Machine Condition Monitoring

and
Fault Diagnostics

Chris K Mechefske

September 4, 2008 Page 1

 Course Overview

• Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring

and Condition Based Maintenance
• Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
• Vibration Transducers
• Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
• Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
• Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)

September 4, 2008 Page 2

 Course Overview

• Machinery Vibration Trouble Shooting

• Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine
Components
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine Type
• Automatic Diagnostic Techniques
• Non-Vibration Based Machine Condition Monitoring
and Fault Diagnosis Methods

September 4, 2008 Page 3

 Current Topic

• Machinery Vibration Trouble Shooting

• Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine
Components
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine Type
• Automatic Diagnostic Techniques
• Non-Vibration Based Machine Condition Monitoring
and Fault Diagnosis Methods

September 4, 2008 Page 4

 Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions

Unbalance Misalignment
Mechanical Looseness Soft Foot
Rubs Resonances
Oil Whirl Oil Whip
Structural Vibrations Foundation Problems
Hydraulic Forces Aerodynamic Forces

September 4, 2008 Page 5

 Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
Forcing frequencies associated with machines
Source Frequency (multiple of RPM)
Fault Induced
mass unbalance 1x (frequency in once per revolution)
Misalignment 1x, 2x
bent shaft 1x
mechanical looseness odd orders of x
casing and foundation distortion 1x
antifriction bearing bearing frequencies, not integer ones
impact mechanisms multi-frequency depending on waveform
Design Induced
universal joints 2x
asymmetric shaft 2x
gear mesh (n teeth) nx
coupling (m jaws) mx
fluid-film bearings (oil whirl) 0.43x to 0.47x
blades and vanes (m) mx
reciprocating machines half &full multiples of speed, depending on design

September 4, 2008 Page 6

 Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
UNBALANCE
• linear problem
• periodic time signal
• 360° cycle
• strong radial vibration at fundamental
frequency (1 × rotational speed, 1X)
• if rotor is overhung - radial & axial vibration
• response amplitude proportional to rotational
speed squared
September 4, 2008 Page 7
 Unbalance

Results in:
• excessive bearing wear (gears, bushings, etc.)
• fatigue in support structures
• decreased product quality
• power losses
• disturbed adjacent machinery

September 4, 2008 Page 8

 Unbalance

Causes of unbalance:
• excess of mass on one side of rotor
• centrifugal force pulls rotor toward heavy side
• low tolerances in fabrication (casting,
machining, assembly)
• variation within materials - voids, porosity,
inclusions, variable density, finishes, etc.
• non symmetry of design - motor windings, part
shapes, locations

September 4, 2008 Page 9

 Causes of Unbalance
• non symmetry in use - distortion, size changes,
shifting parts due to stress, aerodynamic forces,
temperature changes, etc
• manufacturing processes are a major cause of
unbalance
• cost plays a role - perfect balance is always possible
but at a cost
• unbalance can be corrected by adding or removing
weight from rotor at the appropriate location
• pros and cons to both practices
• consider unbalance problems last
September 4, 2008 Page 10
 Causes of Unbalance

Note: some machinery is designed to operate “out-

of-balance” – shakers, sieves, materials
transport….

September 4, 2008 Page 11

 Unbalance

Unbalance Correction Methods

Addition of mass:
• up to 20:1 vibration amplitude reduction on first
try (if done carefully)
• if space limitations exist more than one addition
of mass may be required

September 4, 2008 Page 12

 Unbalance Correction Methods

Addition of mass
a) addition of solder or epoxy
- centre of gravity difficult to control
- takes time
b) addition of standard washers
- bolted or riveted
- incremental sizes
- quick

September 4, 2008 Page 13

 Unbalance Correction Methods

Addition of mass
c) addition of pre-manufactured weights
- incremental sizes
- quick
d) addition of cut to size masses
- welded in place

September 4, 2008 Page 14

 Unbalance Correction Methods

Removal of mass - 10:1 vibration reduction first try

a) - drilling
- very accurate, quick
b) milling
- used for large corrections, accurate
c) grinding
- trial & error method
- accurate removal of mass difficult

September 4, 2008 Page 15

 Unbalance Correction Methods

Mass centering
• rotor principal axis of inertia found
• journal & shaft machined to match this axis
• very expensive

September 4, 2008 Page 16

 Unbalance

Units of Unbalance
• gram - inches, gram - millimetres
• 100 g - in (10 g × 10 inches, 20g × 5 inches)
• rigid shafts may be balanced at any speed
(theoretically)

September 4, 2008 Page 17

 Types of Unbalance

Static Unbalance (force unbalance)

• principal axis of inertia is displaced parallel to
the shaft axis
• found mostly in narrow, disc-shaped parts (fly
wheels, turbine wheels)
• single mass correction placed opposite the
centre-of-gravity in a plane ⊥ to shaft axis and
intersecting the centre-of-gravity
• knife edge balancing possible

September 4, 2008 Page 18

 Static Unbalance

Concentric disc with Static Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 19
 Static Unbalance

Eccentric disc - Static Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 20
 Static Unbalance

Two discs of Equal Mass and Identical Static Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 21
 Static Unbalance

Static Unbalance vibrations will be in-phase and steady.

Amplitude will increase as the square of the speed of rotation.
(3X speed increase = 9X higher vibration)
1X RPM vibration is always present and dominates spectrum.

September 4, 2008 Page 22

 Couple Unbalance

Couple Unbalance (moment unbalance)

• principal axis of inertia intersects the shaft axis
at the centre of gravity
• two equal unbalances at opposite ends of shaft
and 180° apart
• dynamic balancing methods needed

September 4, 2008 Page 23

 Couple Unbalance

Couple Unbalance in a Solid Rotor

September 4, 2008 Page 24
 Couple Unbalance

Couple Unbalance in two Discs of Equal Mass

September 4, 2008 Page 25
 Couple Unbalance

Couple Unbalance vibrations will be 180o out-of-phase.

1X RPM vibration is always present and dominates spectrum.
Amplitude will increase as the square of the speed of rotation.
May be high axial vibrations as well as radial.

September 4, 2008 Page 26

 Couple Unbalance

Couple Unbalance in an Outboard Rotor Component

September 4, 2008 Page 27
 Couple Unbalance

Overhung Rotor Unbalance vibrations are at 1X RPM and in

axial and radial directions.
Axial vibrations tend to be in-phase while radial vibrations may
have unsteady phase readings.
Overhung rotors usually have a combination of static and
couple unbalance.
September 4, 2008 Page 28
 Types of Unbalance

Quasi-Static Unbalance
• principal axis of inertia intersects the shaft axis
at a point other than the centre of gravity
• combination of static & couple unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 29

 Quasi-Static Unbalance

Quasi-Static Unbalance
September 4, 2008 Page 30
 Quasi-Static Unbalance

Couple Plus Static Unbalance – Quasi-Static Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 31
 Quasi-Static Unbalance

Rotor Assembly with Unbalance in Coupling

– Quasi-Static Unbalance
September 4, 2008 Page 32
 Types of Unbalance

Dynamic Unbalance
• principal axis of inertia is neither parallel to, nor
intersects the shaft axis.
• most common type of unbalance
• corrected in at least two planes ⊥ to the shaft
axis

September 4, 2008 Page 33

 Dynamic Unbalance

Dynamic Unbalance
September 4, 2008 Page 34
 Dynamic Unbalance

Couple Plus Static Unbalance – Dynamic Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 35
 Unbalance

Rotor Motions
a) in phase - static unbalance
- all points vibrate in the same direction at the
same time
b) out of phase - couple unbalance
- points at opposite ends vibrate in opposite
directions

September 4, 2008 Page 36

 Unbalance

Effect of Unbalance on Free Rotor Motion

September 4, 2008 Page 37
 Unbalance

Rotor Motions
c) quasi - static unbalance (static & couple)
- apex of vibration is moved away from centre
of gravity
d) dynamic unbalance - complex

September 4, 2008 Page 38

 Unbalance

Effects of Rotational Speed

• at low speeds
high spot (maximum displacement of shaft) at
same location as unbalance
• at increased speeds
the high spot will lag behind the unbalance
location

September 4, 2008 Page 39

 Effects of Rotational Speed on Unbalance

• at first critical speed (first resonance)

lag reaches 90°
• at 2nd critical and above
lag reaches 180°
• constant amplitude vibration about principal axis
of inertia

September 4, 2008 Page 40

 Effects of Rotational Speed on Unbalance

Angle of Lag
and migration
of Axis of
Rotation

September 4, 2008 Page 41

 Diagnosing Unbalance

• Vibration frequency equals

rotor speed. 900
• Vibration predominantly
RADIAL in direction.
• Stable vibration phase 900
measurement.
• Vibration increases as square
of speed.
• Vibration phase shifts in direct
proportion to measurement
direction.

September 4, 2008 Page 42

 Unbalance

Correlating Center of Gravity Displacement with

Unbalance
• important relationship when correcting for
unbalance, setting balancing procedures, and
tolerance selection.
• disc shaped rotor - simple
• long rotors - need to make assumptions

September 4, 2008 Page 43

 Unbalance

Disc Shaped Rotor Example:

• Weight of disc = 999 oz.
• Unbalance mass added = 1 oz.
• Total weight, W = 1000 oz.
• Weight added 10 inches from center of rotation
• Unbalance force, U = 10 in × 1 oz = 10 oz in.
• C of G displaced by, e = eccentricity

September 4, 2008 Page 44

 Unbalance

Consider the C of G rotating at a distance e about

the shaft rotational axis.
U=W×e
10 oz. in = 1000 oz. × e

10 oz. in
e= = 0.01 in
1000 oz

U oz . in
e= W oz .

September 4, 2008 Page 45

 Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 46

 Unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 47

 Unbalance

Note:
• displacement, e, is always only 1/2 of the
measured relative vibration amplitude.

• for rotors longer than a disc shape,

U
e= is true for static unbalance only.
W

September 4, 2008 Page 48

 Unbalance

For the case where the unbalance weight is near one

end of the rotor:
mr m r jh
d= +
W +m Ix − Iz
d = displacement of principal axis of inertia
from shaft axis at the bearing
W = rotor weight
m = Unbalance mass
r = radius of unbalance
h = distance from center of gravity to plane of
unbalance
September 4, 2008 Page 49
 Unbalance

For the case where the unbalance weight is near one

end of the rotor:
mr m r jh
d= +
W +m Ix − Iz
j = distance from center of gravity to bearing
Ix = moment of inertia around transverse axis
Iz = polar moment of inertia around shaft axis
Since Ix & Iz are not usually known, it is acceptable in
most cases to assume that the unbalance causes
parallel displacement of the principal axis of inertia.
September 4, 2008 Page 50
 Unbalance

Field Balancing (in situ)

Advantages:
• rotor balanced on own bearings
• balanced at normal operating speed
• balanced at normal load
• rotor driver same as normal operation
• no tear down, re-assembly & re-alignment
• in place trim balance not required

September 4, 2008 Page 51

 Field Balancing

Advantages:
• down time greatly reduced
• generally simple procedures which require
only
- starting and stopping machine (may be
time consuming)
- adding or removing correction weights

September 4, 2008 Page 52

 Pre-Balancing Checks

Before starting balancing

• Determine if mass unbalance is the problem by
performing a complete vibration analysis
• If mass unbalance is not the problem, look into
and correct other problems: excessive bearing
clearance, looseness, resonance, and
misalignment, etc
• If mass unbalance is the cause, continue with pre-
balancing checks

September 4, 2008 Page 53

 Pre-Balancing Checks

• Nature of unbalance problem (do a

vibration analysis)
• Determine whether or not the rotor is clean
• Assess rotor stability (structural, thermal)
• Determine critical speeds (star-up/coast-
down tests)
• Locate balance weights already in place
• Know details of balance planes or rings

September 4, 2008 Page 54

 Measurements

Sensors for vibration

• Proximity probes – the most direct measure
• Velocity transducers – indirect measure
• Accelerometers – indirect measure

Sensors for phase

• Strobe light – less accurate phase reading
• Photoelectric sensor –accurate phase reading
• Proximity probe – accurate phase reading

September 4, 2008 Page 55

 Field Balancing

Single Plane Balancing

• dynamic balance conducted in only one plane
• the centrifugal force developed
U by an unbalance is
b

Fc = ω2 × g

Ub = M × r
Ub = Unbalance (oz. in)
M = weight of unbalance (oz.)
r = radius from rotor center to M (in.)
September 4, 2008 Page 56
 Field Balancing
Single Plane Balancing
ω=2πf
f = frequency (Hz)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2)
Fc = centrifugal force
Note:
The shaft motion induced by an unbalance will be
orbital, that is, the shaft center will move in a
circular path. The vibration transducer only sees
the motion that is parallel with its principal axis of
operation.
September 4, 2008 Page 57
 Field Balancing
Single Plane Balancing – Vibration Measurements
The instantaneous vibration amplitude measured by a
displacement transducer is,
D
d= × sin (ωt)
2
d = instantaneous displacement
ω = 2 π f , f = frequency (Hz) , t = time (sec)
D = Peak-to-Peak displacement
Note: using displacement for balancing simplifies
phase measurements and calculation of
correction weight placement
September 4, 2008 Page 58
 Field Balancing

