1.

1 Basics of Networking

Key Points:

​ Network Definition: A network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as

computers and routers, that can communicate and share resources.
​ Data Transmission: Networks enable the transmission of data through various
media like cables or wireless connections.
​ Protocols and Standards: Networking relies on protocols and standards like
TCP/IP, which ensure devices can understand and communicate with each other.

Design Aspects:

​ Scalability: Network designs should accommodate growth by adding more

devices and users without significant disruptions.
​ Redundancy: Redundant components, like backup links and routers, should be in
place to ensure network availability and fault tolerance.
​ Security: Security mechanisms such as firewalls, encryption, and access controls
should be implemented to protect the network from unauthorized access.

Examples:

​ Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN connects devices within a limited geographical
area, like an office or home, allowing them to share resources and data.
​ WAN: Connecting office spread across distant geography
​ Internet: The global internet is a massive network that connects billions of
devices worldwide, facilitating communication and information exchange.
​ Ethernet: Ethernet is a common LAN technology that uses wired connections,
like Cat 5e or Cat 6 cables, to transmit data between devices.
​
What is routing?
Routing is a fundamental process in networking that involves the determination of the
best path for data to travel from its source to its destination through a network of
interconnected devices.

What is switching?
Switching, in the context of computer networking, is a fundamental technology and
process that enables devices to communicate within a network. It involves the
forwarding of data packets or frames from one network node to another, typically within
a local area network (LAN) or an Ethernet-based network. Switching is essential for the
efficient and reliable flow of data in modern network infrastructures.

OSI LAYER: All People Seem To Need Data Processing

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that

standardizes the functions and interactions of a telecommunication or networking
system into seven distinct layers. It was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) to facilitate communication between different networking
technologies and systems.
The OSI model classifies and organizes the tasks that hosts perform to prepare data for
transport across the network. You should be familiar with the OSI model because it is the most
widely used method for understanding and talking about network communications.
Physical: Send and receive stream of bits
Data Link: Control access to transmission medium
Network Layer: How data is routed to the destination.
Transport Layer: Receives larger packets from the high layer and breaks them down into
smaller Segments. receiving Transport layer uses packet sequence numbers to
reassemble segments into the original message. Connection Oriented TCP (Reliable , large
chunks of data) and Connectionless UDP (Smaller chunks of data communicated fast)

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

● Description: This layer deals with the physical medium and transmission of raw
binary data over the physical network media. It defines how data is physically
transmitted through cables, wireless signals, or other physical means.
● Functions: Encoding, signaling, cabling, and physical connectivity.
● Example: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, wireless signals.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

● Description: Responsible for data framing, error detection, and addressing on the
local network. It ensures reliable point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
communication within the same network segment.
● Functions: MAC addressing, error detection, frame forwarding.
● Example: Ethernet frames, MAC addresses. (Ethernet frames are the
fundamental units of data that are transmitted over Ethernet networks. They
 contain the data to be sent along with control and addressing information
necessary for proper transmission.)

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

● Description: This layer handles logical addressing, routing, and forwarding of

data packets between different networks. It provides the foundation for
internetwork communication.
● Functions: Logical addressing, routing, IP packet forwarding.
● Example: IP addresses, routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

● Description: Responsible for end-to-end communication, segmentation, and

reassembly of data. It ensures reliable data transfer between devices, offering
error detection and correction.
● Functions: Segmentation, flow control, error recovery.
● Example: TCP, UDP.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

● Description: Manages and maintains sessions between applications. It controls

dialog between devices, allowing data exchange and synchronization.
● Functions: Session establishment, maintenance, and termination.
● Example: API calls, NetBIOS.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

● Description: Handles data translation, encryption, and compression. It ensures

that data from the application layer is presented correctly to the application.
● Functions: Data translation, encryption, compression.
● Example: SSL/TLS, data encryption.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

● Description: The topmost layer that interacts directly with end-user applications.
It provides a user interface and network services like email, file transfer, and
remote access.
● Functions: Application support, user interface.
● Example: Web browsers, email clients, FTP.
 ●

1. Understanding Network Operations:

● The OSI model provides a systematic approach to understanding how networks

work. It breaks down complex network operations into manageable layers,
making it easier to troubleshoot and optimize network performance.

