific examples of classroom experiences to support your
discussion.
4. Write your answers on the space provided.
5. A rubric will be used to evaluate your essay.

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Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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Essay Writing Rubric

Components 1 2 3 4
Focus and Details The topic and main There is one topic. There is one clear, There is one clear,
ideas are not clear. Main ideas are well focused topic. well – focused topic.
somewhat clear. Main ideas are clear Main ideas are clear
but are not well and are well
supported by detailed supported by detailed
information. and accurate
information.
Organization Information is Information is Information is Information is
irrelevant and the somewhat relevant somewhat relevant relevant and
order of ideas is and the presentation and presented in a presented in a logical
illogical of ideas is not so logical order. order.
logical.
Voice The author’s purpose The author’s purpose The author’s purpose The author’s purpose
of writing is unclear. of writing is of writing is of writing is very
somewhat clear, and somewhat clear, and clear, and there is
there is some there is some strong evidence of
evidence of attention evidence of attention attention to audience.
to audience. The to audience. The The author’s
author’s knowledge author’s knowledge extensive knowledge
and/or experience and/or experience and/or experience
with the topic is/are with the topic is/are with the topic is/are
limited. evident. evident.
Word Choice The writer uses a The author uses The author uses vivid The author uses vivid
limited vocabulary. words that words and phrases. words and phrases.
Jargon or clichés’ may communicate clearly, The choice and The choice and
be present and but the writing lacks placement of words is placement of words
detract from the variety. inaccurate at times seems accurate,
meaning. and/or seems natural, and not
overdone. forced.
Sentence Sentences sound Most sentences are Most sentences are All sentences are well
Structure, awkward, are well constructed, but well constructed and constructed and have
Grammar, distractingly they have a similar have varied structure varied structure and
Mechanics, & repetitive, or are structure and/or and length. The length. The author
Spelling difficult to length. The author author makes a few makes no errors in
understand. The makes several errors errors in grammar, grammar, mechanics,
author makes in grammar, mechanics, and /or and/or spelling
numerous errors in mechanics, and /or spelling, but they do
grammar. Mechanics, spelling, but they do not interfere with
and/or spelling that not interfere with understanding.
interfere with understanding.
understanding.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
 12

Final Task: Let’s Do This!

Create a poster advocating the use of the 14

Learning – Centered Psychological Principles in
teaching and how you will apply these principles in
your future classrooms. Use a separate sheet
(long– size bondpaper) for your poster. Also, please
indicate a paragraph (200 words) describing and
explaining the poster you have created. A rubric
will be used to evaluate your poster.

Poster Making Rubric

Points 1 2 3 4 5
Content Content is Content is either Content is Content is Content is
inaccurate. questionable or accurate but some accurate but some accurate and all
Information is incomplete. required required required
incomplete, Information is not information is information is information is
inaccurate, or not presented in a missing and/or not missing and/or not presented in a
presented in a logical order, presented in a presented in a logical order.
logical order, making it difficult logical order, logical order, but
making it difficult to follow. making it difficult is still generally
to follow. to follow. easy to follow.
Presentat Presentation has Presentation is Presentation flows Presentation is Presentation is
ion no flow. unorganized. Tools well. Some tools mostly neat and neat, clean, well-
Insufficient are not used in a are used to show clean. organized and
information and relevant manner. acceptable Information is presented in a
lacking some of Lacking some of understanding. organized in a creative way.
the member’s the members’ Each member’s logical manner Presentation is
information. information/ and information is and shows some colorful and
or information is represented and degree of creative.
not identified identified with creativity. The Information is
their name. overall interesting and
presentation is accurate.
interesting.
Pictures No images or Images are Most images Images, pictures, Images are
and artwork included. inappropriate and and/or artwork is and clip art and colorful, and
Images artwork shows are colorful and drawn artwork are appropriate to the
mostly colorful and
little, if any, appropriate. The topic. Layout flows
appropriate. Layout
creativity. The layout shows little may show some well, shows
layout is messy, creativity and/or is degree of creativity creativity, and is
disorganized or not organized but is not organized pleasing to the
cluttered. logically or logically and/or is eye.
cluttered. cluttered.
Mechanic More than 7 No more than 7 No more than 5 A few (2-3) errors No spelling,
s spelling, grammar spelling, grammar spelling, grammar in spelling, grammar, or
or punctuation or punctuation or punctuation grammar or punctuation errors
errors. Text is errors. Most of errors. Several punctuation. Most in the text. Text is
copied or not text is not in instances where text is in student’s in the student’s
included. authors’ own the text is not in own words. own words.
words and/or no student’s own
text included. words.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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References:

Combs, B. (2000). Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and
Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]

Learner-Centered Principles Work Group of the American Psychological Association's

Board of Educational Affairs . (1997, November). Learner – Centered
Psychological Principles: A framework for School Reform and Design. Retrieved
from https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf

Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process

(4th Ed.). Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing House.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Unit 1. Focus on the 21st Century Learner
B. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles