The Teacher as a Curricularist

Are you aware that the teacher's role in school is very complex? Teachers do
a series of interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation,
teaching and learning. A classroom teacher is involved with curriculum continuously
all day.But very seldom has a teacher been described as curricularist. Curricularists
in the past, are referred only to those who developed curriculum theories. According
to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularist in
America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit.

The word curricularist is described as a curriculum specialist (Hayes, 1991:

Ornstein & Hunkins,2004: Hewitt. 2006). A person who is involved in curriculum
knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may
be designated as curricularist. A TEACHER'Srole is broader and inclusive of other
functions and so a teacher is a curricularist.

The classroom is the first place of curricular engagement. The first school
experience sets thetone to understand the meaning of schooling through the
interactions of learners and teachers thatwill lead to learning. Hence, curriculum is at
the heart of schooling.

The teacher as a curricularist.

1.Knows the curriculum. Leaming begins with knowing. The teacher as a

leamer starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the content.
As a teacher, one has tomaster what are included in the curriculum. It is acquiring
academic knowledgeboth formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from
experiences, vicarious, and unintended), it is the mastery of the subject matter.
(KNOWER)

For Example:

Teacher Alaine attended many seminar and webinars to gain further knowledge on
how to teach effectively in the new normal online learning.

She also wanted to advance her studies and so she enrolled in a university where
she will get her doctoral degree.
 2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge
concepts, subjectmatter or content. These need to be written or preserved. The
teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and
reference materials in paper or electronic mediaas a curriculum writer or reviewer.
(WRITER)

For Example:

Teacher Cora diligently makes herown modules for her grade 3 learners. During
checking the answered modules, if some learners get a low score, Teacher Cora will
then make another reference material easily understand by the learner.

3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of

the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve
as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into
consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include the
learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes,
the context of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a
curriculum planner. (PLANNER)

For Example:

Teacher Linda makes her own organized time schedule with the designated subjects
before the school starts. In her every lesson, she plans the learning goals and
outcomes for her learners. She also develops a devise for her learners that show a
low performance.

4.Initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to

the schools fromDepEd. CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational
agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement it.
Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher,
and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many
constraints and difficulties in doingthings first or leading, however, a transformative
teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (INITIATOR)

For Example:
 In Grade 7 to Grade 10 of the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum, Science as a
subject is presented, taught and learned in a spiral manner. To address the mode of
learning delivery Teacher Matthew initiated to request their school principal that in
they have a team teaching.

5.Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent

teacher. Acurriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing. From the
content, strategies, waysof doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of
students and skills of teachers, onecannot find a single eternal curriculum that would
perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus
becomes a curriculum innovator. (INNOVATOR)

For Example:

Teacher Paul, a Grade 6 P.E teacher made his student pass a Tiktok video of their
chosen physical activity (dancing, sports games, ofher recreational activities) as their
alternative assessmei in the new normal learning.

6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or

written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mentioned
previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this role where the teacher
becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor gives life to the curriculum
plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with support
materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding,
facilitating skills of the teacher are expected to the highest level. It is here where
teaching as a science and as an art will be observed. It is here, where all the
elements of the curriculum will come into play. The success of a recommended.well
written and planned curriculum depends on the implementation. (IMPLEMENTOR)

For Example:

Teacher Alfred has studied the standards, competencies and guidelines from DepEd
in teaching Mother Tongue to his Grade 1 learners and he implements these in his
class.
 7.Evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning
outcomes have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired
results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there some
practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified, terminated or
continued? These are some few questions that need the help of a curriculum
evaluator. That person is the teacher.(EVALUATOR)

For Example:

The Teacher as Knower of the Curriculum

The School Curriculum

Each member of society seems to review school curriculum differently, hence

there are varied demands on what schools should do and what curriculum should be
taught. Some would demand reducing content and shifting emphasis to development
of lifelong skills. Others feel that development of character has been placed at the
back seat of some schools. More debates are emerging on the use of languages in
the classroom. Should it be mother tongue, the national language or the global
language?

There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should really be. To

have a common understanding of what curriculum really is, this lesson will present
some definitions as given by authors. Likewise, you will find in this lesson the
description of the nature and scope of curriculum from several points of view. This
lesson will also explain how curriculum is being approached. It further shows a
development process as a concept and as a applied to school curriculum.

Oftentimes curriculum is taken in narrow view as a listing of subjects to

teach in schools sometimes it is understood broadly as all learning experiences that
individuals undergo while in school. We cannot deny the fact that curriculum should
be clarified by teachers and other stakeholders. Curriculum affects all teachers,
student, parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or
even the common people.

Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common

definition of "curriculum. Because of this, this concept of curriculum is sometimes
characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the word originates
from the Latin word currier referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots
raced. The New International Dictionary defines whole body of courses in a
curriculum as the educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English
Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum
means different things to different people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum
with the syllabus while a few regard it as all the teaching-learning experiences which
the student encounters while in school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism
which cannotes diverse interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts,
pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as cultural perspectives. Here are some of
them.

Some Definitions of curriculum

1. Curriculum is planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended

outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners' continuous and willful
growth in personal social competence."(Daniel Tanner, 1980)

2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives

content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt,1980)

3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned

activities,the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an
agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)

4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have ina
program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and relatedspecific
objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory andresearch of past
and present professionals practice." (Hass,1987)
5. It is a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will
attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives
(Grundy, 1987)

6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frameand

place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of
planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the
guidance of the school (Goodland and Su, 1992)

7. It provides answers to three questions: 1.What knowledge, skills and values

are most worthwhile?2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young
acquire them? (Cronbeth 1992)

Some point of view of Others Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by person's point
of view, this had added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when you
put together, the different definitions from diverse points of view, would describe
curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever changing.

Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive

according to person's philosophical, psychological and even
psychologicalorientations. These views can also define what a curriculum is all
about.

Curriculum from Traditional Point of View

The Traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by

RobertHutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

●Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules

of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic
education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.

●Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school

should be intellectual training hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include
mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

●Joseph Schwab thinks that the soul source of the curriculum is a

discipline, thus the subject areas such a Science, Mathematics, Social Studies,
English and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities,
science, languages, mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a
ruling doctrine for curriculum development.

●Philip Phenix assets that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge

which comes from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of the torists like Hutchins,

Schwab,Bestor and Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum
is highly academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical,
psychological and social issues. From a traditional view, curriculum is mostly written
documents such as syllabus, course of study, books and references where
knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

On the other hand, listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and

specific discipline does not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive
view of curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into
how curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

●John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinkingis

a means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.

●Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences

children have under the guidance of teachers.

●Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined

curriculum as a consequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the
purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
 ●Colin Marsh and George also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and alsolearned by the
students.

The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending

on a person's philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, content, a

program of studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance
objectives, everything that goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and
outside of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of
experiences undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences
as a result of school. In short, curriculum is the total learning experiences of the
learner under the guidance of the teacher.

Approaches to the School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approaches or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a

content, process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the
experts in the field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to
approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to
approach it as a product of the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to
approach it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom when the
curriculum is practised.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quiet common of traditionalists to equate a curriculum to a topic outline,

subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a
primary school mathematics curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication,
subtraction, division distance, weight and many more. Another example is in
secondary school science that involves the study of biological science, physical
science, environmental science and earth science Textbooks tend to begin with
biological science such are plants and animals; physical science with the physical
elements, force and motion; earths science with the layers of the earth and
environmental science with the interaction of the biological and physical science and
earth's phenomena, climate vegetation followed by economic activities such as
agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth.

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of

knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There
can be a likelihood that teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts concepts
and principles of the subject matter, however, the content or subjectmatter can also
be taken as a means to an end. All curricula have content regardless of their design
of models. The fund of knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and
inventions of man from the explorations of the earth and so products of research. In
most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge or
discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in thecurriculum.

These are:

1. Topical Approach, where much content is based in knowledge,

andexperiences are included.

2. Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-
concepts and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;

3. Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that developconceptual

structures, and

4. Modular Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge on

subjectmatter (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)

1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and

generalization that should attain the overall purpose of curriculum. It is significant if
content becomes the means of developing cognitive, effective or psychomotor skills
of the learner. As education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant
when this will address the cultural context of the learners.

2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge
becomes obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus, there is a need for validity
check and verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its
original form may not continue to be valid in the current times.

3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners

who are going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in
the past, but mat not be useful now or in the future. Questionslike: Will I use this in
my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelonglearner? Or will the subject
matter be useful in solving current concerns?

4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range

ofexperiences of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of
learning Appropriate organization of content standards and sequencing ofcontents
are two basic principles that would influence learnability.

5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed,
resources available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners?Are
there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching- learning
engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?

6.Interest. Will the leamers take interest in the content? Why? Are
thecontents meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future
life of the learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

Guide in the Selection of Content in the curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners

3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career

4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration

5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum should beguided
by Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity, However, In
designing a curriculum contents Hunkins Omstein (2018) added an important
element which is Scope, hence from BASIC to BASICS initials of Balance,
Articulation, Sequence, Integration, Continuity.

Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will
guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little
of the contents needed with in the time allocation.

Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the

educationallevels, vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth
connectionsor bridging should be provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in
thecontent. Seamlessness in the content is desired and can be assured if there is
articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need off team among writers and
implements of curriculum.

Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. This
can be done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the
same content. In both ways, the pattern usually is from easy toSequence. The logical
arrangement of the content refers to sequence orcomplex, what can be integrated to
other disciplines acquire a higher premiumthat when isolated.

Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow

as it was before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. If should be
perennial. It endures time. Content may not be in the same form and substance as
seen the past since changes and developments in curriculum occur. Constant
repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity.

Scope. The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a
curriculum. Scope consists of all contents, topics, leaming experiences comprising
the curriculum. In layman's term scope refers to coverage. The scope shall consider
the cognitive level, affective domain and psychomotor skills in identifying the
contents. Other factors will be considered but caution is given to overloading of
contents. "More contents is not always better."

2. Curriculum as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the

other hand, it can also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as
a physical thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the
teachers, students and content. As a process, curriculum happens in the classroom
as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the
students. It an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes
occur. Used in analogy of the recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while the
ways of cooking is the process.

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of

teaching. Itis not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The
classroom isonly part of the learning environment where the teacher places action
using thecontent to achieve an outcome.

Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern
of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, and heads-on, hands-on learning and
many others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides

materials on what to teach, the process provides curriculum on how to teach the
content. When accomplished, the process will result the various curriculum
expenences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process is called
the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question: If you have
this content, how will you teach it? Rather, it will describe how the process as a
descriptor of curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the
curriculum, how the contents will be communicated and learned will be addressed by
the process.
 1. To teachers, process is very critical. This is the other side of the
coin:instruction, implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in
the curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some
of the answers will be:

a. Problem-based.

b. Hands-on, Mind-on

c. CooperativeLearning

d. Blended Curriculum

e. On-line

f. Case-based and many more.

These responses approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways

of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching
and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these; there are
activities and actions that every teacher and leamer do together or learners are
guided by the teacher. Some of the strategies are time-tested traditional
methodswhile others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are

presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means

to achieve the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on

the desired learning outcomes, the learners, supportmaterials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the

cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.

4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which canbe

described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
 6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
affective process will always result to learning outcomes.

7. Both teaching and learning are two important processes in the

implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or

process that gives action using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In
other words,product is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the

knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose
of education is to bring about significant changes in students pattern of behavior. It is
important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes f the school should
be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to the approach is
the formulation of behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or
desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organized and the
results evaluated. Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills, and
values.

Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes which are

referred to as the achieved learning outcomes. There may be several desired
learning outcomes, but if the process is not successful, then no learning outcomes
will be achieved. These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by
the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum.
 REPORT OUTLINE IN TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

( PROFED 609 )

GROUP 1

TOPIC:

THE TEACHER AS CURRICULARIST

THE TEACHER AS THE KNOWER OF CURRICULUM

APPROACHES TO THE CURRICULUM

MEMBERS:

ALTHEA VEILKIST A. PIANG

SAIRABAI SIOKON

OMAYA LAMPING

NORSIMA TUANSI

MISBA KANAKAN

ALLIAH HARON

FERDAUSE MASIL
 NURULAJIE MAMALINTA

( INSTRUCTOR )

REFERENCES:

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/xavier-university-ateneo-de-cagayan/
psychology/the-teacher-as-a-curricularist/13781657

https://www.scribd.com/document/449680613/THE-TEACHER-AS-A-
CURRICULARIST

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-southern-mindanao/
facilitating-learner-centered-teaching/the-teacher-as-knower-of-the-
curriculum/31107131

https://studylib.net/doc/25945852/lesson-2---the-teacher-as-a-curricularist
 REPORT OUT LINE IN TEACHER IN THE CURRICULUM

( PROFED 609)

GROUP 5

TOPIC:

I. CURRICULUM COMPONENTS AND APPROCHEAS

II. FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

III. CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

I. CURRICULLUM COMPONENTS AND APPROACHES

Elements or components of a curriculum design

There are four main components in the basic curriculum, which allows it to be
cohesive and integral. These components are objectives (aims, and goals), content
(subject matters), learning experiences, and evaluation. They are critical regardless
of the education establishment or course peculiarities, as they shape the design of
the curriculum defining what should be done, how, with what emphasis, what
resources should be used, and how the results should be evaluated.

The 4 Components of Curriculum (Cayadong, Lindo )M.

Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a

blueprint which leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As
a result, authorities have to design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and
the learner meet the desired learning outcomes.

The four components of the curriculum are :

1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

3. Curriculum Experience

4. Curriculum Evaluation

These four components of the curriculum are essential. These are interrelated to
each other. Each of these has a connection to one another.

1. Aims, goals, and objectives

Can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject matter/content what subject

matter is to be included, the learning experience” what instructional strategies,
resources and activities will be employed, and the evaluation approaches, while
curriculum evaluation is“ what methods and instruments will be used to assess the
results of the curriculum. The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is
to be done. It tries to capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the
philosophy, the mission statement and objectives. Further, it clearly defines the
purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what to drive at in the
same manner, curriculum has a content.

2. Curriculum content or subject matters

A subject based curriculum is one that is divided into different subjects like math and
history. Each subject is distinct and there is little focus in making cross- curricular
links. This type of learning focuses on the subject ,rather than the individual. In here,
it contains information to be learned in school. It is an element or a medium through
which the objectives are accomplished. A primordial concern of formal education is
primarily to transmit organized knowledge in distilled form to a new generation of
young learners. The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is
precisely the foundation of knowledge, therefore, the sciences and humanities
provide the basis of selecting the content of school learning. In organizing the
learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity form a
sound content.

3. The curriculum experience

Instructional strategies and methods are the core of the curriculum. These
instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the
content in order to produce an outcome. These would convert the written curriculum
to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student
activity with the teacher supervision.

4. The curriculum evaluation

Is an element of an effective curriculum. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the

program, process and product of the curriculum.

6 different curriculum approaches

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), six curriculum approaches are Behavioral
Approach, Managerial Approach, Systems Approach, Academic Approach,
Reconceptualist approach, and Humanistic Approach.

The following six curriculum approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach.

This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified, contents and
activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning
outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. This
approach started with the idea of Frederick Taylor which is aimed to achieve
efficiency. In education, behavioral approach begins with educational plans that start
with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the important ingredients in
curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of
behavior. The change of behavior indicates the measure of the accomplishment.

2. Managerial Approach

In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time
instructional leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general
manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and
innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction. School
administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization and
implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and
materials than improving the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum
changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the
schools.

Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:

a. help develop the school's education goals

b . plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders
c . design programs of study by grade levels
d . plan or schedule classes or school calendar
e . prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area
f . help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks
g . observe teachers
h. assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum
I . encourage curriculum innovation and change
j. develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation

3. Systems Approach
 This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school
district or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The
organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-
staff relationships of personnel and how decisions are made.

The following are of equal importance:

a. administration
b. counseling
c. curriculum
d. instruction
e. evaluation
4. Humanistic Approach

This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered

movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden
curriculum. It considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total
development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner s at the center
of the curriculum.

5. Academic approach

Learning uses a range of higher – order thinking skills , processes and

disposition are habits of mind ( Vardi, 2013 ) and shows persistence and rigour.
Model and make this us part of the everyday life of your face to face and online
classes, learning activities and interaction.

6. Reconceptualist approach

The religion teacher acknowledge the reality of students’ lives identifies

learners’ levels of thinking and builds on the attributes each student brings to the
religion classroom.
II. FOUNDATION CURRICULUM

 Foundation of curriculum are the considerations of educational programs and

policies and light of an interdisciplinary endeavour involving philosophical,
psychological, and historical understandings.

PHILOSOPHICAL

FOUNDATION

HISTORICAL FOUNDATION PSYCHOLOGICAL

CURRICUL FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION

SOCIAL
FOUNDATION
  There are four major foundation of curriculum and their importance in
education are as follows;

Philosophical Foundation : Philosophy lays the strong foundation of any

curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school
heads, evaluator anchors his/ her decision making process on a sound philosophy.
Philosophy provides educators, teacher and curriculum makers with frame work for
planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in school, answering what school
re for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials
and methods should be used. In decision-making, philosophy provides the starting
point and will be used for the succeeding decision-making.

The following six educational philosophies relate to curriculum;

o Perennialism: The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary

analysis and considers curriculum constant.
o Existentialism: A philosophical beliefs we are each responsible for creating
purpose or meaning in our own lives.
o Behaviorism: Focuses on the idea that all behaviours are learned through
interaction with the environment. It also believe that human being are shaped
entirely by their external environment.
o Progressivism: It’s certainly emphasize the need for students to learn through
their own experience and be actively involved in their own learning process. It
stresses the importance of learning by doing and encourages students to be
curious and questioning.
o Essentialism: The essential skills of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of
English, Science , History , Math and Foreign Language is focus of the
curriculum.
o Reconstructionism : The focus of the curriculum on present and future trends
and issues of national and international interests.
o

Psychological Foundations: Curriculum is influenced by psychology provides

information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks answer as to how
a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students learning at the optimum level,
and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various
contents of the curriculum . Psychology provide basis for the teaching and learning
process. It unifies elements of the learning process and some of the sum of question
which can be addressed by psychological foundation.

The following three are psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum
development :

o Behaviourists Psychology: consider that learning should be organized in

order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the
subject matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a step
by step manner with proper sequencing of task.
o Cognitive Psychology: focus their attention on how individuals process
information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For the cognitive
theories learning, constitute a logical method for organizing and interpreting
learning. Learning is routed in the tradition of subject matter where teachers
used a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching learning . This are
exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking , intuitive
thinking, discovery learning.
o Humanistic Psychology: concerned with how learners can develop their
human potential. Based on Gestalt Psychology where learning can be
explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the
environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his/her
perceptions. Curriculum is concerned with the process not product, personal
need not subject matter, psychological meaning and environmental situations.
o

Historical Foundation: Historical Foundation of Curriculum. This topic deals with

past events, which have led to present trends of education. By analyzing past
periods of curriculum, it is possible to view and review the needed curriculum in
terms of current and future education needs.

Historical Foundations: Drake Students will gain greater understanding of the

historical foundations of the modern world and the interconnections of global
cultures. Two courses are required in this area of inquiry. Students will use historical
analyses to study the interplay of multiple forces of change over time. Courses that
count for this AOI will engage students to achieve at least two of these student
learning outcomes. Students will be able to:

- Demonstrate an understanding of the interplay of the fundamental historical

forces (political, social, economic, cultural, scientific, and/or technological) that
have shaped the contemporary world.
- Describe the historical processes that have contributed significantly to global
change.
- Articulate an understanding of the histories of societies and cultures
necessary to participate in an analysis of critical civic and global issues.
- Demonstrate critical reasoning skills necessary to analyze the lived realities of
power and wealth differentials between industrialized and developing areas of
the world.
- Reflect upon the nature of history itself as a product influenced by a nexus of
forces, interests, and understandings, and on their own place within that
historical context.

Social Foundation: Social foundations is a broadly conceived field of educational

study that derives its character from several academic disciplines and
interdisciplinary studies, also school exist within the social context , and school are
not only institutions that can educate people in the society . Schools are made to
help to understand the changes globalization brings.

