Hydrostatics

JEE MAINS & NEET

Fluid is the name given to a substance which begins to flow when external force is applied on it. Liquids and
gases are fluids. Fluids do not have their own shape but take the shape of the containing vessel. The branch
of physics which deals with the study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics and the branch which deals with
the study of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics.
Pressure.
The normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface in contact with it is called thrust of liquid on that surface.
The normal force (or thrust) exerted by liquid at rest per unit area of the surface in contact with it is called
pressure of liquid or hydrostatic pressure.
If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid, then pressure exerted by liquid
on this surface is P  F / A
(1) Units : N / m 2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)
[F ] [MLT 2 ]
(2) Dimension : [P ]    [ML1 T  2 ]
[ A] [L2 ]

(3) At a point pressure acts in all directions and a definite direction is not associated with it. So pressure is a tensor
quantity.
(4) Atmospheric pressure : The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is called the earth's atmosphere and
the pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Its value on the surface of the earth
at sea level is nearly 1.013  10 5 N / m 2 or Pascal in S.I. other practical units of pressure are atmosphere, bar
and torr (mm of Hg)
1atm  1.01  105 Pa  1.01bar  760 torr
The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the surface of earth and goes on decreasing as we move up into
the earth's atmosphere.
(5) If P0 is the atmospheric pressure then for a point at depth h below the surface of a liquid of density  ,
hydrostatic pressure P is given by P  P0  h g P0

h 

(6) Hydrostatic pressure depends on the depth of the point below the surface (h), nature of liquid (  ) and
acceleration due to gravity (g) while it is independent of the amount of liquid, shape of the container or cross-
sectional area considered. So if a given liquid is filled in vessels of different shapes to same height, the
pressure at the base in each vessel's will be the same, though the volume or weight of the liquid in different
vessels will be different.

(A) (B) (C)

PA  PB  PC but WA  WB  WC
(7) In a liquid at same level, the pressure will be same at all points, if not, due to pressure difference the
liquid cannot be at rest. This is why the height of liquid is the same in vessels of different shapes containing
different amounts of the same liquid at rest when they are in communication with each other.

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 Hydrostatics
(8) Gauge pressure : The pressure difference between hydrostatic pressure P and atmospheric pressure P0
is called gauge pressure. P  P0  hg
Sample problems based on Pressure
Problem 1. If pressure at half the depth of a lake is equal to 2/3 pressure at the bottom of the lake then
what is the depth of the lake
(a) 10 m (b) 20 m (c) 60 m (d) 30 m
h
Solution : (b) Pressure at bottom of the lake = P0  hg and pressure ay half the depth of a lake  P0  g
2
1 2 1 1
According to given condition P0  hg  (P0  hg)  P0  hg 
2 3 3 6
2P0 2  10 5
h   20m .
g 10 3  10
Problem 2. Two bodies are in equilibrium when suspended in water from the arms of a balance. The
mass of one body is 36 g and its density is 9 g / cm3. If the mass of the other is 48 g, its
density in g / cm3 is
4 3
(a) (b) (c) 3 (d) 5
3 2
m
Solution : (c) Apparent weight  V (   )g  (   )g

where m mass of the body,   density of the body and   density of water
If two bodies are in equilibrium then their apparent weight must be equal.
m1 m2 36 48
 (1   )g  ( 2   )g  (9  1)  ( 2  1)g . By solving we get  2  3 .
1 2 9 2
Problem 3. An inverted bell lying at the bottom of a lake 47.6 m deep has 50 cm3 of air trapped in it. The
bell is brought to the surface of the lake. The volume of the trapped air will be (atmospheric
pressure = 70 cm of Hg and density of Hg = 13.6 g/cm3)
(a) 350 cm3 (b) 300 cm3 (c) 250 cm3 (d) 22 cm3
Solution : (b) According to Boyle's law, pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other i.e.
1
P
V P2V2

 P1V1  P2V2

 (P0  h w g)V1  P0 V2 h

 h w g 
 V2  1  V1 (P1 V1)
 P0 

 47.6  10 2  1  1000 
 V2  1  V1 [As P2  P0  70 cm of Hg  70  13.6  1000 ]
 70  13.6  1000 

 V2  (1  5)50 cm 3  300 cm 3 .

Problem 4. A U-tube in which the cross-sectional area of the limb on the left is one quarter, the limb on
the right contains mercury (density 13.6 g/cm3). The level of mercury in the narrow limb is at
a distance of 36 cm from the upper end of the tube. What will be the rise in the level of
mercury in the right limb if the left limb is filled to the top with water
Water
(a) 1.2 cm
(b) 2.35 cm
Mercury
(c) 0.56 cm
(d) 0.8 cm

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 Hydrostatics
Solution : (c) If the rise of level in the right limb be x cm. the fall of level of mercury in left limb be 4x cm
because the area of cross section of right limb 4 times as that of left limb.
 Level of water in left limb is (36 + 4x) cm.
Now equating pressure at interface of mercury
x
A B A B
and water (at A' B') 4x
A' B'
(36  4 x)  1  g  5 x  13.6  g

By solving we get x = 0.56 cm.

Problem 5. A uniformly tapering vessel is filled with a liquid of density 900 kg/m3. The force that acts on
the base of the vessel due to the liquid is (g  10 ms 2 ) Area = 10 m –3 2

(a) 3.6 N
(b) 7.2 N 0.4 m

(c) 9.0 N Area=2 × 10–3m2

(d) 14.4 N
Solution : (b) Force acting on the base F  P  A  hdgA  0.4  900  10  2  103  7.2 N
Problem 6. A tank 5 m high is half filled with water and then is filled to the top with oil of density 0.85
g/cm3. The pressure at the bottom of the tank, due to these liquids is
(a) 1.85 g/cm2 (b) 89.25 g/cm2 (c) 462.5 g/cm2 (d) 500 g/cm2
g g g
Solution : (c) Pressure at the bottom P  (h1d1  h2d2) 2
 [250  1  250  0.85]  250 [1.85] 2
 462.5
cm cm cm 2
Problem 7. A siphon in use is demonstrated in the following figure. The density of the liquid flowing in
siphon is 1.5 gm/cc. The pressure difference between the point P and S will be
Q R
10 cm

(a) 105 N/m

P 20 cm
5
(b) 2 × 10 N/m S
(c) Zero
(d) Infinity
Solution : (c) As the both points are at the surface of liquid and these points are in the open atmosphere.
So both point possess similar pressure and equal to 1 atm. Hence the pressure difference will
be zero.
Problem 8. The height of a mercury barometer is 75 cm at sea level and 50 cm at the top of a hill. Ratio
of density of mercury to that of air is 104. The height of the hill is
(a) 250 m (b) 2.5 km (c) 1.25 km (d) 750 m
Solution : (b) Difference of pressure between sea level and the top of hill
P  (h1  h2)  Hg  g  (75  50)  102  Hg  g ......(i)
and pressure difference due to h meter of air P = h   air  g ......(ii)
By equating (i) and (ii) we get h  air  g  (75  50)  102  Hg  g
  Hg 
 h  25  10 2    25  102  104  2500 m  Height of the hill = 2.5 km.
 
 air 
Density.
m dm
In a fluid, at a point, density  is defined as:   lim 
V 0 V dV
(1) In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional properties, so is a scalar.
(2) It has dimensions [ML3 ] and S.I. unit kg/m3 while C.G.S. unit g/cc with 1g / cc  103 kg / m3
(3) Density of substance means the ratio of mass of substance to the volume occupied by the substance
while density of a body means the ratio of mass of a body to the volume of the body. So for a solid body.

