Cosmological Models

(Updated till March 24, 2020)

Dr. Sukanta Deb

Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
Cotton University
Panbazar, Guwahati - 781001
Assam, India
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Learning Objectives:
• Introduction

• Flat Universe

• Open Universe

• Closed Universe
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Introduction
The first Friedmann equation is given by
 2
ȧ k 8πGρ
+ =
a a2 3
8πGρ ȧ
 
⇒ a2 H 2 + k = a2 H =
3 a
2
k 8πGρ a
⇒1+ 2 2 =
aH 3 a2 H 2
k 8πGρ
⇒ 2 2 = −1
aH 3H 2
k ρ 3H 2
⇒ 2 2 = − 1, ρc =
aH ρc 8πG
k
⇒ 2 2 =Ω − 1,
aH
where Ω = ρρc is the ratio of the density (ρ) to the critical density (ρc ). Since a2 H 2 ≥ 0, there is a
correspondence between the sign of k and the sign of Ω − 1

k= 1 ⇒ Ω > 1 (closed)
k= 0 ⇒ Ω = 1 (flat)
k = − 1 ⇒ Ω < 1 (open)

In terms of Ω, the Friedmann equation for the expansion rate is given by

k
=Ω − 1 (1)
a2 H 2
Equation 1 is valid for all times. However, Ω − 1 and ρc are not constants but change as the
universe expands. At the present time t = t0 ,
k
=Ω0 − 1.
a20 H02
The spatially flat case with k = 0 is called the Einstein-de Sitter universe.
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Deceleration Parameter (q)

We know that
ȧ
H=
a  
dH d ȧ
⇒ =
dt dt a
aä − ȧ2
⇒ Ḣ =
a2
 2
aä ȧ
⇒ Ḣ = 2 −
a a
ä
⇒ Ḣ = − H2
a
ä
 
2
⇒ Ḣ = − H 1 −
aH 2
⇒ Ḣ = − H 2 (1 + q) ,
where the deceleration parameter is defined as
ä
q =− , a = a(t), H = H(t).
aH 2
At the present time (t = t0 ): q0 = q(t = t0 ) = − aHä 2 . Whether the expansion of the universe
t=t0
is speeding up or slowing down can be expressed in terms of deceleration parameter (q0 ). The
expansion is slowing down if q0 is positive and speeding up if q0 is negative; if q0 = 0, the expansion
proceeds at a constant rate.
Problem 1. Show that q0 for the zero pressure case can be written as
1 ρ0
q0 = .
2 ρc
Solution 1. The second Friedmann equation in the zero pressure case p = 0 is given by
ä0 4πGρ0
=−
a0 3
4πGρ0
⇒ ä0 = − a0 .
3
Therefore, we have
ä0
q0 = −
a0 H02
1 4πGρ0
 
=− − a✚
3 ✚
0
a✚0 H02
✚
8πGρ0 ρ0
=
3H02 2
1 ρ0
 
=
ρc 2
1 ρ0
= .
2 ρc
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Energy Density
Matter-dominated Universe:
For matter dominated universe p = 0. The second Friedmann equation becomes
ȧ
 
ρ̇ + 3ρ =0
a
ȧ
  
⇒ a3 ρ̇ + 3ρ =0
a
⇒ a3 ρ̇ + 3ρȧa2 =0
d  3 
⇒ a ρ =0
dt
⇒ a3 ρ =constant
⇒ a3 ρ =a30 ρ0 = constant
1
⇒ ρ ∝ 3.
a

Radiation-dominated Universe:
For radiation-dominated universe p = 13 ρ. The second Friedmann equation becomes