The sociological foundation refers to issues from society that has an influence on
curriculum. Since the school exists within a given society; and the fact that the
'products' of the school, i.e. the 'graduates' go back to the society, makes the latter
an inevitable determinant of the curriculum.
FOUNDER’S OF CURRICULUM THEORISTS

 Franklin Bobbit ( 1876- 1956) - presented curriculum as a science that

emphasizes on students’ need. Curriculum prepares for adult life.
 Werret Charters ( 1875- 1952) – considered curriculum also as a science
which is based on students’ need and the teachers plan the activities.
 William Kilpatrick ( 1871- 1965 ) – viewed curriculum as purposeful
activities which are child- centered. The purpose of curriculum is child
development and growth.
 Harold Rugg ( 1886 – 1960) Curriculum should develop the whole child. He
emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson
in advance.
 Hollis Caswell ( 1901- 1989) sees curriculum as organized around social
functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner’s interests.
 Ralph Tyler ( 1902- 1994) – believes that curriculum is a science and an
extension of school’s philosophy.

III. CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM:

Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing

1.Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable.

One of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Societal development

and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing
condition requires new curriculum designs.

2. Curriculum reflects as a product of its time.

A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by current social

forces, philosophical position, psychological principles, new knowledge and
educational reforms. This is also called timelines.
3.Curriculum change made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum
change.

A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually
phased in and phased out thus the change that occurs can coexist and oftentime
overlaps for long periods of time.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.

Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development,
hence should know how to design a curriculum. This will assure an effective and
long lasting change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.

Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum development are suggested.

Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to sense of ownership. Any
significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stake holders to
gain their understanding, support and input.

6. Curriculum development is a decision making process made from choices of

alternatives.

A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents what teach,

philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide multicultural groups, what
methods or strategies and what type of evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process

Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation and improvement of curricula are to

be considered in the design of the curriculum.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process ,rather

than a "piecemeal".
A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, intended outcomes clearly
established, support resources and needed time available and teaching staff
pedagogically equipped.

9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process.

A curriculum design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content

complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and resources
and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix.

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is.

Curriculum planners and designers should begin with existing curriculum. An existing
design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum. Crafting a curriculum is like writing a lesson plan.

A. Curriculum can be organized either:

1. Horizontal Organization-the direction of the curriculum elements is side ways.

2. Vertical Organization-the direction of the curriculum elements follow a vertical

design.

STRUCTURES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

1. Subject - centered design model - focuses on the content of the curriculum

Examples of subject-centered curriculum

a. Subject design- centers on the cluster of content.

b. Discipline design- focuses on academic discipline.

 Discipline- specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars

use to study a specific content of their fields.
c. Correlation design

-links separate subject design in order to reduce fragmentation.

d. Broad field design/Interdisciplinary

- made to prevent the compartmentalization of subject and integrate the contents

that are related to each other.Sometimes called holistic curriculum.

2. Learner-Centered design - the learner is the center of the educative process

Examples of Learner-Centered designs

a. Child-centered design

-Anchored on the needs and interests of the child

- Learns by doing

- Learners actively create,construct meanings and understanding

(collaborative effort)

- Learning is a product of the child's interaction with environment

b. Experience-Centered design

- Experiences of the learners becomes the starting point of the curriculum.

- Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides

- Activities revolve around different emphasis ,such as touching, feeling,

imagining,constructing,relating and others.

c. Humanistic design

- The development of self is the ultimate objective of the Learning

- It consider the cognitive,affective and psychomotor domains to be

interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum

- Stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills

3. Problem-Centered design - Various problems are given emphasis.

There are those that centered on:

- Life situation

- Contemporary life problems

- Areas of living and many others

In this curriculum content cuts across subject be boundaries and must be:

- Based on the needs

- Concern and abilities of the students

Examples of Problem-Centered design Curriculum

a. Life-situation design

- based on Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing his emphases where

activities that sustain life, enhance life and rearing children, maintain the individual's
social and political relations and enhance leisure tasks and feelings. The connection
of subject matters to real situations increases the relevance of the curriculum.

b. Core design - Centers on general education and the problems are based on
common human activitie
 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN
TYPES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

There are three basic type of curriculum design:

*Subject-centered design

*Learner-centered design

*Problem-centered design

SUBJECT-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN

This is the curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum.

It is correspond mostly to the textbooks, are written-based on the specific course or

subject.

FOUR VARIATIONS

1.1 Subject design

1.2 Discipline design

1.3 Correlation design

1.4 Broad design/Interdisciplinary

1.1 Subject Design

This is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other
laymen.

The drawback of this design is that sometimes, learnings is so compartmentalized. It

stresses so much the content and forgets about students’ natural tendencies,
interests, and experiences.
1.2 Discipline Design

This is related to subject design:however, while subject design centers only on the
cluster of content, descipline design focuses on academic disciplines.

Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars
use to study a specific content of their fields.

1.3 Correlation Design

Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate subject design in
order to reduce fragmentation. Sujects are related to one another and still maintain
their identity.

1.4 Broad Field Design/ Interdisciplinary

This design was made to cure compartmentalization of the separate subjects and
integrate the contents that are related to one another. Sometimes called hollistic
curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.

LEARNER-CENTERED CURRRICULUM DESIGN

Among the progressive educational psychologist, the learner is the center of the
educative process.