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 Hydrostatics
Density of body = Density of substance
While for a hollow body, density of body is lesser than that of substance [As Vbody  Vsub.]
(4) When immiscible liquids of different densities are poured in a container the liquid of highest density will
be at the bottom while that of lowest density at the top and interfaces will be plane.
(5) Sometimes instead of density we use the term relative density or specific gravity which is defined as :
Density of body
RD 
Density of water
(6) If m1 mass of liquid of density 1 and m2 mass of density  2 are mixed, then as
m  m1  m2 and V  (m1 / 1 )  (m2 /  2 ) [As V  m /  ]
m m1  m2  mi
  
V (m1 / 1 )  (m2 /  2 ) (mi / pi )
21  2
If m1  m2   Harmonic mean
1   2
(7) If V1 volume of liquid of density 1 and V2 volume of liquid of density  2 are mixed, then as:
m  1V1   2V2 and V  V1  V2 [As   m/ V ]
If V1  V2  V   (1  2 ) / 2 = Arithmetic Mean
(8) With rise in temperature due to thermal expansion of a given body, volume will increase while mass will
remain unchanged, so density will decrease, i.e.,
 (m / V ) V0 V0
   [As V  V0 (1   ) ]
0 (m / V0 ) V V0 (1   )
0 ~
or  –  0 (1   )
(1   )
(9) With increase in pressure due to decrease in volume, density will increase, i.e.,
 (m / V ) V0 m
  [As   ]
0 (m / V0 ) V V
But as by definition of bulk-modulus
p  p 
B   V0 i.e., V  V0 1  
V  B
1
 p  ~  p 
So    0 1     0 1  
 B   B 
Sample problems based on Density
Problem 9. A homogeneous solid cylinder of length L (L  H / 2) . Cross-sectional area A / 5 is immersed
such that it floats with its axis vertical at the liquid-liquid interface with length L / 4 in the
denser liquid as shown in the fig. The lower density liquid is open to atmosphere having
pressure P0 . Then density D of solid is given by [IIT-JEE1995]
5
(a) d
4
d
4 H/2 3L/4
(b) d L
5
H/2 2d
(c) Ad
d
(d)
5
Solution : (a) Weight of cylinder = upthrust due to both liquids
A 3   A L A ALd g D d 5
V  D  g   . L   d  g   .   2d  g   .L  D.g    D  d
5 4  5 4 5  4 5 4 4

Problem 10. Density of ice is  and that of water is  . What will be the decrease in volume when a mass
M of ice melts
M   1 1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) M    (d)   
  M    M   

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 Hydrostatics
M M M M 1 1
Solution : (c) Volume of ice  , volume of water   Change in volume    M   
     
Problem 11. Equal masses of water and a liquid of density 2 are mixed together, then the mixture has a
density of
(a) 2/3 (b) 4/3 (c) 3/2 (d) 3
Solution : (b) If two liquid of equal masses and different densities are mixed together then density of
mixture
21  2 2 1 2 4
  
1   2 1 2 3

Problem 12. Two substances of densities 1 and  2 are mixed in equal volume and the relative density of
mixture is 4. When they are mixed in equal masses, the relative density of the mixture is 3.
The values of  l and  2 are
(a) 1  6 and  2  2 (b) 1  3 and  2  5 (c)  1  12 and  2  4 (d) None of these
1   2
Solution : (a) When substances are mixed in equal volume then density  4  1   2  8
2
.......(i)
2 1  2
When substances are mixed in equal masses then density  3  2 1  2  3(1   2 )
1   2
.......(ii)
By solving (i) and (ii) we get  1  6 and  2  2 .
Problem 13. A body of density d1 is counterpoised by M g of weights of density d2 in air of density d.
Then the true mass of the body is
 d   d  M(1  d / d2 )
(a) M (b) M  1   (c) M 1   (d)
 d 2   d 1  (1  d / d1 )

Solution : (d) Let M 0  mass of body in vacuum.

Apparent weight of the body in air = Apparent weight of standard weights in air
 Actual weight – upthrust due to displaced air = Actual weight – upthrust due to displaced
air
 d
M 1  

M  M
M 0 g   0  dg  Mg    dg  M 0   d2  .
 d1   d2   d
1  d 
 1

Pascal's Law.
It states that if gravity effect is neglected, the pressure at every point of liquid in equilibrium of rest is same.
or
The increase in pressure at one point of the enclosed liquid in equilibrium of rest is transmitted equally to
all other points of the liquid and also to the walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity is
neglected.
Example : Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes
Working of hydraulic lift : It is used to lift the heavy loads. If a small force f is applied on piston of C then
the pressure exerted on the liquid
f
P  f /a [a = Area of cross section of the piston in C] Load
C D
This pressure is transmitted equally to piston of cylinder D.
F
Hence the upward force acting on piston of cylinder D.
f  A
F PA A f  
a a

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 Hydrostatics
As A  a , therefore F  f . So heavy load placed on the larger piston is easily lifted upwards by applying a
small force.
Archimedes Principle.
Accidentally Archimedes discovered that when a body is immersed partly or wholly in a fluid, in rest it is
buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This principle is called
Archimedes principle and is a necessary consequence of the laws of fluid statics.
When a body is partly or wholly dipped in a fluid, the fluid exerts force on the body due to hydrostatic
pressure. At any small portion of the surface of the body, the force exerted by the fluid is perpendicular to
the surface and is equal to the pressure at that point multiplied by the area. The resultant of all these
constant forces is called upthrust or buoyancy.
To determine the magnitude and direction of this force consider a body immersed in a fluid of density  as
shown in fig. The forces on the vertical sides of the body will cancel each other. The top surface of the body
will experience a downward force.
F1 h1
F1  AP1  A(h1g  P0 ) [As P  hg  P0 ] h2

While the lower face of the body will experience an upward force. F2
F2  AP2  A(h2g  P0 )

As h2  h1, F2 will be greater than F1 , so the body will experience a net upward force
F  F2  F1  Ag(h2  h1 )
If L is the vertical height of the body F  AgL  Vg [As V  AL  A(h2  h1 )] ]
i.e., F = Weight of fluid displaced by the body.
This force is called upthrust or buoyancy and acts vertically upwards (opposite to the weight of the body)
through the centre of gravity of displaced fluid (called centre of buoyancy). Though we have derived this
result for a body fully submerged in a fluid, it can be shown to hold good for partly submerged bodies or a
body in more than one fluid also.
(1) Upthrust is independent of all factors of the body such as its mass, size, density etc. except the volume
of the body inside the fluid.
(2) Upthrust depends upon the nature of displaced fluid. This is why upthrust on a fully submerged body is
more in sea water than in fresh water because its density is more than fresh water.
(3) Apparent weight of the body of density (  ) when immersed in a liquid of density ( ) .
 
Apparent weight = Actual weight – Upthrust  W  Fup  Vg  Vg  V(   )g  Vg 1  
  
 
 WAPP  W  1  
 
(4) If a body of volume V is immersed in a liquid of density  then its weight reduces.
W1 = Weight of the body in air, W2 = Weight of the body in water
W1  W2
Then apparent (loss of weight) W1  W2  Vg  V 
g
density of body Weight of body Weight of body
(5) Relative density of a body (R.D.)=  =
density of water Weight of equal volume of water Water thru st
Weight of body Weight of body in air W1
 = =
Loss of weight in water Weight in air – weight in water W1  W2
(6) If the loss of weight of a body in water is 'a ' while in liquid is 'b'
 L Upthrust on body in liquid Loss of weight in liquid a Wair  Wliquid
    
 W Upthrust on body in water Loss of weight in water b Wair  Wwater
Floatation.

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 Hydrostatics
(1) Translatory equilibrium : When a body of density  and volume V is immersed in a liquid of density  ,
the forces acting on the body are
Weight of body W  mg  Vg, acting vertically downwards through centre of gravity of the body.
Upthrust force = Vg acting vertically upwards through the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid i.e.,
centre of buoyancy.

If density of body is greater than If density of body is equal to If density of body is lesser than
that of liquid    that of liquid    that of liquid   

Weight will be more than Weight will be equal to upthrust Weight will be less than
upthrust so the body will sink so the body will float fully upthrust so the body will move
upwards and in equilibrium
submerged in neutral
will float partially immersed in
equilibrium anywhere in the the liquid Such that,
liquid. W  Vin g  V g  Vin g
V  Vin Where Vin is the
volume of body in the liquid

Important points
(i) A body will float in liquid only and only if   
(ii) In case of floating as weight of body = upthrust
So WApp = Actual weight – upthrust = 0

(iii) In case of floating Vg  Vin g

So the equilibrium of floating bodies is unaffected by variations in g though both thrust and weight depend on
g.
(2) Rotatory Equilibrium : When a floating body is slightly tilted from equilibrium position, the centre of
buoyancy B shifts. The vertical line passing through the new centre of buoyancy B and initial vertical line
meet at a point M called meta-centre. If the meta-centre M is above the centre of gravity the couple due to
forces at G (weight of body W) and at B  (upthrust) tends to bring the body back to its original position. So
for rotational equilibrium of floating body the meta-centre must always be higher than the centre of gravity
of the body.

Th
M Th
G B' M W
G
G B
B B'
B W

(A) (B) (C)

However, if meta-centre goes below CG, the couple due to forces at G and B  tends to topple the floating body.
That is why a wooden log cannot be made to float vertical in water or a boat is likely to capsize if the sitting
passengers stand on it. In these situations CG becomes higher than MC and so the body will topple if slightly
tilted.