2. Troubleshooting Network Issues:

● Network administrators and engineers can use the OSI model to diagnose and
resolve network problems. By isolating issues to specific layers, they can pinpoint
the source of problems and apply appropriate solutions.

3. Layered Protocol Development:

● Networking protocols, such as TCP/IP, are designed following the layered

approach of the OSI model. Each layer has its unique function and contributes to
reliable data communication.

4. Interoperability:

● When different vendors develop networking equipment and software, adherence

to the OSI model ensures interoperability. Devices and applications from various
sources can work together if they follow the same layering principles
●

Layer 7 - Application Layer

● Responsibilities: User interface, application services, high-level protocols.

● Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
● Functions: Data presentation, encryption, and application interaction.

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer

● Responsibilities: Data translation, encryption, and compression.

● Examples: SSL/TLS, JPEG, GIF.
● Functions: Data format conversion, encryption/decryption, and data
compression.
Layer 5 - Session Layer

● Responsibilities: Managing and controlling sessions or connections.

● Examples: NetBIOS, RPC.
● Functions: Session establishment, maintenance, and termination.

Layer 4 - Transport Layer

● Responsibilities: End-to-end data delivery, error detection, and correction.

● Examples: TCP, UDP.
● Functions: Flow control, error checking, and data segmentation.

Layer 3 - Network Layer

● Responsibilities: Logical addressing, routing, and forwarding.

● Examples: IPv4, IPv6.
● Functions: IP addressing, routing table management, packet forwarding.

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer

● Responsibilities: Data framing, addressing, and error detection.

● Examples: Ethernet, MAC addresses.
● Functions: Data encapsulation, addressing, error detection, and framing.

Layer 1 - Physical Layer

● Responsibilities: Physical medium transmission (e.g., electrical, optical).

● Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics.
● Functions: Bit-level transmission over the physical medium.
1.3 Understanding Network Devices:

Understanding network devices is crucial for building and maintaining efficient and
secure computer networks. These devices perform various functions to enable data
communication and connectivity. Below are some key network devices and their roles:

1. Network Switch:

● Role: A network switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
It's used to connect devices within a local area network (LAN) and efficiently
forward data frames to their destination based on MAC addresses.
● Key Functions:
● MAC address table for frame forwarding.
● Broadcast domain separation.
● Enhanced local network performance.
2. Router:

● Role: Routers operate at the network layer (Layer 3) and connect multiple
networks. They make forwarding decisions based on IP addresses and help route
data between different networks.
● Key Functions:
● IP routing.
● Network segmentation.
● NAT and DHCP services.

3. Firewall:
 ● Role: Firewalls protect a network from unauthorized access and potential threats.
They operate at various OSI layers (usually Layer 3 and above) to filter and
control incoming and outgoing traffic.
● Key Functions:
● Packet filtering: Packet filtering is a network security technique that examines
incoming and outgoing data packets based on predefined criteria, such as source or
destination IP addresses and ports. It allows or blocks packets based on these rules,
helping to control network traffic, prevent unauthorized access, and enhance security
● Stateful inspection:Stateful inspection, also known as dynamic packet
filtering, is a firewall technology that tracks the state of active connections
to intelligently allow or deny network traffic. It maintains a state table,
analyzing the context of each packet and ensuring that incoming packets
match an established connection's state for improved security

4. Access Point (AP):

● Role: Access points are used for wireless networks. They operate at Layer 2 to
connect wireless devices to a wired network, allowing wireless communication.
● Key Functions:
● Wireless signal broadcasting: Wireless signal broadcasting refers to the
transmission of data and information over the air using radio frequency
signals.
● Authentication and encryption.
● Roaming support: Roaming support is a feature in wireless networks that
allows a mobile device to maintain connectivity as it moves between
different access points or cell towers. It enables seamless handover from
one network location to another
●

5. Modem:

Computer 1 10001111000-/\_______/||||\_____-computer 2 10001111000

● Role: Modems modulate and demodulate digital data into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines or cable systems. They typically operate at the
physical layer.
● Key Functions:
 ● Data conversion: the process of converting digital data from a computer
or network into analog signals for transmission over analog
communication channels, such as telephone lines.
● Connection to the internet.