Proximity probe measurement

• No electronic phase lag between signals with
mechanical phase lag

September 4, 2008 Page 59

 Field Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – Vibration Measurements

The instantaneous vibration amplitude measured by a
velocity transducer is,
d ωD
v= d= ×cos (ω t )
dt 2
v = instantaneous velocity
ω = 2 π f , f = frequency (Hz) , t = time (sec)
D = Peak-to-Peak displacement

September 4, 2008 Page 60

 Field Balancing

Strobe/velocity measurement
• With both electronic and mechanical phase lags

September 4, 2008 Page 61

 Field Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – Vibration Measurements

The instantaneous vibration amplitude measured by
an accelerometer transducer is,
d −ω 2 D
a= v= × sin (ωt )
dt 2
a = instantaneous acceleration
ω = 2 π f , f = frequency (Hz) , t = time (sec)
D = Peak-to-Peak displacement

September 4, 2008 Page 62

 Mass Unbalance and Phase Relationships

The force by mass unbalance (heavy spot) leads

the vibration peak (high spot) by 0º to 180º
depending the operating speed

• 0º - 90º : operating speed is less than the first

critical speed
• 90º: operating speed is close to the first critical
speed
• 90º - 180º: operating speed is beyond to the
first critical speed

September 4, 2008 Page 63

 Mass Unbalance and Phase Relationships
Heavy/high spot relationship – mechanical phase lag

September 4, 2008 Page 64

 Unbalance

Single Plane Balancing – Procedure

1 - “as is” run

2 - trial weight run
3 - calculate and make permanent correction
4 - the final run

September 4, 2008 Page 65

 Single Plane Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – the “as is” run

• provides baseline data
• ensure repeatability
• record vibration amplitude and phase
Example: Vibration Amplitude = 10 at 30° (10 mils
peak-to-peak at 30° phase relative to some
reference)
We wish to know - location and weight of unbalance
causing this vibration
September 4, 2008 Page 66
 Single Plane Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – the trial weight run

• this tells us how a known unbalance weight in a
known location affects rotor dynamics
• how closely the machine is operating to a
resonance is important (just below, just above,
well above)
• watch phase change immediately after shut
down & before coast down
• dramatic changes in phase mean operational
speed is close to a resonance
September 4, 2008 Page 67
 Single Plane Balancing
• when calculating the unbalance weight include
an extra 10% onto the weight of the rotor to
account for vibrations absorbed into the
bearings & supports
• the trial weight is equal to the unbalance weight
divided by an amplification factor (determined
from the location of theoperating frequency
on the system response curve)
• add trial weight opposite existing unbalance
location
• collect trial weight run vibration data
September 4, 2008 Page 68
 Single Plane Balancing

Some general guidelines

• A trial weight should not yield a force of more
than 10 % the static weight of the rotor
• Trial weight (WT) calculation formula
WT= 56,375.5 (W/N2e) (ounces)
W - rotor weight (lb), N – rotor speed (RPM),
e – trial weight eccentricity (in)
• If no vibration response is obtained, either the
trial weight is too small or the problem is not
mass unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 69

 Single Plane Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – final calculation

initial unbalance vector

Correction = × Magnitude of trial
trial weight vector
weight

Where: the trial weight resultant vector

= (trial weight vector) + (initial unbalance vector)

September 4, 2008 Page 70

 Single Plane Balancing

Single Plane Balancing – final run

• restart machine to check vibration levels

• if unacceptable treat as a new “as is” run

• do not tinker with weights already added.