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 Hydrostatics
(3) Application of floatation
(i) When a body floats then the weight of body = Upthrust
  
Vg  Ving  Vin    V  Vout  V  Vin  1   V
   
Vout  
i.e., Fraction of volume outside the liquid fout   1  
V  
Vin
(ii) For floatation V  Vin      fin
V
 A ( fin ) A
If two different bodies A and B are floating in the same liquid then 
 B ( fin ) B
(iii) If the same body is made to float in different liquids of densities  A and  B respectively.
 A (Vin ) B
V  (Vin ) A  A  (Vin )B  B  
 B (Vin ) A
(iv) If a platform of mass M and cross-section A is floating in a liquid of density  with its height h inside the liquid
Mg  hAg ......(i)
Now if a body of mass m is placed on it and the platform sinks by y then
(M  m)g  (y  h) Ag ......(ii)
Subtracting equation (i) and (ii), mg  A y g , i.e., W  y ......(iii)
So we can determine the weight of a body by placing it on a floating platform and noting the depression of
the platform in the liquid by it.
Sample problems based on Archimedes principle
Problem 14. A wooden block, with a coin placed on its top, floats in water as shown in fig. the distance l
and h are shown there. After some time the coin falls into the water. Then
Coin
(a)l decreases and h increases
l
(b) l increases and h decreases
h
(c) Both l and h increase
(d) Both l and h decrease
Solution : (d) As the block moves up with the fall of coin, l decreases, similarly h will also decrease because
when the coin is in water, it displaces water equal to its own volume only.
Problem 15. A hemispherical bowl just floats without sinking in a liquid of density 1.2 × 10 3kg/m3. If outer
diameter and the density of the bowl are 1 m and 2 × 104 kg/m3 respectively, then the inner
diameter of the bowl will be
(a) 0.94 m (b) 0.97 m (c) 0.98 m (d) 0.99 m
4  D d 
3 3
Solution : (c) Weight of the bowl = mg = Vg         g
3  2   2  

where D is the outer diameter , d is the inner diameter and  is the density of bowl
3
4 D
Weight of the liquid displaced by the bowl  Vg      g
3 2

where  is the density of the liquid.

4  D   d    1 3  d 3 
3 3 3 3
4  D 1
For the flotation    g         g     1.2  103        2  104
3  2 3  2   2    2  2   2  

By solving we get d = 0.98 m.

Problem 16. In making an alloy, a substance of specific gravity s1 and mass m1 is mixed with another
substance of specific gravity s 2 and mass m 2 ; then the specific gravity of the alloy is

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 m1 m 2 
  
 m  m2   s s  m1  m2  s1 s 2 
(a)  1  (b)  1 2 
 (c) (d)
 s1  s2  m
 1  m2  m1 m2 
  
m1  m 2
 s1 s 2 

Density of alloy Mass of alloy

Solution : (c) Specific gravity of alloy  
Density of water Volume of alloy  density of water
m1  m 2 m1  m2 m  m2
   1
 m1 m 2  m1 m2 m1 m2
     w  
 1 p2  1 /  w 2 /  w s1 s2
 density of substance 
 As specific gravity of substance  density of water 
 
Problem 17. A concrete sphere of radius R has a cavity of radius r which is packed with sawdust. The
specific gravities of concrete and sawdust are respectively 2.4 and 0.3 for this sphere to float
with its entire volume submerged under water. Ratio of mass of concrete to mass of sawdust
will be
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) Zero
Solution : (b) Let specific gravities of concrete and saw dust are 1 and  2 respectively.
According to principle of floatation weight of whole sphere = upthrust on the sphere
4 4 4
 (R 3  r 3 )1g  r 3  2 g  R 3  1  g  R3 1  r 3 1  r 3  2  R3
3 3 3
R3 1  2 R3  r 3 1   2  1  1
 R3 (1  1)  r 3 (1   2 )     
r3 1  1 r3 1  1
(R3  r 3 )1  1   2  1
  
r 3 2  1  1   2
Mass of concrete  1  0.3  2.4
   4
Mass of saw dust  2.4  1  0.3

Problem 18. A vessel contains oil (density = 0.8 gm/cm3) over mercury (density = 13.6 gm/cm3). A
homogeneous sphere floats with half of its volume immersed in mercury and the other half
in oil. The density of the material of the sphere in gm/cm3 is
(a) 3.3 (b) 6.4 (c) 7.2 (d) 12.8
Solution : (c) As the sphere floats in the liquid. Therefore its weight will be equal to the upthrust force on
it
4
Weight of sphere  R 3 g ...... (i)
3
2 2
Upthrust due to oil and mercury  R 3   oil g  R 3 Hg g ......(ii) Oil
3 3
Mercury
Equating (i) and (ii)
4 3 2 2
R g  R 3 0.8 g  R 3  13.6 g  2   0.8  13.6  14.4    7.2
3 3 3
Problem 19. A body floats in a liquid contained in a beaker. The whole system as shown falls freely under
gravity. The upthrust on the body due to the liquid is
(a) Zero
(b) Equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
(c) Equal to the weight of the body in air
(d) Equal to the weight of the immersed position of the body
Solution : (a) Upthrust  Vliquid(g  a) ; where, a = downward acceleration, V = volume of liquid displaced
But for free fall a = g  Upthrust = 0
Problem 20. A metallic block of density 5 gm cm–3 and having dimensions 5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm is weighed
in water. Its apparent weight will be

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(a) 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 gf (b) 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 gf (c) 5 × 4 × 4 × 4 gf (d) 4 × 5 × 5 × 5 gf
Solution : (d) Apparent weight  V (   )g  l  b  h  (5  1)  g  5  5  5  4  g Dyne or 4  5  5  5 gf.
Problem 21. A wooden block of volume 1000 cm3 is suspended from a spring balance. It weighs 12 N in air.
It is suspended in water such that half of the block is below the surface of water. The reading
of the spring balance is
(a) 10 N (b) 9 N (c) 8 N (d) 7 N
Solution : (d) Reading of the spring balance = Apparent weight of the block = Actual weight – upthrust
 12  Ving  12  500  10 6  10 3  10  12  5  7 N.

Problem 22. An iceberg is floating in sea water. The density of ice is 0.92 gm/cm3 and that of sea water is
1.03g/cm3. What percentage of the iceberg will be below the surface of water
(a) 3% (b) 11% (c) 89% (d) 92%
Solution : (c) For the floatation of ice-berg, Weight of ice = upthrust due to displaced water
 0.92 
 Vin   V  
Vin
Vg  Vin g  V  0.89V   0.89 or 89%.
   1.03  V

Problem 23. A cubical block is floating in a liquid with half of its volume immersed in the liquid. When the
whole system accelerates upwards with acceleration of g/3, the fraction of volume
immersed in the liquid will be
1
(a)
2
3
(b) g
8
3
2
(c)
3
3
(d)
4

Solution : (a) Fraction of volume immersed in the liquid Vin   V i.e. it depends upon the densities of the
 
block and liquid.
So there will be no change in it if system moves upward or downward with constant velocity
or some acceleration.
Problem 24. A silver ingot weighing 2.1 kg is held by a string so as to be completely immersed in a liquid
of relative density 0.8. The relative density of silver is 10.5. The tension in the string in kg-wt
is
(a) 1.6 (b) 1.94 (c) 3.1 (d) 5.25
M    0.8 
Solution : (b) Apparent weight  V (   )g  (   )g  M 1   g  2.1 1   g  1.94 g Newton = 1.94
    10.5 
Kg-wt
Problem 25. A sample of metal weighs 210 gm in air, 180 gm in water and 120 gm in liquid. Then relative
density (RD) of
1
(a) Metal is 3 (b) Metal is 7 (c) Liquid is 3 (d) Liquid is
3

Solution : (b, c) Let the density of metal is  and density of liquid is .

If V is the volume of sample then according to problem
210  Vg ........(i)
180  V (  1)g ........(ii)
120  V (   )g ........(iii)
By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) we get   7 and   3 .

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Problem 26. Two solids A and B float in water. It is observed that A floats with half its volume immersed
and B floats with 2/3 of its volume immersed. Compare the densities of A and B
(a) 4 : 3 (b) 2 : 3 (c) 3 : 4 (d) 1 : 3
 A ( fin ) A 1 / 2 3
Solution : (c) If two different bodies A and B are floating in the same liquid then   
 B ( fin ) B 2 / 3 4
Problem 27. The fraction of a floating object of volume V0 and density d 0 above the surface of a liquid of
density d will be
d0 dd0 d  d0 dd0
(a) (b) (c) (d)
d d  d0 d d  d0
d0
Solution : (c) For the floatation V0d0 g  Vin d g  Vin  V0
d
d0  d  d0  Vout d  d0
 Vout  V0  Vin  V0  V0  V0     .
d  d  V0 d
Problem 28. A vessel with water is placed on a weighing pan and reads 600 g. Now a ball of 40 g and
density 0.80 g/cc is sunk into the water with a pin as shown in fig. keeping it sunk. The
weighing pan will show a reading
(a) 600 g
(b) 550 g
(c) 650 g
(d) 632 g
Solution : (c) Upthrust on ball = weight of displaced water
m 40
 V  g     g   1  g  50 g Dyne or 50 gm