6. Hub/L1 switch:

● Role: Hubs operate at Layer 1 and are used to connect multiple devices in a LAN.
Unlike switches, they don't make intelligent decisions and simply broadcast data
to all connected devices.
● Key Functions:
● Signal broadcasting: broadcasts any signal to all the end hosts connected
this is a very dumb way to function.
● Shared bandwidth: imagine a hub as a single piece of wire which connects
all the hosts, now since its literally a single piece of wire the bandwidth is
shared by all the hosts

7. Gateway:
 ​ Role: Gateways are devices that connect networks using different protocols or
technologies. They operate at various OSI layers to facilitate communication
between different network types.
​ Key Functions:
○ Protocol translation: Gateways can translate data from one network's
protocol to another. This is particularly useful when networks use different
communication standards or data formats.
○ Interconnecting networks: Gateways connect networks with distinct
topologies or architectures, enabling data to flow between them. For
example, they can link a local area network (LAN) with a wide area
network (WAN) or the internet.

Search on google for “Cisco Certification”__Application Layer>>HTTP__Transport Layer>>Src

Port 80 Dest port 1080__Src IP 192.168.1.1 & Dest IP 142.90.52.11___Src MAC:
00:01:02:03:04:05:06:07 & Dest MAC: 50:60:70:80:90:A0:B0:C0—Physical wire-000110001—>
analog signals

While switches and routers differ in several other ways, a key difference is how they identify end
devices.
- A Layer 2 switch uniquely identifies a device by its MAC address. Now we even have L3
switch that can perform routing by IP
- A Layer 3 router uniquely identifies a device by a network-assigned IP address.
L1 Switch (Layer 1 Switch):
 - Also known as a "dumb switch" or a "hub."
- Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
- Primarily used for connecting devices within the same physical
network segment.
- It doesn't have the intelligence to understand or process the
data it switches.
- Forwards incoming data packets to all devices in the network,
leading to inefficient network usage.

2. L2 Switch (Layer 2 Switch):

- Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
- Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to make
forwarding decisions.
- More intelligent than L1 switches as it learns MAC addresses
and builds a MAC address table.
- Enables communication within the same broadcast domain,
making it more efficient than L1 switches for local network traffic.

3. L3 Switch (Layer 3 Switch):

- Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
- Combines the functionality of a router and a Layer 2 switch.
- Can route traffic between different IP subnets or VLANs.
- Utilizes IP addresses for routing decisions.
- Offers more advanced routing features and can segment traffic
across multiple VLANs.

In summary, L1 switches are basic and essentially act as hubs, L2

switches are more intelligent and use MAC addresses for
forwarding decisions, and L3 switches are the most advanced,
capable of routing based on IP addresses and providing more
sophisticated network segmentation and routing capabilities. The
choice of which type of switch to use in a network depends on the
specific network requirements and the complexity of the network
infrastructure.

Port Numbers of important Services:

NETWORKING PROTOCOLS

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):

● Definition: TCP/IP is the fundamental suite of protocols that powers the Internet.
It consists of several protocols, including TCP for reliable data delivery and IP for
routing and addressing.
● Significance: TCP/IP is the basis for all modern networking, making it a global
standard for communication between devices and networks.

2. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/HTTP Secure):

● Definition: HTTP is used for transferring data on the World Wide Web, while
HTTPS adds a layer of security through encryption.
● Significance: These protocols enable web browsers and web servers to
communicate, making them essential for web browsing and online transactions.

3. DNS (Domain Name System):

● Definition: DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,

www.example.com) into IP addresses, allowing users to access websites using
names instead of numerical addresses.
● Significance: DNS is crucial for the user-friendly navigation of the internet.

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

● Definition: SMTP is a protocol for sending email messages and is used by email
clients and servers to exchange emails.
● Significance: SMTP enables the global email communication system.

5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

● Definition: FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one
host to another over a TCP-based network, typically the internet.
● Significance: FTP allows users to upload and download files from remote
servers.
6. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.11 (Wi-Fi):

● Definition: The IEEE 802.11 standards govern wireless local area networks
(WLAN) (Wi-Fi), including specifications for wireless communication and
encryption.
● Significance: These standards enable wireless connectivity in homes,
businesses, and public spaces.