3ȧ
ρ̇ + (p + ρ) =0
a
3✁ ȧ 4ρ
 
⇒ ρ̇ + =0
a 3✁
ȧ
⇒ ρ̇ + 4ρ =0
a
ȧ
⇒ a4 ρ̇ + a4 × 4ρ =0
a
⇒ a ρ̇ + 4ρȧa3 =0
4

d  4 
⇒ a ρ =0
dt
⇒ a4 ρ =constant
⇒ a4 ρ =a40 ρ0 = constant
1
⇒ ρ ∝ 4.
a

Cosmological Models
1. Flat Friedmann Universe (k = 0, Ω = 1):
Matter-dominated universe: p = 0, a3 ρ = constant
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The first Friedmann equation becomes

 2
ȧ 8πGρ
=
a 3
 2  3
ȧ 8πG a0
⇒ = ρ0
a 3 a
 3
8πG a0
⇒ ȧ2 = ρ0 × a2
3 a
8πG 3 1
⇒ ȧ2 = a0 ρ
s3 a
8πGρ0 a30 −1/2
⇒ ȧ = a
3 s
da 8πGρ0 a30
⇒ =Aa−1/2 , A =
dt 3
1/2
⇒ a da =Adt
Z Z
1/2
⇒ a da = Adt
a3/2
⇒ = At + c.
3/2
At t = 0, a = 0. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get c = 0. Therefore
we have,
a3/2
=At
3/2
3A
a3/2 = t
2
3A 2/3 2/3
 
⇒a= t
2
⇒ a(t) ∝t2/3 .

Also, we have

3A 2/3 2/3−1
 
ȧ = t
2
3A 2/3 −1/3
 
⇒ ȧ = t .
2
Therefore
ȧ
H=
a
2
⇒ H = t−1
3
2
⇒t= .
3H
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Therefore, the present age of the universe is given by

2
t0 =
3H0
⇒ t0 ≈9.07 Gyr.

Calculation of the Age of the universe:

The present value of the Hubble constant is given by

H0 =72 km/s/Mpc.

Also
 
1 pc =3.26 ly = 3.26 3 × 105 km/s × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
⇒ 1 pc =3.08422 × 1013 km
⇒ 1 Mpc =3.08422 × 1019 km
km 1
⇒ =
Mpc 3.08422 × 1019
On the other hand,

1 yr =3.15360 × 107 s.

Now
72
H0 =72 km/Mpc/s = /s
3.08422 × 1019
⇒ H0 =23.3446 × 10−19 /s
1 1
⇒ = s
H0 23.3446 × 10−19
1
⇒ =0.0428365 × 1019 s
H0
1
⇒ =4.28365 × 1017 s
H0
1 4.28365 × 1017
⇒ = yr
H0 3.15360 × 107
1
⇒ =1.35834 × 1010 yr ≈ 13.6 Gyr
H0
Therefore, the age of the universe for matter-dominated universe is given by
2
t0 =
3H0
⇒ t0 =0.67 × 13.6 Gyr = 9.07 Gyr.
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Radiation-dominated universe: P = 13 ρ, a4 ρ = constant

The first Friedmann equation becomes
 2
ȧ 8πG
= ρ
a 3
 2  4
ȧ 8πG a0
⇒ = ρ0
a 3 a
4
8πG a
⇒ ȧ2 = ρ0 04 a2
3 a
8πG a40
⇒ ȧ2 = ρ0 2
s3 a
4πGρ0 a40 1
⇒ ȧ =
3 a
da 1
⇒ =A
Z dt Za
⇒ ada = Adt
a2
⇒ =At + c
2
At t = 0 (at the Big bang), a = 0. This gives c = 0. Therefore, we have

a2
=At
2
⇒ a2 =2At
√ √
⇒ a = 2At = 2At1/2
⇒ a(t) ∝t1/2 .

Hence
√ 1
ȧ = 2A t−1/2
2
Therefore we have
ȧ √ 1 −1/2 1 1
H= = 2A t × √ = .
a 2 2At1/2 2t
The age of the universe would be given by
1
t0 = = 6.80 Gyr.
2H0

This lecture note has been typeset by the author in LATEX.