  0.8

As the ball is sunk into the water with a pin by applying downward force equal to upthrust on it.
So reading of weighing pan = weight of water + downward force against upthrust = 600 + 50 = 650 gm.
Some Conceptual Questions.
Que.1 Why a small iron needle sinks in water while a large iron ship floats
Ans. For floatation, the density of body must be lesser or equal to that of liquid. In case of iron needle, the
density of needle, i.e., iron is more than that of water, so it will sink. However, the density of a ship
due to its large volume is lesser than that of water, so it will float.
Que.2 A man is sitting in a boat which is floating in a pond. If the man drinks some water from the pond,
what will happen to the level of water in the pond
Ans. If the man drinks m g of water from the pond, the weight of (boat + man) system will increase by mg
and so the system will displace mg more water for floating. So due to removal of water from pond,
the water level in pond will fall but due to water displaced by the floating system the water level in
the pond will rise and so the water removed from the pond is equal to the water displaced by the
system; the level of water in the pond will remain unchanged.
Que.3 A boy is carrying a fish in one hand and a bucket full of water in the other hand. He then places the
fish in the bucket thinking that in accordance with Archimedes' principle he is now carrying less
weight as the weight of the fish will reduce due to upthrust. Is he right
Ans. No, when he places the fish in water in the bucket, no doubt the weight of fish is reduced due to
upthrust, but the weight of (water + bucket) system is increased by the same amount, so that the total
weight carried by him remains unchanged.
Que. 4 A bucket of water is suspended from a spring balance. Does the reading of balance change (a) when
a piece of stone suspended from a string is immersed in the water without touching the bucket? (b)
when a piece of iron or cork is put in the water in the bucket?

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Ans. (a) Yes, the reading of the balance will increase but the increase in weight will be equal to the loss in
weight of the stone (Vg) and not the weight of stone (Vg) [ Vg as    ] .
(b) Yes, the reading of the balance will increase but the increase in weight will be equal to the weight of
iron or cork piece.
Que. 5 Why a soft plastic bag weighs the same when empty or when filled with air at atmospheric
pressure? Would the weight be the same if measured in vacuum
Ans. If the weight of empty bag is W0 and the volume of bag is V, when the bag is filled with air of density
 at NTP, its weights will increase by Vg . Now when the bag filled with air is weighed in air, the
thrust of air Vg will decrease its weight; so W  W0  Vg  Vg  W0
i.e., the weight of the bag remains unchanged when it is filled with air at NTP and weighed in air.
However if the bag is weighed in vacuum will be W0 when empty and (W0  Vg) when filled with air
(as there is no upthrust), i.e., in vacuum an air-filled bag will weigh more than an empty bag.
Que.6 Why does a uniform wooden stick or log float horizontally? If enough iron is added to one end, it will
float vertically; explain this also.
Ans. When a wooden stick is made to float vertically, its rotational equilibrium will be unstable as its
meta-centre will be lower than its CG and with a Th
Th
slight tilt it will rotate under the action of the couple
G
formed by thrust and weight in the direction of tilt, G
B
B M
till it becomes horizontal. W B
G G
However, due to loading at the bottom, the CG of
W
the stick (or log) will be lowered and so may be
lower than the meta-centre. In this situation the equilibrium will be stable and if the stick (or log) is
tilted, it will come back to its initial vertical position.
Que.7 A boat containing some pieces of material is floating in a pond. What will happen to the level of
water in the pond if on unloading the pieces in the pond, the piece (a) floats (b) sinks?
Ans. If M is the mass of boat and m of pieces in it, then initially as the system is floating M  m  VD W
M m
i.e., the system displaces water VD   ......(i)
W W
When the pieces are dropped in the pond, the boat will still float, so it displaces water M  V1 W ,
i.e, V1  (M /  W )

(a) Now if the unloaded pieces floats in the pond, the water displaced by them m  V2 W ,
i.e, V2  (m /  W )

So the total water displaced by the boat and the floating pieces
M m
V1  V2   .....(ii)
W W
Which is same as the water displaced by the floating system initially (eqn. 1); so the level of water in
the pond will remain unchanged.
(b) Now if the unloaded pieces sink the water displaced by them will be equal to their own volume,
i.e,
m  m
V2  as   V 
  
and so in this situation the total volume of water displaced by boat and sinking pieces will be
 M m
V1  V2     .....(iii)
 W  
Now as the pieces are sinking    W , so this volume will be lesser than initial water displaced by the
floating system (eq. 1); so the level of water in the pond will go down (or fall)

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In this problem if the pieces (either sinking or floating) are unloaded on the ground, the water
displaced after unloading, V2  M /  W , will be lesser than before unloading. V  (M  m) /  W ; so the
level of water in the pond will fall.
Intermolecular Force.
The force of attraction or repulsion acting between the molecules are known as intermolecular force. The
nature of intermolecular force is electromagnetic.
The intermolecular forces of attraction may be classified into two types.
Cohesive force Adhesive force
The force of attraction between molecules of same The force of attraction between the molecules of
substance is called the force of cohesion. This force the different substances is called the force of
is lesser in liquids and least in gases. adhesion.

Ex. (i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when Ex. (i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the
brought in mutual contact. blackboard with a chalk.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass
(ii) A piece of paper sticks to another due to large
welded with water. force of adhesion between the paper and gum
molecules.
(iii) It is difficult to break a drop of mercury into
(iii) Water wets the glass surface due to force of
small droplets because of large cohesive force
adhesion.
between the mercury molecules.

Note :  Cohesive or adhesive forces are inversely proportional to the eighth power of distance between the
molecules.
Surface Tension.
The property of a liquid due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface area and behaves as if
it were under tension some what like a stretched elastic membrane is called
surface tension. A small liquid drop has spherical shape, as due to surface tension Imaginary line
the liquid surface tries to have minimum surface area and for a given volume, the
sphere has minimum surface area.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per unit length on either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid, the direction of this force being perpendicular
to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid. So if F is the force acting on one side of imaginary line
of length L, then T = (F/L)
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or length of line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) Dimension : [MT – 2]. (Similar to force constant)
(4) Units : N/m (S.I.) and Dyne/cm [C.G.S.]
(5) It is a molecular phenomenon and its root cause is the electromagnetic forces.

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Force Due to Surface Tension.
If a body of weight W is placed on the liquid surface, whose surface tension is T. If F is the minimum force
required to pull it away from the water then value of F for different bodies can be calculated by the
following table.
Body Figure Force

F
Needle
(Length = l )
T T
F = 2l T + W
F
=
T
F
×
2l
Hollow disc
(Inner radius = r1 F = 2 (r1 + r2)T + W
Outer radius = r2)

Thin ring F = 2 (r + r)T + W

(Radius = r) F = 4rT + W

Circular plate or disc

F = 2rT + W
(Radius = r)

Square frame
F = 8l T + W
(Side = l )

Square plate
F = 4l T + W

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Examples of Surface Tension.

(1) When mercury is split on a clean glass plate, it (2) When a greased iron needle is placed gently on
forms globules. Tiny globules are spherical on the the surface of water at rest, so that it does not prick
account of surface tension because force of gravity the water surface, the needle floats on the surface
is negligible. The bigger globules get flattened from of T T
the middle but have round shape near the edges,
figure
mg

water despite it being heavier because the weight

of needle is balanced by the vertical components of
the forces of surface tension. If the water surface is
pricked by one end of the needle, the needle sinks
down.

(3) When a molten metal is poured into water from (4) Take a frame of wire and dip it in soap solution
a suitable height, the falling stream of metal breaks and take it out, a soap film will be formed in the
up and the detached portion of the liquid in small frame. Place a loop of wet thread gently on the film.
It will remain in the form, we place it on the film
quantity acquire the spherical shape.
according to
Molten metal figure. Now, piercing the film
with a pin at any point inside
Water the loop, It immediately takes
Thread
the circular form as shown in
loop
figure.

(5) Hair of shaving brush/painting brush when (6) If a small irregular piece of camphor is floated on
dipped in water spread out, but as soon as it is the surface of pure water, it does not remain steady
taken out, its hair stick together. but dances about on the surface. This is because,
irregular shaped camphor dissolves unequally and
decreases the surface tension of the water locally.
The unbalanced forces make it move haphazardly in
different directions.

(7) Rain drops are spherical in shape because each (8) Oil drop spreads on cold water. Whereas it may
drop tends to acquire minimum surface area due to remain as a drop on hot water. This is due to the
surface tension, and for a given volume, the surface fact that the surface tension of oil is less than that
area of sphere is minimum. of cold water and is more than that of hot water.

Factors Affecting Surface Tension.

(1) Temperature : The surface tension of liquid decreases with rise of temperature. The surface tension of
liquid is zero at its boiling point and it vanishes at critical temperature. At critical temperature,
intermolecular forces for liquid and gases becomes equal and liquid can expand without any restriction. For
small temperature differences, the variation in surface tension with temperature is linear and is given by
the relation
Tt  T0 (1   t)

where Tt , T0 are the surface tensions at t o C and 0 o C respectively and  is the temperature coefficient of
surface tension.
Examples : (i) Hot soup tastes better than the cold soup.