2. Learner-Centered Design

THREE VARATIONS

2.1 Child-centered design

2.2 Experience-centered design

2.3 Humanistic design

2.1 Child-Centered Design

This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi
and Foebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the
child. The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages with
his/her environment. One learns by doing.

2.2 Experience-Centered Design

Experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot
be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the
curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to
choose from various activities that the teachers provides. The learners are
empowered to shape their own learning from different opportunities given by the
teacher.

2.3 Humanistic Design

The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
The development of the self is the ultimate objective of learning. Itstresses the whole
person and the integration of thinking, feelings and doing. It considers the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in
the curriculum.

PROBLEM-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN

It draws social problems, interest, needs, and abilities of the learners.

TWO VARIATIONS

3.1 Life-situations design

3.2 Core problem design

3.1 Life-situations Design

The contents of this design are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view
problem areas. It uses the past and present experiences of learners as a means to
analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the pressing immediate
problems of the society and students’ existing concerns are utilized.

3.2 Core Problem Design

It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human
activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems,
and concerns of the learners.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum
based on the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find
out the utilization of the example design. We will find out the utilization of the
example design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach

This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the
child or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the
curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the
learners. The curriculum is also built upon the learners' knowledge, skills, previous
learning and potentials.

From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us

consider these principles.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child

2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner

3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.

Subject-Centered Approach

This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct subjects

for every educationa level: basic education, higher education or vocational-technical
education.

This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from
life.

3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.

4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.

5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach

This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of living,
children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to
become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development individuals.

This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs

Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum mapping is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing the
curriculum resulting in a framework that provides form, focus and function (Hale and
Dunlap, 2010). It is a reflective process that helps teachers understand what has
been taught in class., how it has been taught and how learning outcomes are
assessed. This process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book
Getting results with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004).

This approach is an ongoing process or "work-in-progress". It is not a one time

initiative but a continuing action, which involves the teacher and other stakeholders,
who have common concerns. Curriculum mapping can be done byteachers alone, a
group of teachers teaching the same subject, department, the whole school or
district or the whole educational system.

Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making map to success.

There are common questions that are asked by differe stakeholders, like teachers,
colleagues, parents, school officials and the community as well. These questions
may include:

1. What do my students learn?

2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, cover the same content?
Achievethe same outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connection between my subjects
and other subjects within the year? Next year?

Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions above Furthermore,

mapping will produce a curriculum map, which is a very functional tool in curriculum
development.

Benefits of Curriculum Mapping

1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes,

learning activities and assessment of learning

2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum. It

reveals if certain program goals or learning outcomes are not adequately
covered or overly emphasized in the current curriculum.
 3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignmen between
what students do in their courses and what is taught in the classrooms and
assessed as their learning.

4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and
how they contribute to student learning.

5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction, pedagogies,

assessment and professional development. I facilitates the integration of
cross-curricular skills.

Curriculum Mapping Process

There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome one needs to
produce. This is also true with curriculum mappin However, whatever outcome (map)
will be made, there are suggested steps to follow.

Example A.

1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet,

2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one
year) This should be dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum that
was written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved
at the end of the teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks,
module next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning
outcomes, content areas, and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.
You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-Inspired syllabus for the higher
education. However, this can be modified for basic education to serve the specific
purpose as you will see in some maps.

Example B (For a degree program in college)"

1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.

2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd, or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd. Prof. Ed,
and Major for BSEd)
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or
chronological order.
5. List the degree program outcomes along the horizontal cell (use code
as PO1, PO2...if outcomes are too long to fit in the cell) PO means
Program Outcomes
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine if such subject
accomplishes the outcomes as either Learned (L). Performed (P) or
given Opportunity (O). Place the code in the corresponding cell.
7. Fill up all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers
teaching the course for students to complete the degree in four years.

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum map are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to be
achieved, contents , skills and visual taught, instructional time assessment to be
used, and the overall student movement towards the attainment of the intended
outcomes.

Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain
excellence, efficiency and effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction and
maintain quality of education all stakeholders need to be assured of.

Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the curriculum
map to see that intended outcomes and content covered. A map can reassure
stakeholders specific information for pac and alignment of the subject
horizontally or vertically. It will also av redundancy, inconsistencies and
misalignment. Courses that are t correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly
assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid unnecessary
reteaching.

Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as "pacing guide", will make all teachers,
teaching the same subject in a grade level foll the same timeline and accomplishing
the same learning outcomes This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based
assessment the we have in schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it that concept
development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but
building from a simple to more complicated concept and skills. Alignment, either
vertical or horizontal, will also develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers
and students, between and among courses. Teachers can verify that skills and
content are addresse in other courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more
relevant.

A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enable the teacher or the
curriculum review team to create and recreat the curriculum. It provides a good
information for modification d curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in
order to fin ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Quality Audit (CQA) is a form of curriculum mapping. It is a process of

mapping the curricular program or syllabus against established standards. This
process is supported by Susan Rafe when she said that the best practice in
curriculum development and implementation require that discipline based standards
embody curricular and program scopes and sequences (Arafeh, 2016, p. 585) The
curriculum quality audit requires a written curriculum and the tested curriculum linked
to both the taught and the written curricula.
For those who want to engage in curriculum quality audit, the following questions are
worth considering:

1. Is the curriculum planned, executed, and assessed in accordance with

appropriate standards?
2. How does the school system conform to the standards of quality in
instructional organization like specificity, quality and scope for teaching,
learning and assessment?
3. Are all students achieving success equally and effectively? If not, what can
be done about it?

Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit

1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the

standards
2. Ensures alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the
standards
3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the
basis of the curriculum analysis.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) can be used as anchor
in curriculum quality audit. The PPST aims to set clear expectations of teachers
along well defined career stages of professional development from beginning to
distinguished practice. The Philippines has adopted and implemented the PPST
through the Department of Education Order (DO) 42, s. 2017. Teacher educators,
program heads curriculum planners may refer to the PPST to 'quality audit the pre-
service teacher education curriculum as basis for quality assurance provision of
teacher education.
The first CQA in teacher education curriculum in the Philippines was initiated by the
Research Center for Teacher Quality (RCTQ), the Philippine Normal University,
Cebu Normal University, West Visayas University, Western Mindanao State
University and other member universities of the National Network of Normal Schools
(3Ns). Using the curriculum quality audit (CQA) process, pre- service syllabi were
mapped to the PPST to ensure that standards for beginning teachers (career stage
1) are addressed in the pre-service curriculum. Using the CQA teacher educators
are assured that pre-service teachers embody the competencies of beginning
teachers as they practice their profession in the Department of Education.

There are other standards that can used in the CQA aside from the PPST. CHED
CMOS 74 to 83 are standards set by the Commission on Higher Education, specific
to the degree program being offered and the teachers who are the outcomes of the
programs. They have both the generic standards for all teacher education degree
programs and specific standards for each degree program. For example CMO 74. S.
2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of Elementary Education, or for teachers
who will teach in the elementary level and CMO 75, s. 2017 contain the standards for
Bachelor of Secondary Education or for teachers who will teach in the secondary
level.

Aside from the national standards for teachers, there are also international standards
for globalization like the Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia
(CFT-SEA) of SEAMEO and SEAMES and the European Tuning Asia Southeast
(TASE) teacher competences.

Curriculum Implementation Defined

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba. Saylor and Alexander or Lewis, is
the next step to curriculum designing which is curriculum implementing. This is the
phase where teacher action take place. It is one of the most crucial process in
curriculum development although many education planners would say: "A good plan
is work half done." If this is so, then the other half of the success of curriculum
development rests in the hands of the implementor who is the teacher.
Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that
has been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricula guides, and subjects. It is a
process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in
society. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)

Ornstein and Hunkins in (1998) defined curriculum implementation as the interaction

between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons
(teachers) who are in charge to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation
implies the following:

• Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum:

•Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved Change in behavior

using new strategies and resources; and

• Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable

Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of
a new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. It simply
means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.

In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means "teaching" what has

been written in the lesson plan. Implementing means using the plan as a guide to
engage with the learners in the teaching-learning process with the end in view that
learning has occurred and learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves the
different strategies of teaching with the support instructional materials to go with the
strategy.

In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into

operation with the different implementing agents, Curriculum implementation takes
place in a class, a school, a district, a division, or the whole educational system. In
higher education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, a degree
program, the institution, or the whole higher education system. It requires time,
money, personal interaction, personal contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

Kurt Lewin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change.
The model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.

In the education landscape, there are always two forces that oppose each other.
These are the driving force and the restraining force. When these two forces are
equal, the state is equilibrium, or balance. There will be a status quo, hence there
will be no change. The situation or condition will stay the same. However, when the
driving force overpowers the restraining force, then change will occur. If the opposite
happens that is when the restraining force is stronger than the driving force, change
is prevented. This is the idea of Kurt Lewin in his Force Field Theory.

We shall use this theory to explain curriculum change. The illustration below shows
that there are driving forces on the left and the resisting forces on the right. If you
look at the illustration there is equilibrium. If the driving force is equal to the
restraining force, will change happen? Do you think, there will be curriculum change
in this situation? Why?

According to Lewin, change will be better if the restraining forces shall be decreased,
rather than increasing the driving force As a curricularist, how would you do this?

Let us look first at the different changes that occur i the curriculum. It is important to
identify these as part of our understanding of curriculum implementation
Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 2000 categorized curriculum change as follows:

1. Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.

Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book to
entirely new one, not merely a revision.

2. Alteration. In alteration, there is a minor change to the current or existing

curriculum. For example, instead of using a graphing paper for mathematics
teaching, this can be altered by using a graphing calculator.

3.Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major change or modification

in the school system, degree program or educational system. Using an integrated
curriculum for the whole school for K to 12 requires the primary and secondary levels
to work as a team. Another example is a curriculum that will be restructured when
there is a significant involvement of parents in the child's instead of leaving
everything to the teacher. Using the "In-school Off-school" or a blended curriculum is
an example of restructuring.

4. Perturbations. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust
to them within a fairly short time. For example, if the principal changes the time
schedule because there is a need to catch up with the national testing time or the
dean, the teacher has to shorten schedule to accommodate unplanned extra
curricular activities.

5. Value orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this

classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are
not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.

