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PMAT 11223 Lesson 05

This document discusses key concepts in discrete mathematics including sets, operations on sets, and properties of sets. It defines intersection, union, complement, and provides examples to illustrate these concepts. It also outlines several theorems regarding set relationships and properties including theorems about subset and equality relationships. Proofs are provided for some key laws of set algebra like commutativity, associativity, and distributivity.

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akila Induranga
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20 views

PMAT 11223 Lesson 05

This document discusses key concepts in discrete mathematics including sets, operations on sets, and properties of sets. It defines intersection, union, complement, and provides examples to illustrate these concepts. It also outlines several theorems regarding set relationships and properties including theorems about subset and equality relationships. Proofs are provided for some key laws of set algebra like commutativity, associativity, and distributivity.

Uploaded by

akila Induranga
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PMAT 11223
Lesson 05
3.4.8 Note: We know that the intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be defined by
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.
Consequently, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵,
𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵
When the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint, no element is common to both 𝐴 and 𝐵 and thus in this case,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙.
When 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙, the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be intersecting.

3.4.9 Example: 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3} and


𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 4}.
Then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 12}.

Also, the union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be defined by is the universal set.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.
Consequently, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵,
𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.

3.4.10 Example: If 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}


and 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}
then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 ≠ 0 }.

3.5 Some results on complementation

(i) 𝑋 ′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 ∶ 𝑥 ∉ 𝑋 } = 𝜙
(ii) 𝜙 ′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 ∶ 𝑥 ∉ 𝑋 } = 𝑋
(iii) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}⋃{𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 } = 𝑋
(iv) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴} ∩ {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 } = 𝜙
(v) (𝐴′)′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴′} = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 } = 𝐴

where 𝑋 is the universal set.

1 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya


PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

3.6 LAWS OF SET ALGEBRA

Involution Law
(1) (𝐴′)′ = 𝐴

Complementation Laws
′
(2) 𝑈 = ∅ (2’) ∅′ = 𝑈

Identity Laws
(3) 𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴 (3’) 𝐴 ∩ 𝑈 = 𝐴

Null Laws
(4) 𝐴 ∪ 𝑈 = 𝑈 (4’) 𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅

Idempotent Laws
(5) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴 (5’) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴

Laws of Excluded Middle


(6) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ = 𝑈 (6’) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′ = ∅

Commutative Laws
(7) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴 (7’) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴

Associative Laws
(8) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) (8’) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

Distributive Laws
(9) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) (9’) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

De Morgan’s Laws
(10) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ (10’) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′

3.6.1 Proof of laws of set algebra

The above results directly follow as a consequence of definitions. However I prove (7), (8’) and
(9’) in detail and ask students to prove the other results in a similar manner.

(7) To prove: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴.

Proof: Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. Then,


𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵∪𝐴

2 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya


PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

∴ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴.
Similarly, ∴ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
Hence 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴.

(8’) To prove: (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

Proof. Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶. Then,


𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶
⇒ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
∴ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

Similarly, 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ⊆ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
Hence (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶).

(9’) To prove: 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶).

Proof: Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶). Then,


𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)
⇒ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶), [∵ ′𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 ′𝑎𝑛𝑑′]
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
∴ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ⊆ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶).
Similarly, (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
Hence 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶).

3.7 Some other Results on operations on sets

3.7.1 Theorem 1

For any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵


(i) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵
(ii) 𝐴 ∖ 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′
(iii) (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
(iv) (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙
(v) (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∖ (𝐴⋂𝐵)

3 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya


PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

Proof:
(i) Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦) [∵ 𝑝 & 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑝]
∴𝐴∩𝐵 ⊆𝐴
Similarly, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵.

(ii) Leave to students


(iii) Leave to students
(iv) Leave to students
(v) Let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴). Then,
𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴)
⇒ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵) 𝑜𝑟( 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴)
⇒ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑( 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑( 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
∴ (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴) ⊆ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∖ (𝐴⋂𝐵)
Similarly, (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∖ (𝐴⋂𝐵) ⊆ (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴)
∴ (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∖ (𝐴⋂𝐵)

3.7.2 Theorem 2
For any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵
(i) 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′
(ii) 𝐴∖𝐵 = 𝐴 ⇔𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝜙
(iii) 𝐴⋃𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐴 = 𝐵
(iv) 𝐴⋃𝐵 = 𝜙 ⇔ 𝐴 = 𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝜙

Proof:
(i) We have to prove that, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′.
We shall prove it in two parts, namely
(𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 ′ ⊆ 𝐴′ )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′ ⇒ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵).

First part
Let 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 be given. Then in order to prove that 𝐵 ′ ⊆ 𝐴′ , let 𝑥 be an arbitrary
element of 𝐵′. Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵′
⇒𝑥∉𝐵
⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 [∵ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵]
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′
∴ 𝐵 ′ ⊆ 𝐴′
Thus, (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 ′ ⊆ 𝐴′ ) ---------(I)

4 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya


PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

Second part
Let 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′ be given. Then, in order to prove that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, let 𝑥 be an arbitrary element of 𝐴.
Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴′
⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵′ [∵ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′]
⇒𝑥∈𝐵
∴𝐴⊆𝐵

Thus, (𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′ ⇒ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵) ---------(II)

Hence from (I) and (II) we have, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′

Proof of (ii), (iii) and (iv) leave for students.

5 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya

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