September 4, 2008 Page 71

 Single Plane Balancing

Single-plane vector balancing procedure with

trial weight (review)
• Measure and record signal
• Install trial weight
• Measure and record trial run
• Calculate vectors
• Correct trial weight
• Measure and record trial run

September 4, 2008 Page 72

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

Single-plane balancing – a simple example

• Mark the high spot (a) and its amplitude (oa)
• Place trial weight WT at selected direction and
mark the new high spot (b) and its amplitude
(ob)
• The vector difference ab = ob – oa is the effect
of WT alone
• Move the WT in the same direction and angle φ
to make (ab) parallel to and opposite (oa)
• The trial weight is increased or decreased in the
ratio (oa/ab) equal to the original unbalance

September 4, 2008 Page 73

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

September 4, 2008 Page 74

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

Detailed procedures for constructing a vector diagram

for single-plane balancing
1. Mark the direction of rotor rotation on the graph
2. Mark the direction of positive phase angle
3. Establish a scale of numbers of mils per division
so the vectors are large but do not exceed the
graph
4. The original vibration O (5 mils at 190º in Figure)
is plotted on the graph

September 4, 2008 Page 75

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

5. The location of the trial weight (WT) is plotted

(30º) and its size (75 grams) are noted on the
graph
6. Plot the vibration (O+T) obtained after the trial
weight has been added to the rotor. The rotor
must be operated at the same speed as when
the original data (O) were acquired
7. The difference between O and (O+T) is the
effect of the trial weight

September 4, 2008 Page 76

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

8. The effect of the trial weight is obtained by

drawing a line between O and (O+T)
9. O + T must be equal to (O+T). The arrow
on T must point to (O+T). Vectors add
heads to tails and subtract heads to heads
10. T is now repositioned with its tail at the
origin by moving it parallel and maintaining
the same length
11. Draw a line opposite O from the origin

September 4, 2008 Page 77

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

12. The goal in balancing is to add a trial weight that

will create a T vector directly opposite and equal
to O
13. The angle between T and the line opposite O
36º determines how far and in what direction the
trial weight must be moved
14. The trial weight is multiplied by the ratio of the
original vibration to the effect of the trial weight
(5/3.4)angle between T and the line to determine
the balance weight
75 g (5/3.4) = 110 g
September 4, 2008 Page 78
 Vector Method with Trial Weight

• Procedure of
single-plane
balancing

September 4, 2008 Page 79

 Weight Splitting and Consolidation

• Weight splitting is to place the weights

at the desired locations (a and b)
• A parallel rule can be used to determine
graphically the magnitudes of the
weights at desired locations (a and b)
by the lengths of the vectors
• Weight combination is the inverse
process used to determine the location
and magnitude of the combined weight

September 4, 2008 Page 80

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

• Weight splitting

September 4, 2008 Page 81

 Vector Method with Trial Weight

• Weight combination

September 4, 2008 Page 82

 Acceptable Vibration Levels

Modified Blake
chart for field
balancing

September 4, 2008 Page 83

 Acceptable Vibration Levels
Proximity probe measurements – Dresser-Clark chart

September 4, 2008 Page 84

 Unbalance

Multiple Plane Balancing

• correction planes = number of bearings plus

one

• depends on flexibility of rotor.

• several trial runs.

• cross plane effects

• matrix solution
September 4, 2008 Page 85
 Summary

• Mass unbalance of a rotor results when the

mass center is not at the same location as
the geometric center
• Mass unbalance causes a rotating force at
the frequency of shaft speed
• The amount of mass unbalance force
depends on the location of the mass center
from the geometric center, the weight of
the object, and the square of the speed

September 4, 2008 Page 86

 Summary

• Balancing is a procedure in which a

balance weight that creates a force equal
to the mass unbalance is placed opposite
the effective location of the mass
unbalance
• The heavy spot is the angular location of
the mass unbalance on the rotor
• The high spot is the angular location of the
peak of vibration (displacement)

September 4, 2008 Page 87

 Summary

• The high spot is measured during the

balancing process; however, the balance
weight must be positioned opposite the
heavy spot.
• Either displacement, velocity, or
acceleration can be measured; however,
displacement is preferred
• The high spot lags the heavy spot as a
result of electronic (instrument) and
mechanical lag

September 4, 2008 Page 88

 Summary

• Balancing should not be performed until it

is evident that misalignment, excessive
bearing clearance, looseness, and
distortion are not the cause of the vibration
at operating speed
• The rotor should be clean and structurally
sound prior to balancing
• Trial or calibration weights are used to
obtain the mechanical lag

September 4, 2008 Page 89

 Summary

• The rule of thumb for selecting a trial

weight is that it should create a force of not
more than 10% of the rotor weight
• The vector method is used to determine
the size and location of the correction
weight
• Vibration is measured on the machine with
and without the trial weight.
• The vectorial difference is determined to
access the effect of the trial weight.