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(ii) Machinery parts get jammed in winter.
(2) Impurities : The presence of impurities either on the liquid surface or dissolved in it, considerably affect
the force of surface tension, depending upon the degree of contamination. A highly soluble substance like
sodium chloride when dissolved in water, increases the surface tension of water. But the sparingly soluble
substances like phenol when dissolved in water, decreases the surface tension of water.

Applications of Surface Tension.

(1) The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water. On the other hand, when
detergents (like soap) are added in water, the surface tension of water decreases. As a result of this,
wetting power of soap solution increases. Also the force of adhesion between soap solution and oil or
grease on the clothes increases. Thus, oil, grease and dirt particles get mixed with soap solution easily.
Hence clothes are washed easily.
(2) The antiseptics have very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension prevents the
formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due to low surface tension,
the antiseptics spreads properly over wound.
(3) Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large area.
(4) Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the surface tension of cold
water.
(5) A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.
(6) In soldering, addition of ‘flux’ reduces the surface tension of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
Molecular Theory of Surface Tension.
The maximum distance upto which the force of attraction between two molecules is appreciable is called
molecular range ( 10 9 m) . A sphere with a molecule as centre and radius equal to molecular range is
called the sphere of influence. The liquid enclosed between free surface (PQ) of the liquid and an imaginary
plane (RS) at a distance r (equal to molecular range) from the free surface of the liquid form a liquid film.
To understand the tension acting on the free surface of a liquid, let us consider four liquid molecules like A,
B, C and D. Their sphere of influence are shown in the figure.
(1) Molecule A is well within the liquid, so it is attracted equally in all directions. Hence the net force on this
molecule is zero and it moves freely inside the liquid. D
C B
P Q
R S

(2) Molecule B is little below the free surface of the liquid and it is also attracted equally in all directions.
Hence the resultant force on it is also zero.
(3) Molecule C is just below the upper surface of the liquid film and the part of its sphere of influence is
outside the free liquid surface. So the number of molecules in the upper half (attracting the molecules
upward) is less than the number of molecule in the lower half (attracting the molecule downward). Thus
the molecule C experiences a net downward force.
(4) Molecule D is just on the free surface of the liquid. The upper half of the sphere of influence has no
liquid molecule. Hence the molecule D experiences a maximum downward force.
Thus all molecules lying in surface film experiences a net downward force. Therefore, free surface of the
liquid behaves like a stretched membrane.
Sample problems based on Surface tension
Problem 1. A wooden stick 2m long is floating on the surface of water. The surface tension of water 0.07
N/m. By putting soap solution on one side of the sticks the surface tension is reduced to 0.06
N/m. The net force on the stick will be
(a) 0.07 N (b) 0.06 N (c) 0.01 N (d) 0.02 N
Solution : (d) Force on one side of the stick F1  T1  L  0.07  2  0.14 N

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 Hydrostatics
and force on other side of the stick F2  T2  L  0.06  2  0.12N
So net force on the stick  F1  F2  0.14  0.12  0.02 N
Problem 2. A thin metal disc of radius r floats on water surface and bends the surface downwards along
the perimeter making an angle  with vertical edge of disc. If the disc displaces a weight of
water W and surface tension of water is T, then the weight of metal disc is
(a) 2 rT + W (b) 2 rT cos – W (c) 2 rT cos + W (d) W – 2 rT cos
T
Solution : (c) Weight of metal disc = total upward force 
T 
= upthrust force + force due to surface tension
= weight of displaced water + T cos  (2 r)
= W + 2 rT cos 
Problem 3. A 10 cm long wire is placed horizontally on the surface of water and is gently pulled up with a
force of 2  102 N to keep the wire in equilibrium. The surface tension in Nm–1 of water is
(a) 0.1 N/m (b) 0.2 N/m (c) 0.001 N/m (d) 0.002 N/m
Solution : (a) Force on wire due to surface tension F  T  2l
F 2  10 2
T    0.1 N /m
2l 2  10  10  2
Problem 4. There is a horizontal film of soap solution. On it a thread is placed in the form of a loop. The
film is pierced inside the loop and the thread becomes a circular loop of radius R. If the
surface tension of the loop be T, then what will be the tension in the thread
(a) R 2 / T (b) R 2T (c) 2RT (d) 2RT
2 × T × l
Solution : (d) Suppose tension in thread is F, then for small part l of thread F cos /2 F cos /2

l  R and 2F sin / 2  2Tl  2TR  /2 l  /2

F
 /2 /2 F
TR TR
F    2TR (sin  / 2   / 2) F sin/2 F sin/2
sin  / 2  / 2

Problem 5. A liquid is filled into a tube with semi-elliptical cross-section as shown in the figure. The ratio
of the surface tension forces on the curved part and the plane part of the tube in vertical
position will be
 ( a  b) 2a b
(a) (b) a
4b b
 (a+b)
a  (a  b) 2b a 2
(c) (d)
4b 4b
 (a  b)
Solution : (a) From the figure Curved part = semi perimeter 
2
 (a  b)
and the plane part = minor axis = 2b Force on curved part = T 
2
 (a  b)
and force on plane part = T  2b  Ratio 
4b
Problem 6. A liquid film is formed over a frame ABCD as shown in figure. Wire CD can slide without
friction. The mass to be hung from CD to keep it in equilibrium is A B
Tl 2Tl Liquid
(a) (b)
g g D C
film

g l
(c) (d) T  l
2Tl
Solution : (b) Weight of the body hung from wire (mg) = upward force due to surface tension (2Tl ) 
2Tl
m
g

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 Hydrostatics
Surface Energy.
The molecules on the liquid surface experience net downward force. So to bring a molecule from the
interior of the liquid to the free surface, some work is required to be done against the intermolecular force
of attraction, which will be stored as potential energy of the molecule on the surface. The potential energy
of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface energy.
Unit : Joule/m2 (S.I.) erg/cm2 (C.G.S.)
Dimension : [MT–2]
If a rectangular wire frame ABCD, equipped with a sliding wire LM dipped in soap solution, a film is formed
over the frame. Due to the surface tension, the film will have a tendency to shrink and thereby, the sliding
wire LM will be pulled in inward direction. However, the sliding wire can be
C L L' D
held in this position under a force F, which is equal and opposite to the force
acting on the sliding wire LM all along its length due to surface tension in the F
l T × 2l
soap film.
If T is the force due to surface tension per unit length, then F = T  2l
Here, l is length of the sliding wire LM. The length of the sliding wire has been B M M' A
x
taken as 2l for the reason that the film has got two free surfaces.
Suppose that the sliding wire LM is moved through a small distance x, so as to take the position L' M ' . In
this process, area of the film increases by 2l  x (on the two sides) and to do so, the work done is given by
W = F  x = (T  2l)  x = T  (2lx) = T  A
 W = T  A [A = Total increase in area of the film from both the sides]
If temperature of the film remains constant in this process, this work done is stored in the film as its surface
energy.
W
From the above expression T  or T = W [If A = 1]
A
i.e. surface tension may be defined as the amount of work done in increasing the area of the liquid surface
by unity against the force of surface tension at constant temperature.
Work Done in Blowing a Liquid Drop or Soap Bubble.
(1) If the initial radius of liquid drop is r1 and final radius of liquid drop is r2 then
W = T  Increment in surface area
W = T  4 [r22  r12 ] [drop has only one free surface]
(2) In case of soap bubble
W = T  8 [r22  r12 ] [Bubble has two free surfaces]
Splitting of Bigger Drop.
When a drop of radius R splits into n smaller drops, (each of radius r) then surface area of liquid increases.
Hence the work is to be done against surface tension.
4 3 4
Since the volume of liquid remains constant therefore R  n r 3  R 3  nr 3
3 3
Work done = T  A = T [Total final surface area of n drops – surface area of big drop] = T[n4r 2  4R 2 ]

Various formulae of work done

2 2
4T[nr  R ] 4R2T[n1 / 3  1] 4Tr 2n2 / 3[n1 / 3  1] 1 1  R
4TR3   
r R

If the work is not done by an external source then internal energy of liquid decreases, subsequently
temperature decreases. This is the reason why spraying causes cooling.
By conservation of energy, Loss in thermal energy = work done against surface tension
JQ = W
1 1 
 JmS  4TR 3   
r R
4 1 1  4
 J R 3 d S  4R 3 T    [As m = V  d =  R3  d ]
3 r R 3
3T 1 1 
 Decrease in temperature   
JSd  r R 
where J = mechanical equivalent of heat, S = specific heat of liquid, d = density of liquid.

