UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS TUGUEGARAO - SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL DEPARTMENT

General Physics 2
2ND SEMESTER | FINAL TERM

ENERGY AND POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

POWER
• Power is associated by many people with electricity. Knowing that power is the rate of energy use or energy conversion,
what is the expression for electric power?
o Consider a lamp connected to a pair of batteries as shown in figure1, treat the connecting wires as ideal
conductors with no resistance and so virtually no potential difference across them but full potential difference of
the battery appears across the lamp.
• The magnitude of the current in the circuit is constant, the condition known as direct current.
• As the current passes through the lamp, charges are moving from a higher potential to a lower one.
• Energy is being lost from the battery and converted in the filament of the lamp into heat and light.
• The amount of energy released by a charge q as it falls through the potential V across the lamp is W=qV.
• Since the potential is constant, the rate at which energy is released, or the power P is

• In a resistor, the energy dissipated appears as thermal energy. This effect is used in appliances such as electric stoves, hair
dryers and heaters.
• In an incandescent lamp, the energy delivered to the filament raises its temperature so high that light is emitted. In other
circuit elements, the energy may take on different forms.
o For example, the energy may appear as mechanical work done by a motor, as sound from a loudspeaker, or as
stored chemical energy in a battery when the battery is being recharged.
• Conversion from electrical to mechanical is never 100% efficient. The difference appears as heat.
• When an electric current pass through a resistor, electrical energy is irreversibly transformed to thermal energy. And so, we
can write another equation for power that is known as Joule's Law.

JOULE'S LAW
• In electricity, mathematical description of the rate at which resistance in a circuit converts electric energy into heat energy.
• The Finglish physicist James Prescott Joule discovered in 1840 that the amount of heat per second that develops in a wire
carrying a current is proportional to the electrical resistance of the wire and the square of the current.
o He determined that the heat evolved per second is equivalent to the electric power absorbed, or the power loss.

• A quantitative form of Joule's law is that the heat evolved per second, or the electric power loss, P, equals the current I
squared times the resistance R, or P = I2R The power P has units of watts, or joules per second, when the current is expressed
in amperes and the resistance in ohms.
• Another equation relating power to the resistance and voltage across an electric device is

Problem Sample 1: A typical designed to operate on a 120 – V household circuit is rated at 1500 W. What is the resistance of the
dryer?

Therefore, the resistance of the dryer is equal to 9.60 N.

Problem Sample 2: A piece of wire has a resistance of 30 Q. How much power is dissipated in the wire if it carries a current of 0.50 A?

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
Therefore, the magnitude of power in a dissipated wire is 7.5 W.

THE COST OF ELECTRICITY

• The more electric appliances you use and the longer they are left on, the higher your electric bill. This familiar fact is based
on the relationship between energy and power.

• Power can also be calculated using when energy is given, we see that the energy dissipated in a circuit is the

product of the power and time, and the energy used by a device using power P for a time interval t.
o For example, the lighter bulbs burning, the greater P used; the longer they are on, the greater t is.

• The energy unit on electric bills is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), consistent with the relationship .
• It is easy to estimate the cost of operating electric appliances if you have some idea of their power consumption rate in
watts or kilowatts, the time they are on in hours, and the cost per kilowatt-hour for your electric utility.

Problem Sample 3: In a stairwell of a ten-story building there are two continuously burning 75- W safety lamps for each floor?
a. What is the total energy in kilowatt-hours used in 1 year?
b. What will it cost to use the lamps for a year if the cost of electricity is 5.014/ kWh?

Solutions:
Step 1: Solve for the total value of power. Since there are two continuously burning 75-W in each floor of the ten-story building.
Therefore,

Step 2: Convert the value of 1500 W into kW. Take note: 1 kW = 1000 W

Step 3: Since power is now in kW, solve for the energy used per year in kWh.
a.

Step 4: Calculate the electricity cost.

b.

Therefore, the total energy in kWh used in 1 year is 1.3 x 104 kWh and the total cost of operation if the cost of electricity is 5.014/kWh
is 65,182 pesos.

Problem Sample 4: How much does it cost to operate a 100- W lamp hours a day for 30 days if electricity costs 12. 45/kWh?
Given:

Therefore, the total energy for 30 days is 72 kWh, and the cost of electricity is 896.40.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
ANSWER THIS!
1. What is the power consumption of an electric iron if its resistance is 13.1 Q and it operates on a household circuit with a voltage of
120 V?
2. The label on a toaster reads 800 W at 120 V. How much current does it draw?
3. A 150 W streetlamp is operated for 12 hours a day. How much energy does it take to operate the lamp for 30 days? Express your
answer in kilowatt hours

Electric appliances are taking over our modern-day lifestyle from all directions. As being aware of these is now more
important than ever. Safety is now a place where you can afford to cut corners. Rather it's better if you let go of your procrastination
and spend on the best possible materials to avoid hazards.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
• First thing you need to know about electricity to save yourself from hazards is to keep a clear and concise idea of the
Properties of electricity.
o In simple words, it is the flow of electric charge through a conducting wire. Compliances use electricity to function.
We use electricity in our homes to convert the energy with the help of appliances. It helps us in a variety of chores
at our homes. So, any type of irregularity has the potential to cause havoc.
1. SHOCKS FROM CONTACTING LIVE PARTS
• There are several scientific reasons why people get shocks from touching objects.
• Electric shocks are very common in cold and dry environments. But this mainly occurs due to the exposure of a current to
any conductive surface. So, when anybody touches the surface, he also experiences a shock.
o Touching a live wire (when you are grounded)
o Being in contact with two wires with different voltage
o The chances of you receiving a shock increases even more if you stand in a puddle of water
o You can also get contracted by touching a person who is experiencing shock
o You can also get shocked from a defective live electric appliance
2. POWER SURGE
• A power surge is a sudden spike in your home's electric current.
• A sudden spike in the electricity supply can damage sensitive electric appliances. Too much current can even break down
supply lines and cause a fire.
• Power surges can originate from the electric utility company during power grid switching.
• Another common cause of power surges, especially the most powerful ones, is lightning.
• Power surges can also originate inside a home when large appliances like air conditioners and refrigerator motors turn on
and off.
3. FAULTY WIRING
• Faulty wiring is a very common scene in old urban houses. Technicians most of the time fix things just to make things work.
As a result, many openings for potential hazards to strike.
• By faulty wiring, we mean the bad conductance of electricity to the electrical appliances.
• It happens from damaged electrical outlets or worn-out sockets that are not grounded.
• Loose, frayed, cracked, or overheated wires are unable to conduct electricity safely. This often leads to a fire breaking out.
4. EFFECTS OF DAMP AND WETNESS
• Water and electricity are a match that has brought several tragic consequences.
• Moisture is a good conductor of electricity.
o So, any exposed wire in contact with a wet and damp environment can be hazardous.
• Damp walls with plugs or any other electrical installation pose a serious risk of electrocution, short circuit, and fire.
o So, touching a live wet conductor can lead to fatal consequences.
5. OVERLOADED PINS
• Overloaded sockets will draw more electricity from an outlet than its supplying capacity.
• Transferring more electricity through a wire will overheat it and cause the wire to melt. This can melt the insulation and be
responsible for shock or even fires.

REMEMBER: Safety practices that will help avoid hazards. A few preventive steps to avoid electrical hazards in your home are:
• Inspect Cords and Plugs for defects on a regular basis
• Check whether the grounding is okay in your outlets
• Go through and abide by the user manual
• Maintain the relevant warning signs
• Always grab the plug while pulling it out and not the cord
• Keep sockets above the reach of children
• Use covers or shutters in sockets
• Keep appropriate scope or air ventilation so heat from devices can pass freely
• Use surge protectors in case you are in an area with high surge activity
• Be cautious while using

Electricity is something that is very difficult to observe so, it is important that necessary technology is developed to help us
quantitatively perceive electricity and its corresponding properties and variables. What do you think are these devices developed
over decades that helped us understand electricity?

1. VOLTMETERS
• A voltmeter as shown in figure is an instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between two points in an
electric circuit.
o An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in proportion to the circuit's voltage;
o a digital voltmeter provides a numerical display.
• Any measurement that can be converted to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is properly calibrated; such
measurements include pressure, temperature, and flow.
• For a voltmeter to measure a device's voltage, it must be connected in parallel to that device. This is necessary because
objects in parallel experience the same potential difference.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
STEPS ON HOW TO USE A VOLTMETER
Step 1: Plug the probes into the meter. Red goes to the positive (+) and black to the negative (-).
Step 2: Turn the selector dial or switch to the type of measurement you want. To measure direct current - a battery, for example - use
DCV. To measure alternating current, such as a wall outlet, use ACV.
Step 3: Choose the range setting. The dial may have options from 5 to 1000 on the DCV side and 10 to 1000 on the ACV side. The
setting should be the top end of the voltage you are reading. Not all voltmeters have this setting.
Step 4: Turn the meter on.
Step 5: Hold the probes by the insulated handles and touch the red probe to the positive side of a DC circuit or either side of an AC
circuit. Touch the other side with the black probe.
Step 6: Read the digital display or analog dial.
2. AMMETERS
• An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. The name is derived from the name for the SI unit for electrical current,
amperes (A). There are two kinds of ammeter, a is the analog ammeter and b is the digital ammeter.