September 4, 2008 Page 90

 Summary

• The trial weight is moved relative to the

effect vector so that it is opposite the
original unbalance vector
• The size of the trial weight is adjusted so
that the effect vector is the same length as
the original unbalance vector
• Allowable field unbalance values are
obtained from vibration severity levels in
ISO 2372 (rms) and the modified Blake
chart

September 4, 2008 Page 91

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
BENT SHAFT (Bowed Rotor)
• a special form of unbalance (same vibrations)
• bent shaft – outside the machine housing
• bowed rotor – inside the housing
• common on large machines with heavy shafts
• when idle - gravity causes sag (slow rotate when
not in use), difficult to correct
• may also be caused by local (uneven) heating of
the shaft (see rubs)
September 4, 2008 Page 92
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
SHAFT MISALIGNMENT
• a major cause of excessive machinery vibration
• due to improper machine installation
• flexible coupling can tolerate some shaft
misalignment
• slight misalignment necessary for proper gear
teeth lubrication in a gear coupling
• otherwise - shafts of coupled machines should
be as closely aligned as possible

September 4, 2008 Page 93

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Types of Misalignment

Parallel Misalignment (offset)

• shaft centre lines are parallel but offset from one
another
• horizontal, vertical or combination

September 4, 2008 Page 94

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Parallel Misalignment (offset)

September 4, 2008 Page 95

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

• High radial vibration 1800 out of phase

• Severe conditions give higher harmonics
• 2X RPM often larger than 1X RPM
• Similar symptoms to angular misalignment
• Coupling design can influence spectrum shape
and amplitude
September 4, 2008 Page 96
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Angular Misalignment
• shaft center lines meet at an angle
• intersection may be at driver or driven end,
between units or behind units
• most misalignment is a combination of Parallel
and Angular misalignment

September 4, 2008 Page 97

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Angular Misalignment

September 4, 2008 Page 98

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

• Characterized by high axial vibration

• 1800 phase change across the coupling
• Typically high 1 and 2 times axial vibration
• Not unusual for 1, 2 or 3X RPM to dominate
• Symptoms could indicate coupling problems

September 4, 2008 Page 99

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Bearing Misalignment
• shaft center lines are properly aligned
• bearings on one side of coupling are misaligned
• not mounted in the same plane
• not normal to shaft
• machine distorts in use (soft foot, uneven base,
thermal growth)

September 4, 2008 Page 100

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

• Vibration symptoms similar to angular misalignment

• Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not
alleviate the problem.
• Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 1800
phase shift side to side or top to bottom

September 4, 2008 Page 101

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Alignment Methods

• reverse dial method

• face and rim method
• dial indicators or laser sensors

September 4, 2008 Page 102

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Reverse Dial Alignment Method

• simple & accurate
• brackets on both shafts, opposite sides of coupling
• each bracket holds a rod which spans the coupling
• both rods rest on dial indicators attached to the
opposite bracket
• long rods between brackets improve accuracy
• for long spool pieces - position dial indicator stems
against spool piece surface

September 4, 2008 Page 103

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Reverse Dial Alignment Method

September 4, 2008 Page 104

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Reverse Dial Alignment Method

• mounting dial on bracket reduces rod sag

September 4, 2008 Page 105

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Reverse Dial Alignment Method

September 4, 2008 Page 106

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Face and Rim Alignment Method

• one bracket holds both dials
• brackets as far apart as possible
• rod as high above shaft center line as possible
(this amplifies even small angles of misalignment)
• long rods sag due to their own weight & the dial
indicator weight

September 4, 2008 Page 107

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Face and Rim Alignment Method

September 4, 2008 Page 108

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Face and Rim Alignment Method

• can move dial indicator to bracket and counter
weight rod to reduce sag

September 4, 2008 Page 109

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Alignment Procedures
• set dial indicators to zero after mounting
• take four equally spaced readings (rotate
brackets 90° each time)
• if a full rotation is not possible, three spaced at
90° will do
• the sum of opposite readings should always be
equal
• shafts must rotate together
September 4, 2008 Page 110
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Alignment Procedures (Cont’d)

• do not uncouple shafts during alignment (axial
shaft movement causes inaccuracies)
• always rotate shaft in the same direction
(coupling backlash - inaccuracies)
• if coupling allows some axial movement this
must be restricted

September 4, 2008 Page 111

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Laser Based Alignment Methods