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 Hydrostatics
Formation of Bigger Drop.
If n small drops of radius r coalesce to form a big drop of radius R then surface area of the liquid decreases.
Amount of surface energy released = Initial surface energy – final surface energy
E  n4r 2 T  4R 2 T

Various formulae of released energy

4T[nr 2  R2] 4R2T(n1 / 3  1) 4Tr 2n2 / 3(n1 / 3  1) 1 1 
4TR3   
r R

(i) If this released energy is absorbed by a big drop, its temperature increases and rise in temperature can
3T 1 1 
be given by   
JSd  r R 
(ii) If this released energy is converted into kinetic energy of a big drop without dissipation then by the law
of conservation of energy.
1 1 1  1 4 3  2 1 1  6T 1 1 
mv 2  4R 3 T      R d v  4R 3 T     v2  
2 r R 2 3  r R d  r R 
6T  1 1 
 v   
d r R
Sample problems based on Surface energy
Problem 7. Two small drops of mercury, each of radius R, coalesce to form a single large drop. The ratio
of the total surface energies before and after the change is
(a) 1 : 21 / 3 (b) 21 / 3 : 1 (c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
r2
Solution : (b) As R  n1 / 3r  21 / 3 r  R 2  22 / 3 r 2  2
 2 2 / 3
R
Initial surface energy 2(4 r 2T)  r2 
  2   2  22 / 3 = 21/3
Final surface energy 2
(4R T)  2 
R 

Problem 8. Radius of a soap bubble is increased from R to 2R work done in this process in terms of surface
tension is
(a) 24R 2 S (b) 48R 2 S (c) 12R 2 S (d) 36R 2 S
Solution : (a)  
W  8T R22  R12  8S[(2R)2  (R)2 ]  24R 2 S

Problem 9. The work done in blowing a soap bubble of 10cm radius is (surface tension of the soap
3
solution is N /m )
100
(a) 75.36  10 4 J (b) 37.68  10 4 J (c) 150.72  10 4 J (d) 75.36 J
3
Solution : (a) W  8R 2 T  8 (10  10  2 ) 2  75.36  10  4 J
100
Problem 10. A drop of mercury of radius 2mm is split into 8 identical droplets. Find the increase in surface
energy. (Surface tension of mercury is 0.465 J/m2)
(a) 23.4J (b) 18.5J (c) 26.8J (d) 16.8J
Solution : (a) Increase in surface energy
 4R 2 T(n1 / 3  1)  4 (2  10 3 )2 (0.465)(8 1 / 3  1) = 23.4  10 6 J = 23.4 J

Problem 11. The work done in increasing the size of a soap film from 10cm  6cm to 10cm  11cm is
3  104 J . The surface tension of the film is

(a) 1.5  102 Nm1 (b) 3.0  10 2 Nm 1 (c) 6.0  10 2 Nm 1 (d) 11.0  102 Nm1
Solution : (b) A1  10  6  60cm 2  60  104 m2 , A2  10  11  110cm 2  110  10 4 m 2

As the soap film has two free surfaces W  T  2 A

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 Hydrostatics
W 3  104
 W  T  2  ( A2  A1)  T 4
 4
 3  10 2 N/m
2  50  10 2  50  10
Problem 12. A film of water is formed between two straight parallel wires of length 10cm each separated
by 0.5cm. If their separation is increased by 1 mm while still maintaining their parallelism,
how much work will have to be done (Surface tension of water  7.2  102 N / m )
(a) 7.22  10 6 J (b) 1.44  105 J (c) 2.88  105 J (d) 5.76  105 J
Solution : (b) As film have two free surfaces W  T  2A
W  T  2l  x l F

 7.2  10 2  2  0.1  1  10 3

 1.44  105 J
x

Problem 13. If the work done in blowing a bubble of volume V is W, then the work done in blowing the
bubble of volume 2V from the same soap solution will be
3 3
(a) W/2 (b) 2W (c) 2W (d) 4W
1/ 3 2/ 3
4 3   3 
Solution : (d) As volume of the bubble V  R 3  R    V1/ 3  R2    V 2/ 3  R2  V 2/ 3
3  
4  4 

Work done in blowing a soap bubble W  8R 2 T  W  R 2  V 2 / 3

2/ 3 2/ 3
W2  V2   2V 
      (2) 2 / 3  (4)1 / 3  W2  3 4 W
W1  V1   V 
Problem 14. Several spherical drops of a liquid of radius r coalesce to form a single drop of radius R. If T is
surface tension and V is volume under consideration, then the release of energy is
1 1 1 1  1 1  1 1 
(a) 3VT   (b) 3VT   (c) VT   (d) VT 2
 
r R r R r R r R2 
1 1 4 1 1 1 1
Solution : (b) Energy released = 4TR 3     3 R 3 T     3VT   
r R 3  r R r R

Excess Pressure.
Due to the property of surface tension a drop or bubble tries to contract and so compresses the matter
enclosed. This in turn increases the internal pressure which prevents further contraction and equilibrium is
achieved. So in equilibrium the pressure inside a bubble or drop is greater than outside and the difference
of pressure between two sides of the liquid surface is called excess pressure. In case of a drop excess
pressure is provided by hydrostatic pressure of the liquid within the drop while in case of bubble the gauge
pressure of the gas confined in the bubble provides it.
Excess pressure in different cases is given in the following table :

Plane surface Concave surface

P=0 P

P = 0 2T
P 
R

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 Hydrostatics
Convex surface Drop

2T 2T
P  P 
P
R P R

Bubble in air Bubble in liquid

4T 2T
P  P P 
P R R

Bubble at depth h below the free surface of liquid of Cylindrical liquid surface
density d

R
T
h P 
2T R
P P   hdg
R

Liquid surface of unequal radii Liquid film of unequal radii

 1 1  P  1 1 
P P  T    P  2T   
 R1 R 2   R1 R 2 

Note :  Excess pressure is inversely proportional to the radius of bubble (or drop), i.e., pressure
inside a smaller bubble (or drop) is higher than inside a larger bubble (or drop).

This is why when two bubbles of different sizes are put in communication with each other,
the air will rush from smaller to larger bubble, so that the smaller will shrink while the larger
will expand till the smaller bubble reduces to droplet.
Sample problems based on Excess pressure
Problem 15. The pressure inside a small air bubble of radius 0.1mm situated just below the surface of
water will be equal to (Take surface tension of water 70  103 Nm1 and atmospheric
pressure  1.013  10 5 Nm  2 )
(a) 2.054 103 Pa (b) 1.027  10 3 Pa (c) 1.027  105 Pa (d) 2.054  105 Pa
Solution : (c) Pressure inside a bubble when it is in a liquid
2T 70  10 3
 Po   1.013  10 5  2   3
 1.027  105 Pa.
R 0.1  10
Problem 16. If the radius of a soap bubble is four times that of another, then the ratio of their excess
pressures will be
(a) 1 : 4 (b) 4 : 1 (c) 16 : 1 (d) 1 : 16

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 Hydrostatics
4T P r
Solution : (a) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble P   1  2 1: 4
r P2 r1

Problem 17. Pressure inside two soap bubbles are 1.01 and 1.02 atmospheres. Ratio between their
volumes is
(a) 102 : 101 (b) (102)3 : (101)3 (c) 8 : 1 (d) 2 : 1
Solution : (c) Excess pressure P  Pin  Pout  1.01atm  1atm  0.01atm and similarly P2  0.02atm
4 1 1
and volume of air bubble V  r 3 V  r 3  3
[as P  or
3 (P ) r
1
r ]
P
3 3 3
V1  P2   0.02   2 8
        
V2  P1   0.01  1 1

Problem 18. The excess pressure inside an air bubble of radius r just below the surface of water is P1. The
excess pressure inside a drop of the same radius just outside the surface is P2. If T is surface
tension then
(a) P1  2P2 (b) P1  P2 (c) P2  2P1 (d) P2  0, P1  0
2T
Solution : (b) Excess pressure inside a bubble just below the surface of water P1 
r
2T
and excess pressure inside a drop P2   P1  P2
r
Shape of Liquid Meniscus.
We know that a liquid assumes the shape of the vessel in which it is contained i.e. it can not oppose
permanently any force that tries to change its shape. As the effect of force is zero in a direction
perpendicular to it, the free surface of liquid at rest adjusts itself at right angles to the resultant force.
When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, the liquid surface becomes curved near the point of contact. This
curved surface is due to the resultant of two forces i.e. the force of cohesion and the force of adhesion. The
curved surface of the liquid is called meniscus of the liquid.
If liquid molecule A is in contact with solid (i.e. wall of capillary tube) then forces acting on molecule A are
(i) Force of adhesion Fa (acts outwards at right angle to the wall of the tube).
(ii) Force of cohesion Fc (acts at an angle 45o to the vertical).
Resultant force FN depends upon the value of Fa and Fc.
If resultant force FN make an angle  with Fa.
Fc sin 135o Fc
Then tan   o

Fa  Fc cos 135 2 Fa  Fc

By knowing the direction of resultant force we can find out the shape of meniscus because the free surface
of the liquid adjust itself at right angle to this resultant force.