• For an ammeter to measure a device’s current, it must be connected in series to that device. This is necessary because
objects in series experience the same current. They must not be connected to a voltage source – ammeters are designed
to work under minimal burden (which refers to the voltage drop across the ammeter, typically a small fraction of a volt).

STEPS ON HOW TO READ AN AMMETER

Analog
• As in any measurement, you should always read the smallest division on your scale, and then estimate the next digit.
Digital
• Unlike the analog ammeter, once you have a measurement on your digital ammeter, it is very simple to read. All you need
to do is read the number on the display screen and use the correct units, depending on the dial setting you have chosen.
Some of the meters in automobile dashboards, digital cameras, cell phones, and tuner-amplifiers are voltmeters or
ammeters. Often a single meter is packaged so that, by means of a switch, it can be made to serve as either an ammeter
or a voltmeter-and usually also as an ohmmeter, designed to measure the resistance of any element connected between
its terminals. Such a versatile unit is called a multimeter.

GENERALIZATION
• Power is associated by many people with electricity. As the current passes through the lamp, charges are moving from a
higher potential to a lower one. Energy is being lost from the battery and converted in the filament of the lamp into heat
and light. The amount of energy released by a charge q as it falls through the potential V across the lamp is W = qV.
• The more electric appliances you use and the longer they are left on, the higher your electric bill. This familiar fact is based
on the relationship between energy and power.
• Power can also be calculated using P = when energy is given, we see that the energy dissipated in a circuit is the product
of the power and time, E = Pt and the energy used by a device using power P for a time interval t. For example, the lighter
bulbs burning, the greater P used; the longer they are on, the greater t is.

• Electric appliances are taking over our modern-day lifestyle from all directions. As being aware of these is now more
important than ever. Safety is now a place where you can afford to cut corners. Rather it's better if you let go of your
procrastination and spend on the best possible materials to avoid hazards.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
RESISTOR IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL AND KIRCHHOFF’S RULE

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO
12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO
12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO
12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO
12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 FORCE DUE TO MAGNETIC FIELDS AND SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

CIRCUITS WITH RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

• An RC circuit is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance.
• As presented in Capacitance, the capacitor is an electrical component that stores electric charge, storing energy in an
electric field.
• The figure below (a) shows a simple RC circuit that employs a dc (direct current) voltage source , a resistor R, a capacitor
C, and a two-position switch. The circuit allows the capacitor to be charged or discharged, depending on the position of
the switch.
• When the switch is moved to position A, the capacitor charges, resulting in the second.
• When the switch is moved to position B, the capacitor discharges through the resistor, the circuit reduces to a simple series
connection of the resistor, the capacitor, and the The voltage source is removed from the circuit resulting in the third
illustration.

• The capacitor has a space between the plates that does not allow current to flow but it does allow charge to build upon
each of the two plates. As the current flows, the positive charge builds up on one plate and a negative charge builds up
on the opposite plate. The voltage drop across the capacitor comes from the definition of capacitance:

Thus, Kirchhoff’s loop rule looks like this:

At this point, we have an equation that can only be solved using differential equations.
Afterbeing worked, the result is:

• This gives us the charge Q at any time t after the capacitor starts charging. At the moment the switch is closed, when t = 0,
we get Q = 0 also.
o This means that this equation applies only when the capacitor is completely drained (uncharged) when the switch
is closed Qmax is the maximum charge the capacitor will get at full charge. It is determined by the equation Q =
C V.
▪ Equation Il also tells us that after a very long time, the charge in the capacitor equals Qmax.
• But we also want to know the current. Just like the charge, the current in an RC circuit is not constant. It is a function of time.
o When at first the switch is turned on and the capacitor is uncharged, all the initial voltage drop goes to the resistor,
so initially, the current is maximum:

• This is the current that charges the capacitor.

• As charges accumulate in the capacitor plates, they can no longer flow as current, so we expect the current to go down.
Therefore, the current is maximum only initially.
• As the capacitor charges, some of the potential drops go to the capacitor, so IR goes I as diminishes. To find out what
happens to the current, recall that the current is defined as charge per unit time.