• laser beam used in place of rod
• detector measures beam deflection as shaft is
rotated.
• emitter and detector on opposite shafts
• long coupling spans
• no sag (high accuracy)
• quick set up
• costly to purchase, but quick to use
September 4, 2008 Page 112
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Alignment Preparation (General)
Base preparation
• base clean and free of defects
Soft feet and frame twists
• set dial indicator on foot
• loosen hold down nut
• foot movement of more than 1 mil. (1/40 mm)
should be shimmed
• check each foot, tighten and loosen in a set
sequence
September 4, 2008 Page 113
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Detecting Soft Feet

September 4, 2008 Page 114

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Lifting and moving machine

• use jack screws wherever possible for vertical &
horizontal movements
• never move a machine with a sledge hammer
Piping connections
• disconnect during alignment
• keep dial indicators in place during reconnection
as a check
• piping should have its own supports

September 4, 2008 Page 115

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Dial indicator rod sag

• can be calculated
• should not be ignored
• can be measured using a straight piece of pipe

September 4, 2008 Page 116

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Sag in round rods

⎛ Kr ⎞
Sg = 2.829 × 10-5 × L3 × ⎜⎝ D 4 − d 4 ⎟
⎠

Sg - dial indicator sag (mils)

L - length of rod (inches)
D - Outside diameter (inches)
d - Inside diameter (inches)
Kr - spring constant of circular rod (mild steel)
Kr = 1.334 × (D2 - d2) × (L + Wd)
Wd - weight of dial indicator (ounces)
September 4, 2008 Page 117
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Sag in square rods

⎛ K s ⎞
Sg = 2.833 × 10-5 × L3 × ⎜
⎝ D − d
4 4 ⎟
⎠

Sg - dial indicator sag (mils)

L - length of rod (inches)
D - Outside width or height (inches)
d - Inside width or height (inches)
Ks - spring constant of square rod (mild steel)
Ks = 1.699 × (D2 - d2) × (L + Wd)
Wd - weight of dial indicator (ounces)
September 4, 2008 Page 118
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Thermal growth
• heat of operation causes metal to expand

• vertical growth most important

• may be minimal but should always be measured

• laser equipment, micrometers, alignment bars

are all subject

• take readings when cold and again after normal

operating temperature has been reached

September 4, 2008 Page 119

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Calculating machine moves

• some computer based alignment systems do this
automatically

• plot shaft center lines from movable and fixed

machine

• difference between center lines on graph paper

is the distance the movable machine must be
moved

• check in vertical and horizontal directions

September 4, 2008 Page 120

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Vibration from misalignment
• causes excessive radial loads on bearings
• premature bearing failure
• high 1X vibration with high harmonics up to 6th
• also seen as one without the other
• this could be mistaken as unbalance, looseness
or excessive clearance
• high horizontal to vertical vibration amplitude
ratios (greater than 3 : 1) may also indicate
misalignment
September 4, 2008 Page 121
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Distinguishing Unbalance from Misalignment

Unbalance Misalignment
High 1X response in frequency spectra. High harmonics of 1X relative to 1X.
Low axial vibration levels. High axial vibration levels.
Measurements at different Measurements at different locations
locations are in phase. are 180° out of phase.
Vibration levels are Vibration levels are dependent on
independent of temperature. temperature (change during warm-up).
Vibration level at 1X increases Vibration level does not change with
with rotational speed. rotational speed.
Centrifugal force increases as the square Forces due to misalignment remain
of the shaft rotational speed. relatively constant with changes in shaft
rotational speed.

September 4, 2008 Page 122

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
LOOSENESS
Types of Looseness
Bearing loose on shaft
• modulated time waveform
• harmonics (many)
• varying time period of modulation
• truncated time signal (clipped)

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 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Bearing loose in housing
• fourth harmonic distinctive
• beware of 4 blade fans (blade pass frequency
will mask looseness signal)
• may also look like rolling element bearing
characteristic frequencies
• wideband noise
• further deterioration results in fractional
harmonics (½, ⅓, 1½, 2½) increasing in
amplitude
September 4, 2008 Page 124
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Bearing loose in housing

September 4, 2008 Page 125

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Coupling looseness between motor and pump

September 4, 2008 Page 126

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Loose Sleeve Bearing

• Later stages of sleeve bearing wear will give a large

family of harmonics of running speed
• A minor unbalance or misalignment will cause high
amplitudes when excessive bearing clearances are
present
September 4, 2008 Page 127
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