If Fc  2Fa Fc  2Fa Fc  2Fa

tan =    = 90o tan  = positive   is acute tan  = negative   is obtuse

i.e. the resultant force acts angle angle
vertically downwards. Hence the i.e. the resultant force directed i.e. the resultant force directed
liquid meniscus must be outside the liquid. Hence the inside the liquid. Hence the liquid
horizontal. liquid meniscus must be concave meniscus must be convex
upward. upward.

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 Hydrostatics
Fa A Fa A Fa A
  
Fc 45° Fc
FN 45° Fc
FN
FN

Example: Pure water in silver Example: Water in glass capillary Example: Mercury in glass capillary
coated capillary tube. tube. tube.

Angle of Contact.
Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the angle enclosed between the tangents to the
liquid surface and the solid surface inside the liquid, both the tangents being drawn at the point of contact
of the liquid with the solid.
 < 90o  = 90o  > 90o
Fc Fc  Fc 
Fa   Fa  Fa 
2 2 2

concave plane meniscus. convex

meniscus. Liquid does not wet the solid meniscus.
Liquid wets the solid surface surface. Liquid does not wet the solid
surface.

Important points
(i) Its value lies between 0o and 180o
  0 o for pure water and glass,   8 o for tap water and glass,   90o for water and silver
  138o for mercury and glass,   160o for water and chromium
(ii) It is particular for a given pair of liquid and solid. Thus the angle of contact changes with the pair of solid
and liquid.
(iii) It does not depends upon the inclination of the solid in the liquid.
(iv) On increasing the temperature, angle of contact decreases.
(v) Soluble impurities increases the angle of contact.
(vi) Partially soluble impurities decreases the angle of contact.

Capillarity.
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the liquid in the capillary
either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called capillarity.
The root cause of capillarity is the difference in pressures on two sides of (concave and convex) curved
surface of liquid.
Examples of capillarity :
(i) Ink rises in the fine pores of blotting paper leaving the paper dry.
(ii) A towel soaks water.
(iii) Oil rises in the long narrow spaces between the threads of a wick.
(iv) Wood swells in rainy season due to rise of moisture from air in the pores.
(v) Ploughing of fields is essential for preserving moisture in the soil.

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 Hydrostatics
(vi) Sand is drier soil than clay. This is because holes between the sand particles are not so fine as compared
to that of clay, to draw up water by capillary action.
Ascent Formula.
When one end of capillary tube of radius r is immersed into a liquid of density d which wets the sides of the
capillary tube (water and capillary tube of glass), the shape of the liquid meniscus in the tube becomes concave
upwards.
A R
 y
R = radius of curvature of liquid meniscus. r
B h 
A(P) C(P)
T = surface tension of liquid
P = atmospheric pressure B D(P) E(P)
(P – 2T/R)
2T
Pressure at point A = P, Pressure at point B = P 
R
Pressure at points C and D just above and below the plane surface of liquid in the vessel is also P
(atmospheric pressure). The points B and D are in the same horizontal plane in the liquid but the pressure
at these points is different.
In order to maintain the equilibrium the liquid level rises in the capillary tube upto height h.
Pressure due to liquid column = pressure difference due to surface tension
2T
 hdg 
R
2T 2T cos  r 
 h   As R  cos 
Rdg rdg  
Important points
(i) The capillary rise depends on the nature of liquid and solid both i.e. on T, d,  and R.
(ii) Capillary action for various liquid-solid pair.

Meniscus Angle of contact Level

Glass
 < 90o Rises
Concave

Water

Silver

Plane  = 90o No rise no fall

Water

Glass

Convex  > 90o Fall

Mercury

(iii) For a given liquid and solid at a given place

1
h [As T, , d and g are constant]
r
i.e. lesser the radius of capillary greater will be the rise and vice-versa. This is called Jurin’s law.
(iv) If the weight of the liquid contained in the meniscus is taken into consideration then more accurate
ascent formula is given by

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 Hydrostatics
2T cos r
h 
rdg 3
(v) In case of capillary of insufficient length, i.e., L < h, the liquid will neither r
r'
overflow from the upper end like a fountain nor will it tickle along the vertical h
L
sides of the tube. The liquid after reaching the upper end will increase the
radius of its meniscus without changing nature such that :
hr = Lr  L < h r'>r

(vi) If a capillary tube is dipped into a liquid and tilted at an angle  from vertical, then the vertical height of
liquid column remains same whereas the length of liquid column (l) in the capillary tube increases.
R
h
h = l cos  or l  h  l h
cos 

Water

(vii) It is important to note that in equilibrium the height h is independent of the shape of capillary if the
radius of meniscus remains the same. That is why the vertical height h of a
liquid column in capillaries of different shapes and sizes will be same if the h
radius of meniscus remains the same.

Sample problems based on Capillarity

Problem 19. Water rises to a height of 10cm in a capillary tube and mercury falls to a depth of 3.5cm in
the same capillary tube. If the density of mercury is 13.6 gm/cc and its angle of contact is
135o and density of water is 1 gm/cc and its angle of contact is 0o , then the ratio of surface
tensions of the two liquids is (cos 135o  0.7)
(a) 1 : 14 (b) 5 : 34 (c) 1 : 5 (d) 5 : 27
2T cos  hW T cos  W d Hg
Solution : (b) h    W [as r and g are constants]
rdg hHg THg cos  Hg dW

10 T cos 0 o 13.6 T 10  0.7 20 5

  W .  W   
3.5 THg cos 135 1 THg 3.5  13.6 136 34

Problem 20. Water rises in a vertical capillary tube upto a height of 2.0 cm. If the tube is inclined at an
angle of 60o with the vertical, then upto what length the water will rise in the tube
4
(a) 2.0 cm (b) 4.0 cm (c) cm (d) 2 2 cm
3
h 2cm
Solution : (b) The height upto which water will rise l    4cm . [h = vertical height,  = angle
cos  cos 60
with vertical]
Problem 21. Two capillary tubes of same diameter are kept vertically one each in two liquids whose
relative densities are 0.8 and 0.6 and surface tensions are 60 and 50 dyne/cm respectively.
h1
Ratio of heights of liquids in the two tubes is
h2

10 3 10 9
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 10 3 10
2T cos 
Solution : (d) h  [If diameter of capillaries are same and taking value of  same for both
rdg
liquids]
h1  T1   d2   60   0.6   36  9
             .
h2  T2   d1   50   0.8   40  10

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 Hydrostatics
Problem 22. A capillary tube of radius R is immersed in water and water rises in it to a height H. Mass of
water in the capillary tube is M. If the radius of the tube is doubled, mass of water that will
rise in the capillary tube will now be
(a) M (b) 2M (c) M/2 (d) 4M
1
Solution : (b) Mass of the liquid in capillary tube M = V = (r2h)  M  r 2h  r [As h  ]
r
So if radius of the tube is doubled, mass of water will becomes 2M, which will rise in capillary
tube.
Problem 23. Water rises to a height h in a capillary at the surface of earth. On the surface of the moon the
height of water column in the same capillary will be
1
(a) 6h (b) h (c) h (d) Zero
6
2T cos  1
Solution : (a) h h  [If other quantities remains constant]
rdg g
hmoon g
 earth = 6  hmoon  6h [As gearth= 6gmoon]
h earth g moon

Problem 24. Water rises upto a height h in a capillary on the surface of earth in stationary condition.
Value of h increases if this tube is taken
(a) On sun (b) On poles
(c) In a lift going upward with acceleration (d) In a lift going downward with acceleration
1
Solution : (d) h  . In a lift going downward with acceleration (a), the effective acceleration decreases. So
g
h increases.
Problem 25. If the surface tension of water is 0.06 N/m, then the capillary rise in a tube of diameter 1mm
is (  0o )
(a) 1.22 cm (b) 2.44 cm (c) 3.12 cm (d) 3.86 cm
2T cos  1
Solution : (b) h  , [ =0, r  mm  0.5  10 3 m , T  0.06N / m , d = 10 3 kg / m3 , g = 9.8 m/s2 ]
rdg 2
2  0.06  cos 
h  0.0244m  2.44cm
0.5  10  3  10 3  9.8
Problem 26. Two capillaries made of same material but of different radii are dipped in a liquid. The rise of
liquid in one capillary is 2.2cm and that in the other is 6.6cm. The ratio of their radii is
(a) 9 : 1 (b) 1 : 9 (c) 3 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
1 h1 r2 r h 6.6 3
Solution : (c) As h    or 1  2  
r h2 r1 r2 h1 2.2 1