And this gives us:

The time constant, also called the relaxation time of the circuit, is the time it takes for the capacitor to be charged 63.2% or (1 — 1/
e) and the time for the current to have decayed by 63.2%. The time constant for an RC circuit is given as :

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
MAGNETIC FIELD VS. ELECTRIC FIELD
• The magnetic field is an exerted area around the magnetic force.
• It is obtained by moving electric charges. The direction of the magnetic field is indicated by lines.
• While the electric fields are generated around the particles which obtain electric charge.
• During this process, positive charges are drawn, while negative charges are repelled.

An object with a moving charge always has both magnetic and electric fields. They have some similarities and also have
two different fields with the same characteristics. Both fields are interrelated called electromagnetic fields, but they are not
dependent on each other.

Electric Field Magnetic Field

It creates an electric charge in surrounding. Creates an electric charge around moving magnets
Measured as newton per coulomb, volt per meter Measured as gauss or tesla
Proportional for the electric charge Proportional to the speed of electric charge
Are perpendicular to the magnetic field Are perpendicular to the electric field
The magnetic field is measured using the
An electric field is measured using an electrometer
magnetometer

MAGNETIC FIELD
• Is a picture that we use as a tool to describe how the magnetic force is distributed in the space around and within something
magnetic.
• Most of us have some familiarity with everyday magnetic objects and recognize that there can be forces between them.
• We understand that magnets have two poles and that depending on the orientation of two magnets there can be an
attraction (opposite poles) or repulsion (similar poles).
• We recognize that there is some region extending around a magnet where this happens. The magnetic field describes this
region.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
There are two different ways that a magnetic field is typically illustrated:
• The magnetic field is described mathematically as a vector field. This vector field can
be plotted directly as a set of many vectors drawn on a grid. Each vector points in the direction that a compass would point
and has length dependent on the strength of the magnetic force.

• A compass is nothing more than a tiny magnet suspended such that it can freely rotate in response to a magnetic field. Like
all magnets, a compass needle has a north pole and a south pole that are attracted and repelled by the poles of other
magnets. When the compass is placed in a strong magnetic field, the forces of attraction and repulsion turn the needle until
it is aligned with the direction of the field.

• Arranging many small compasses in a grid pattern and placing the grid in a magnetic field illustrates this technique. The
only difference here is that acompass doesn't indicate the strength of a field.

An alternative way to represent the information contained within a vector field is with the use of field lines. Here we dispense with the
grid pattern and connect the vectors with smooth lines. We can draw as
many lines as we want.

The field-line description has some useful properties:

• Magnetic field lines never cross.
• Magnetic field lines naturally bunch together in regions where the magnetic field is the This means that the density of field
lines indicates the strength of the field.
• Magnetic field lines don't start or stop anywhere, they always make closed loops and will continue inside a magnetic
material (though sometimes they are not drawn this way).

• Field lines can be visualized quite easily in thereal world. This is commonly done with iron
filings dropped on a surface near something magnetic. Each filing behaves like a tiny magnet with a north and South Pole.
The filings naturally separate from each other because similar poles repel each other. The result is a pattern that resembles
field lines. While the general pattern will always be the

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 same, the exact position and density of lines of filings depends on how the filings happened to fall, their sizeand magnetic
properties.

Magnetic fields may be represented mathematically by quantities called vectors that have direction as well as magnitude.
It is mathematically expressed as;

Where: B = magnetic field measured in T or Tesla

F = magnetic force measured in N or Newton
q = magnitude of charge measured in C or
Columb v = velocity measured in meter per
second
Θ = angle measured in degrees

GENERALIZATION:
• An RC circuit is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance.
• As presented in Capacitance, the capacitor is an electrical component that stores electric charge, storing energy in an
electric field.
• The capacitor has a space between the plates that does not allow current to flow but it does allow charge to build up on
each of the two plates.
• As the current flows, the positive charge builds up on one plate and a negative charge builds up on the opposite plate.
• The voltage drop across the capacitor comes from the definition of capacitance: The following are the formulas involved
under RC circuits.

• The magnetic field is an exertedarea around the magnetic force. It is obtained by moving electric charges. The direction of
the magnetic field is indicated by lines. While the electric fields are generated around the particles which obtain electric
charge. During this process, positive charges are drawn, while negative charges arerepelled.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 • Magnetic fields may be represented mathematically by quantities called vectors that have direction as well as magnitude.
It is mathematically expressed as;

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

• A charged particle experiences a force when moving through a magnetic field.

THE MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE

• A charged particle moving in a magnetic field is shown in the Figure.