SOFT FOOT
(another type of mechanical looseness)
• loose hold-down bolts cannot resist dynamic
forces of machine
• harmonics due to opening and closing of gap
(impacts cause non-linear vibration signal)

September 4, 2008 Page 128

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

SOFT FOOT

September 4, 2008 Page 129

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

SOFT FOOT
(another type of mechanical looseness)
• loose hold-down bolts cannot resist dynamic
forces of machine
• harmonics due to opening and closing of gap
(impacts cause non-linear vibration signal)

September 4, 2008 Page 130

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
BENT SHAFT

• Bent shaft problems cause high axial vibration

• 1X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft center
• 2X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft ends
• Phase difference in the axial direction will tend
towards 1800 difference

September 4, 2008 Page 131

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
RUBS
• caused by excessive mechanical looseness or
oil whirl
• moving parts come into contact with stationary
ones
• vibration signal similar to looseness
• high levels of wide-band noise (caused by
impacts)
• if impacts are repetitive, there may be strong
spectral responses at the striking frequency
September 4, 2008 Page 132
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

RUBS
• if rotor presses too hard against a seal - the rotor
will heat up unsymmetrically and develop a
bowed shape
• vibration signal shows unbalance
• to diagnose - note that the unbalance is absent
until the machine comes up to normal operating
temperature

September 4, 2008 Page 133

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
RUBS

Truncated waveform

• Similar spectrum to mechanical looseness

• Usually generates a series of frequencies which may
excite natural frequencies
• Subharmonic frequencies may be present
• Rub may be partial or through a complete revolution.

September 4, 2008 Page 134

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Resonance Excitation

• Resonance occurs when the Forcing Frequency coincides

with a Natural Frequency
• 1800 phase change occurs when shaft speed passes
through resonance
• High amplitudes of vibration will be present when a system
is in resonance
September 4, 2008 Page 135
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Belt Resonance
RADIAL

1X RPM

BELT RESONANCE

• High amplitudes can be present if the belt natural

frequency coincides with driver or driven RPM
• Belt natural frequency can be changed by altering
the belt tension

September 4, 2008 Page 136

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Worn, Loose or Mismatched Belts

BELT FREQUENCY
HARMONICS

• Often 2X RPM is dominant

• Amplitudes are normally unsteady, sometimes pulsing with
either driver or driven RPM
• Wear or misalignment in timing belt drives will give high
amplitudes at the timing belt frequency
• Belt frequencies are below RPM of both driver and driven
September 4, 2008 Page 137
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Eccentric Pulleys
RADIAL
1X RPM OF
ECCENTRIC
PULLEY

• Eccentric or unbalanced pulleys will give a high 1X

RPM of the pulley
• The amplitude will be highest in line with the belts
• Beware of trying to balance eccentric pulleys

September 4, 2008 Page 138

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
Belt / Pulley Misalignment

• Pulley misalignment will produce high axial vibration

at 1X RPM
• Often the highest amplitude on the motor will be at
the fan RPM

September 4, 2008 Page 139

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
OIL WHIP & OIL WHIRL
Oil Whirl
• bearing can not exert sufficient force on shaft to
maintain a stable operating position
• corrected by using pressure dams or tilt pad
designs
• shaft rides on an oil pressure gradient
• rotates within bearing clearance at just less than
one half shaft rotational speed (~0.42X)

September 4, 2008 Page 140

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
OIL WHIRL

• Vibration amplitudes are sometimes severe

• Whirl is inherently unstable, since it increases centrifugal
forces therefore increasing whirl forces

September 4, 2008 Page 141

 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions

Oil Whip
• occurs when sub synchronous instability (oil whirl)
excites a critical speed (resonance)
• excitation remains at a constant frequency
regardless of speed changes
• Oil whip may occur if a machine is operated at 2X the
rotor critical frequency.
• When the rotor drives up to 2X critical, whirl is close to
critical and excessive vibration will stop the oil film from
supporting the shaft.
• Whirl speed will lock onto rotor critical. If the speed is
increased the whipfrequency will not increase.
September 4, 2008 Page 142
 Machinery Vibration Forcing Functions
OIL WHIP & OIL WHIRL

September 4, 2008 Page 143

 Next Time

• Machinery Vibration Trouble Shooting

• Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine
Components
• Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine Types
• Automatic Diagnostics Techniques
• Non-Vibration Based Machine Condition Monitoring
and Fault Diagnosis Methods