Problem 27. The lower end of a capillary tube is at a depth of 12cm and the water rises 3cm in it. The
mouth pressure required to blow an air bubble at the lower end will be X cm of water
column where X is
(a) 3 (b) 9 (c) 12 (d) 15
Solution : (d) The lower end of capillary tube is at a depth of 12 + 3 = 15 cm from the free surface of water
in capillary tube.
So, the pressure required = 15 cm of water column.
Problem 28. The lower end of a capillary tube of radius r is placed vertically in water. Then with the rise of
water in the capillary, heat evolved is
 2r 2h2 r 2h2dg r 2h2dg r 2h2dg
(a)  dg (b)  (c)  (d) 
J 2J 2J J
Solution : (b) When the tube is placed vertically in water, water rises through height h given by
2T cos 
h
rdg

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 Hydrostatics
Upward force  2r  T cos
Work done by this force in raising water column through height h is given by
 rhdg  2 2
W  (2rT cos  )h  (2rh cos  )T  (2rh cos  )    r h dg
 2 cos  
h
However, the increase in potential energy E p of the raised water column  mg
2
where m is the mass of the raised column of water m  r 2 hd
hg  r 2 h 2 dg
So, E P  (r 2 hd) 
 2  2

r 2 h 2 dg
Further, W  E p 
2
The part (W  E P ) is used in doing work against viscous forces and frictional forces
between water and glass surface and appears as heat. So heat released
W  E p 2 2
r h dg
= 
J 2J
Problem 29. Water rises in a capillary tube to a certain height such that the upward force due to surface
tension is balanced by 75  104 N force due to the weight of the liquid. If the surface tension
of water is 6  102 N / m , the inner circumference of the capillary must be
(a) 1.25  102 m (b) 0.50  102 m (c) 6.5  102 m (d) 12.5  102 m
Solution : (d) Weight of liquid = upward force due to surface tension
75  104  2rT
75  104 75  104
Circumference 2r   2
 0.125 = 12.5  102 m
T 6  10
Shape of Drops.
Whether the liquid will be in equilibrium in the form of a drop or it will spread out; depends on the relative
strength of the force due to surface tension at the three interfaces. TLA Air
TLA = surface tension at liquid-air interface, TSA = surface tension at solid-air interface. Liquid TSA

TSL = surface tension at solid-liquid interface,  = angle of contact between the liquid Solid TSL O

and solid.
For the equilibrium of molecule
TSA  TSL Air
TSL + TLA cos = TSA or cos  …..(i)
TLA TSL

TLA
Solid O TSA

Special Cases

TSA > TSL, cos is positive i.e. 0 o    90o .

This condition is fulfilled when the molecules of liquid are strongly attracted to that of solid.
Example : (i) Water on glass.
(ii) Kerosene oil on any surface.
TSA < TSL, cos is negative i.e. 90o    180o .
This condition is fulfilled when the molecules of the liquid are strongly attracted to themselves and
relatively weakly to that of solid.
Example : (i) Mercury on glass surface.
(ii) Water on lotus leaf (or a waxy or oily surface)

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 Hydrostatics
(TSL + TLA cos) > TSA
In this condition, the molecule of liquid will not be in equilibrium and experience a net force at the
interface. As a result, the liquid spreads.
Example : (i) Water on a clean glass plate.

Useful Facts and Formulae.

(1) Formation of double bubble : If r1 and r2 are the radii of smaller and larger bubble and P0 is the
4T 4T
atmospheric pressure, then the pressure inside them will be P1  P0  and P2  P0  .
r1 r2
Now as r1  r2  P1  P2 P
r1
r
r2 P1
1 1 
So for interface P  P1  P2  4T    …..(i) P2
 r1 r2 
As excess pressure acts from concave to convex side, the interface will be concave towards the smaller
bubble and convex towards larger bubble and if r is the radius of interface.
4T
P  …..(ii)
r
1 1 1
From (i) and (ii)  
r r1 r2
r1r2
 Radius of the interface r 
r2  r1
(2) Formation of a single bubble
(i) Under isothermal condition two soap bubble of radii ‘a’ and ‘b’ coalesce to form a single bubble of
radius ‘c’.
If the external pressure is P0 then pressure inside bubbles
 4T   4T   4T  a
Pa   P0   , Pb   P0   and Pc   P0  
 a   b   c  c

and volume of the bubbles b

4 3 4 4
Va  a , Vb  b 3 , Vc  c 3
3 3 3
Pa Va Pb Vb Pc Vc  PV 
Now as mass is conserved  a   b   c     As PV  RT, i.e.,   RT 
RTa RTb RTc  
 Pa Va  Pb Vb  Pc Vc …..(i) [As temperature is constant, i.e., Ta  Tb  Tc ]
Substituting the value of pressure and volume
 4T   4 3   4T   4 3   4T   4 3 
  P0  a   3 a    P0  b   3 b    P0  c   3 c 
        
 4T(a 2  b 2  c 2 )  P0 (c 3  a 3  b 3 )
P0 (c 3  a 3  b 3 )
 Surface tension of the liquid T 
4(a 2  b 2  c 2 )
(ii) If two bubble coalesce in vacuum then by substituting P0  0 in the above expression we get
a2  b2  c 2  0  c 2  a2  b2
Radius of new bubble  c  a 2  b 2 or can be expressed as r  r12  r22 .
(3) The difference of levels of liquid column in two limbs of u-tube of unequal
radii r1 and r2 is h
2T cos 1 1  h1
h  h1  h2     h2
dg  r1 r2 
(4) A large force (F) is required to draw apart normally two glass plate enclosing a

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thin water film because the thin water film formed between the two glass plates will have concave surface
all around. Since on the concave side of a liquid surface, pressure is more, work will have to be done in
drawing the plates apart.
2 AT
F where T= surface tension of water film, t= thickness of film, A = area of film.
t
(5) When a soap bubble is charged, then its size increases due to outward force on the bubble.
(6) The materials, which when coated on a surface and water does not enter through that surface are
known as water proofing agents. For example wax etc. Water proofing agent increases the angle of contact.
(7) Values of surface tension of some liquids.

Liquid Surface tension Newton/metre

Mercury 0.465
Water 0.075
Soap solution 0.030
Glycerine 0.063
Carbon tetrachloride 0.027
Ethyl alcohol 0.022

Sample problems (Miscellaneous)

Problem 30. The radii of two soap bubbles are r1 and r2. In isothermal conditions, two meet together in
vacuum. Then the radius of the resultant bubble is given by
(a) R  (r1  r2 ) / 2 (b) R  r1(r1r2  r2 ) (c) R 2  r12  r22 (d) R  r1  r2
Solution : (c) Under isothermal condition surface energy remain constant  8r12 T  8r22 T  8R 2 T 
R 2  r12  r22

Problem 31. Two soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 equal to 4cm and 5cm are touching each other over a
common surface S1S2 (shown in figure). Its radius will be
(a) 4 cm S1

(b) 20 cm 4 cm 5 cm

(c) 5 cm
S2
(d) 4.5 cm
r2 r1 54
Solution : (b) Radius of curvature of common surface of double bubble r    20cm
r2  r1 54

Problem 32. An air bubble in a water tank rises from the bottom to the top. Which of the following
statements are true
(a) Bubble rises upwards because pressure at the bottom is less than that at the top
(b) Bubble rises upwards because pressure at the bottom is greater than that at the top
(c) As the bubble rises, its size increases
(d) As the bubble rises, its size decreases
Solution : (b, c)
Problem 33. The radii of two soap bubbles are R1 and R2 respectively. The ratio of masses of air in them
will be

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 4T   4T 
P  3 P  3
R13 R23 R1  R1 R2  R2
(a) (b) (c)   R3
(d)   R3
R23 R13 4T 4T
P  2 P  1
 R2   R1 

Solution : (c) From PV=RT. At a given temperature, the ratio masses of air
 4T  4  4T 
 P   R 3  P  
1 P1 V1  R1  3 1  R1  R13
   .
 2 P2 V2  4T  4 3  4 T  R 23
 P   R 2  P  
 R 2  3  R 2 

Problem 34. On dipping one end of a capillary in liquid and inclining the capillary at an angles 30o and
60o with the vertical, the lengths of liquid columns in it are found to be l1 and l 2
respectively. The ratio of l1 and l 2 is
(a) 1 : 3 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 2 :1 (d) 3 :1

h h l1 cos  2 cos 60 o 1/ 2
Solution : (a) l1  and l 2      = 1: 3
cos  1 cos  2 l 2 cos  1 cos 30 o 3/2

Problem 35. A drop of water of volume V is pressed between the two glass plates so as to spread to an
area A. If T is the surface tension, the normal force required to separate the glass plates is
TA 2 2TA2 4 TA 2 TA 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
V V V 2V

2 AT A 2TA 2 2TA 2
Solution : (b) Force required to separate the glass plates F     .
t A ( A  t) V

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