Body Fluids and Circulation

DESIGNED

By

Edustudy point
Blood: Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.

Plasma: Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
• Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins of plasma.

• Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood, globulins are involved in defense
mechanisms of the body and the albumins help in osmotic balance.

• Plasma contains small amounts of minerals like Na +, Ca++, glucose, amino acids etc.

• Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.

Formed elements: Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements.
➢ Erythrocytes: Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults,
are devoid of nucleus with a biconcave shape.

• Erythrocytes are known as red blood cells because these have a red coloured, iron containing
complex protein called Hemoglobin.

• Haemoglobin molecules play a significant role in transport of respiratory gases.

• RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen, known as
the graveyard of RBC.

➢ Leucocytes: Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to the
lack of haemoglobin.

• They are nucleated and short lived.

• There are two main categories of WBCs, 1) granulocytes, 2) agronulocytes

• Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while lymphocytes and
monocytes are the agranulocytes.

• Neutrophils are the most abundant cells of the total WBCs and basophils are the least among them.

• Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytic cells, basophils secrete histamine, serotonin etc,.and are
involved in inflammatory reactions.

• Eosinophils resist infections and are also associated with allergic reactions.

• Lymphocytes are of two major types: ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms. Both B and T lymphocytes are responsible
for immune responses of the body.

➢ Platelets: Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes.

• Platelets can release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the coagulation or
clotting of blood

• A reduction in their number can lead to clotting disorders which will lead to excessive loss of blood
from the body.
Blood groups: Two blood groupings are done, ABO and Rh.
➢ ABO grouping

• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigen on the RBCs namely A and
B.

• The distribution of antigens and antibodies in the four groups of blood, A, B, AB and O.

• The blood of a donor has to be carefully matched with the blood of a recipient before any blood
transfusion to avoid severe problems of clumping, which leads to destruction of RBC.

• Group ‘O’ blood can be donated to

persons with any other blood group and
hence ‘O’ group individuals are called
‘universal donors’.

• Persons with ‘AB’ group can accept

blood from persons with AB as well as
the other groups of blood, and such
persons are called ‘universal recipients’.

➢ Rh grouping

• The Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys is also observed on the surface of RBCs of
majority of humans, hence the antigen is known as Rh antigen.

• The individuals having Rh antigen are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is
absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).

• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens,
and hence Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.

• A special case of Rh incompatibility has been observed between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant
mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus , which leads to a disease known as erythroblastosis
foetalis.

• In case of subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the
blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs, which cause severe anaemia and jaundice
to the baby leading to a condition known erythroblastosis foetalis.

• Erythroblastosis foetalis can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother

immediately after the delivery of the first child.

Coagulation of blood: Blood coagulation or clotting is the mechanism to prevent excessive loss of
blood from the body.

• Reddish brown scum formed at the site of a cut is due to clot formed mainly of a network of
threads called fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.

• Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin.
 • Thrombins are formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma called prothrombin by
an enzyme complex known as thrombokinase.

• Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.

Lymph: When the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water along with many small
water soluble substances move out into the spaces between the cells of tissues leaving the larger proteins
and most of the formed elements in the blood vessels, the fluid released out is called the tissue fluid.

• Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between the blood and the cells always occur through tissue
fluid.

• An elaborate network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects this fluid and drains it back
to the major veins.

• The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph, which is a colourless fluid.

• Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.

Circulatory pathways: The circulatory patterns are of two types

1) Open circulatory system: it is the one in which blood pumped by the heart passes through large
vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses. Example- arthropods and molluscs.
2) Closed circulatory system: system in which the blood pumped by the heart is always circulated
through a closed network of blood vessels. Example- Annelids and chordates

• Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle.

• Amphibians and the reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two atria and a
single ventricle.

• Crocodiles, birds and mammals possess a 4-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles.

• In fishes, the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which is oxygenated by the gills and supplied to
the body parts from where deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart (single circulation).