7. IPv4 and IPv6 (Internet Protocol Versions 4 and 6):

● Definition: IPv4 and IPv6 are IP addressing protocols that define how devices are
identified on the internet.
● Significance: IPv4 is widely used but running out of addresses, while IPv6
provides a much larger address space to accommodate future internet growth.

8. HTTP/2 and HTTP/3:

● Definition: These are updated versions of the HTTP protocol designed to improve
website loading speed and performance.
● Significance: They enhance the efficiency of web browsing and user experiences.

9. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3):

​ Definition: Ethernet is a widely used LAN protocol that defines how data packets
should be placed on a network medium.
​ Significance: It forms the backbone of local area networks and provides reliable
data transmission.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

​ TCP/IP Overview:
○ The TCP/IP Protocol Suite is the basis for internet communication.
○ It consists of two primary protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and Internet Protocol (IP).
○ TCP ensures reliable, connection-oriented data transmission, while IP is
responsible for addressing and routing data packets across networks.
​ IP Addressing:
○ Devices on TCP/IP networks are identified by unique IP addresses.
○ IPv4, with its 32-bit / 4-byte address structure, has been widely used for
decades.
○ IPv6, featuring 128-bit / 16-byte addresses, was introduced to meet the
growing demand for internet-connected devices.

11110000 00110011 00000000 11111111

​ Packet Switching:
○ TCP/IP networks use packet switching, breaking data into packets for
efficient transmission.
○ Each packet contains source and destination IP addresses, enabling
routers to forward packets across networks.
○ Packet switching allows for robust, decentralized, and fault-tolerant
communication.
​ TCP and UDP:
○ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures reliable data transmission
by establishing connections, error-checking, and flow control.
○ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless, lightweight
alternative ideal for real-time applications.

​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

are two of the most common transport layer protocols used in computer
networking. They serve different purposes and have distinct
characteristics. Here's a simplified comparison of TCP and UDP:
​
​
​
​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
​
​ 1. Connection-Oriented: TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It
establishes a connection between the sender and the receiver before data
exchange begins. This connection ensures reliable and ordered data
delivery.
​
​ 2. Reliability: TCP is highly reliable. It guarantees that data will be
delivered accurately and in the correct order. If a segment is lost or
corrupted during transmission, TCP will retransmit it.
​
​ 3. Flow Control: TCP uses flow control mechanisms to manage data
transfer rates between sender and receiver. This prevents overwhelming
the recipient with data.
​
​ 4. Acknowledgments: TCP requires acknowledgments (ACKs) to confirm
that data has been received. This ensures that the sender knows the
status of each transmitted segment.
​
​ 5. Use Cases: TCP is commonly used for applications that require reliable
and ordered data delivery, such as web browsing, email, file transfer (FTP),
and online gaming. It's suitable for situations where data accuracy and
integrity are crucial.
​
​ UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
​ 1. Connectionless: UDP is a connectionless protocol. It does not establish
a connection before data transfer begins. This makes it faster for sending
data but less reliable compared to TCP.
​
​ 2. Low Overhead: UDP has lower overhead compared to TCP. It's more
lightweight because it lacks the extensive error-checking and
retransmission features of TCP.
​
​ 3. No Reliability Guarantee: UDP does not guarantee the reliability of data
delivery. It may result in lost, out-of-order, or duplicate data packets without
any automatic recovery.
​
​ 4. No Flow Control: There is no flow control in UDP. It's up to the
application to manage the rate at which data is sent, which can lead to
congestion and packet loss in high-traffic situations.
​
​ 5. Use Cases: UDP is used for real-time applications where speed is more
critical than data integrity, such as video streaming, online voice or video
calls (VoIP), online gaming, and DNS (Domain Name System) queries.
​
​ In summary, TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol suitable for
applications where data integrity and order are vital, while UDP is a
lightweight, connectionless protocol used for real-time applications that
prioritize speed over data reliability. The choice between TCP and UDP
depends on the specific requirements of the application or service being
used.