• Experiments show that the charged particle experiences a magnetic force ( that is directly proportional to the charge of
the particle , the magnitude of the magnetic field , the speed of the particle , and the angle between the velocity and
field vectors.
• The magnitude of the magnetic force on a moving charged particles is given by:

• If the charged particles moves in a direction parallel to the magnetic field , the angle θ= 0° or 180°, then . Thus, the magnetic
force on the moving charges is zero if .
• The particle will continue to move unimpeded towards its original direction.
• On the other hand, if the particle moves in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field , the angle θ= 90°, then .
• Thus, the particle experiences the force if given by:

• An expression for the magnitude of the magnetic field can be obtained from the first equation:

• The SI unit of magnetic field is newton per ampere meter (N/A.m) or Tesla (T): 1T= 1 N/A.m, in honor of Nikola Tesla
(1856-1943), a prolific Serbian- American inventor, engineer, and scientist. He paved the way for many of the technological
developments in modern times, including the discovery of the rotating magnetic field principle that became the basis of
most alternating-current machinery.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
THE RIGHT- HAND FORCE RULE
• There are several different variations of this right- hand rule. The point is for you to find one that works for you and stick with
it.
• We can obtain the direction of the magnetic force on the positive charge in Example1 by using the right the Right- hand
Force Rule method.
• To do so, point the fingers of your hand (excluding thumb) toward the direction of the particles velocity, Your palm should
be facing the direction of the magnetic field Curl your fingers toward the magnetic field while extending your thumb.
• The direction of the extended thumb points to the direction of for a positive charge.
• For a negative charge, the force is in the opposite direction of the thumb.
• Note that the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the imaginary plane formed by the vectors and .
• You will obtain the same result if you use the right hand “three finger” rule as illustrated.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
MAGNETIC FORCES ON CURRENT
• Until 1821, only the magnetism produced by iron magnets was known.
• Then Hans Christian Oersted in Denmark found, while demonstrating to friends the flow of an electric current that the electric
current caused by nearby compass needle to move.
• The new phenomenon was studied by Andre- Marie Ampere in France, who concluded that the fundamental nature of
magnetisms was not associated with magnetic poles or iron magnets but with electric currents.

• Ampere was able to explain the nature of iron magnets by postulating that each atom of iron contained a circulating
current, turning it into a small magnet.
• In an iron magnet all these atomic magnets are lined up in the same direction, allowing their magnetic forces to add up.
• In nature, electric currents produce magnetic fields in space, on the sun and in the Earth’s core.

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

1. MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A LONG, STRAIGHT, CURRENT- CARRYING WIRE
• The magnitude of the magnetic field at a perpendicular distance from a long straight wire carrying a current is given by:

• Not only are moving charges affected by magnetic fields, but they can also create them. We can find the magnetic field
that is caused by moving charges using a second right-hand rule.
• The magnetic field made by a current in a straight wire curl around the wire in a ring. You can find it by pointing your right
thumb in the direction of the current in the wire and curling your fingers. Your fingers will be curled in the same direction as
the magnetic field around the wire.

• A magnetic field around a wire with current moving upward. It turns out that you can do the opposite of this rule to figure
out the direction of the current in a wire if you already know the direction of the magnetic field.
• Point your thumb in the direction of the magnetic field this time and curl your fingers just as before. This time, the circular
direction of your fingers tells you the direction of the current that creates the magnetic field.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
 2. MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CURRENT- CARRYING SOLENOID.
• A solenoid is a long conducting wire twisted in a tight coil, or helix. It is the basic foundation of most modern technologies
that makes use of the concept of magnetism. The core of a solenoid can be of any material, including air. As current flows
through the conductor, a magnetic field is produced in the solenoid, which can be computed using the equation;

3. MAGNETIC FORCES ON CURRENT-CARRYING WIRES

• A current- carrying wire in magnetic field should also experience a magnetic force because a current is made up of moving
charges. A wire of length , carrying a current and oriented at an angle θ with respect to the magnetic field , will experience
a force given by the expression:

GENERALIZATION:
Whenever a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, if a component of its velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic
field, it will experience a force. The magnitude of that force is:

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA
• Many devices used in everyday life rely on electric and magnetic forces to operate.
• There are numerous applications of electric and magnetic forces.
• A door catch is a simple device that uses the magnetic force of attraction to hold a door closed.
• More complex applications include:
o televisions, radios, microwave ovens, telephone systems, and computers.

MAXENE CLAIRE SORIANO

12 – ST. JULIANA OF NICOMEDIA