• In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the gills/lungs/skin and
the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other body parts, however, they get mixed up in
the single ventricle which pumps out mixed blood, which is called as incomplete double circulation.

• In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left and right atria
respectively passes on to the ventricles of the same sides, and the ventricles pump it out without
any mixing up, hence, these animals have double circulation.

Human circulatory system: It is also called the blood vascular system consists of a muscular
chambered heart, a network of closed branching blood vessels and blood, the fluid which is circulated.
 • Heart is situated in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left, which has the size of a
clenched fist.

• It is protected by a double walled

membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the
pericardial fluid.

• Our heart has four chambers, two relatively

small upper chambers called atria and two larger
lower chambers called ventricles.

• A thin, muscular wall called the interatrial

septum separates the right and the left atria,
whereas a thick-walled, the inter-ventricular
Fig. Human heart septum, separates the left and the right ventricles.

• The atrium and the ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue called
the atrio-ventricular septum.

• The openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
respectively are provided with the semilunar valves.

• The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood only in one direction.

• A patch of the tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right atrium called the sino-atrial
node (SAN).

• Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-
ventricular septum called the atrio-ventricular node (AVN).

• The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1, and is
responsible for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart; hence it is
called the pacemaker.

• Our heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute.

Cardiac cycle: The sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac cycle
and it consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles.

• Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.

• During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood which is called
the stroke volume.

• Cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute and
averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy individual.

• The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria to undergo a
simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole.

• Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid
valves.
 • the SAN generates a new action potential and the events are repeated.

• During each cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are produced which can be easily heard through a
stethoscope.

• The first heart sound (lub) is associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves,
whereas the second heart sound (dub) is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves.

Electrocardiograph (ECG): ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart
during a cardiac cycle.

• To obtain a standard ECG, a patient is

connected to the machine with three electrical
leads, one to each wrist and to the left ankle, that
continuously monitor the heart activity.

• Each peak in the ECG is identified with a

letter from P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical activity of the heart.

• The P-wave represents the electrical

excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria, which
Fig. Electrocardiograph leads to the contraction of both the atria.

• The QRS complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular
contraction.

• The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation)
and the end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.

• By counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one can determine the
heart beat rate of an individual.

Double circulation:
• When the deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs from
where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium; this pathway
constitutes the pulmonary circulation.

• The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries, arterioles and
capillaries to the tissues from where the deoxygenated blood is collected by a system of venules,
veins and vena cava and emptied into the right atrium.; this is the systemic circulation.

• A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and liver called hepatic portal
system.

• The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the liver before it is delivered to the
systemic circulation.
 • A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in our body exclusively for the circulation of
blood to and from the cardiac musculature.

Fig. Double circulation

Regulation of cardiac activity Normal activities of the heart are auto regulated by specialised
muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.

• A special neural centre in the medulla oblongata can moderate the cardiac function through
autonomic nervous system (ANS).

• Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of heart beat,
the strength of ventricular contraction and thereby the cardiac output.

• Parasympathetic neural signals decrease the rate of heart beat, speed of conduction of action
potential and thereby the cardiac output.

• Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.

Disorders of circulatory system

➢ High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)

• Hypertension is the term for blood pressure that is higher than normal (120/80).

• 120 mm Hg is the systolic, or pumping, pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or resting, pressure.

• If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is 140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it shows
hypertension.

• High blood pressure leads to heart diseases.

➢ Coronary Artery Disease (CAD):

• Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply
blood to the heart muscle.

• CAD caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes the lumen of
arteries narrower.

➢ Angina

• It is also called ‘angina pectoris’.

• A symptom of acute chest pain appears when no enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.

• Angina can occur in men and women of any age.

• It occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.

➢ Heart failure

• Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the
needs of the body.

• Heart failure is not the same as cardiac arrest or a heart attack.

• Cardiac arrest is when the heart stops beating, whereas heart attack is when the heart muscle is
suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply.

KHATAM