For example, when new teachers who are recruited in religious schools give
emphasis on academics and forget the formation of values or faith, they need a
curriculum value orientation. Likewise, all teachers in the public schools, undergo
teacher induction program which is a special curriculum for newly hired teachers.
Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and implementation. the process of
change may contain three important elements. As a process, curriculum
implementation should be developmental, participatory and supportive.

It should be developmental in the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives,

increase integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness
and trust, and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be
teacher support in trying new tasks, reflection on the new experiences and
challenge.

There are simple stages in the developmental change process for the teachers. First,
is orientation and preparation. The initial use is very mechanical or routinary.
However, as the skills are honed and mastery of the routine is established,
refinement follows. This means adjustments are made to better meet the needs of
the learners and achieve the learning outcomes. In this step, there will be continuous
reflection, feedback and refinement.

Participatory. For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory,

specially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and
curriculum specialists are necessary. Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment,
willingness to change, skills, and readiness are critical to implementation. This
should be coupled with organizational structure, principal style, student population
characteristics and other factors. Trust among key players should also be sought as
this is a positive starting point. Involvement and participation encourage sense of
ownership and accountability. Participation builds a learning community which is very
necessary in curriculum implementation.

Supportive curriculum implementation is required in the process of change. Material

support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like
classrooms and laboratory should be made available. Likewise, human support is
very much needed. The school leader or head should provide full school or
institutional support to the implementation of the new curriculum. They too have to
train to understand how to address curriculum change as part of their instructional as
well as management functions.

Time is an important commodity for a successful change process. For any innovation
to be fully implemented, period of three to five years to institutionalize a curriculum is
suggested. Time is needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practise, provide
the necessary requirements and get support. Time is also needed to determine when
the implementation starts and when it will conclude, since curriculum implementation
is time bound.

Support from peers, principals, external stakeholders will add to the success of
implementation. When teachers share ideas, work together, solve problems, create
new materials, and celebrate success, more likely that curriculum implementation will
be welcomed.
 IMPLEMENTING A CURRICULUM DAILY IN THE CLASSROOM

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Review the components of daily plan for teaching
 Identify intended learning outcomes
 Match learning outcomes with appropriate teaching methods

So as the prospective teachers, you should prepare lesson plans that will
DepED Order No. 70 s. 2012
Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools will not be required
to prepare detailed lesson plans. They may adopt daily lesson logs which
contain
the needed information and guide from the Teacher Guide (TG) and Teacher
Manual (TM) reference material with page number, interventions given to the
students and remarks to indicate how many students have mastered the
lesson or are needing remediation.

However, teachers with less than 2 years of teaching experience shall

be required to prepare Daily Lesson Plans which shall include the following:
I. Objectives
II. Subject Matter
III. Procedure
IV. Assessment
V. Assignment
Starting the Class Right: Laying own the Curriculum Plan

I. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO).

These are the desired learning that will be the focus of the lesson.
Learning outcomes are based on Taxonomy of Objectives presented to
 us cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Bloom’s Taxonomy has revised
by his own students Loris Anderson ad David Krathwohl.
Let us study in the comparison below.
Bloom’s Taxonomy [1956] Revised Bloom’s Anderson [2021]
EVALUATION CREATING
SYNTHESIS EVALUATING
ANALYSIS ANALYZING
APPLICATION APPLYING
COMPREHENSION UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE REMEMBERING

Somehow the two are similar, however the highest level of cognition in the
revised version, is creating. Take note that the original version is stated as nouns
while the revised version is stated as verbs which implies more active form of
thinking.

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Quick Look

There are three changes in the revised taxonomy. These are:
a. Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.
b. Rearranging these categories.
c. Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version.
Let us study the cognitive categories with the example key words (verbs) for
each in the new version of Bloom’s Taxonomy that follow.

Categories Example key words

Remembering. Recall or retrieve Defines, describes, identifies, labels,
previous learned information. lists,
outlines, selects, states.
Understanding. Comprehend meaning, Comprehends, explains, distinguishes,
translation, state problem in own words, estimates, gives examples, interprets,
making meanings. predicts, rewrites, summarizes.
Applying. Use concept in new situation, Applies, changes, computes, operates,
applies what has been leaned in new constructs, modifies, uses, manipulates,
Situation. Prepares, shows, solves.
Analyzing. Separate materials or Breaks down, compares, contrasts,
concepts diagrams, differentiates, discriminates,
into component parts so that the identifies, infers, outlines, relates,
Organization is clear. Distinguishes selects,
Between facts and inferences. Separates.
Evaluating. Make judgments about the Appraises, compares, criticizes, defends,
Value of ideas or materials. describes, discriminates, evaluates,
interprets, justifies, summarizes
Creating. Build a structure or pattern Composes, compiles, designs,
From various elements. Put parts generates,
together modifies, organizes, rearranges,
to create a whole, to make new meaning reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
and structure. summarizes, creates.

Levels of Knowledge
1. Factual knowledge – ideas, specific data or information.
2. Conceptual knowledge – words or ideas known by common name, common
features, multiple specific examples which my either be concrete or abstract.
Concepts are facts that interrelate with each other to function together.
3. Procedural knowledge - how things work, step-by-step actions, methods of
inquiry.
4. Metacognitive knowledge – knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of
knowledge of one’s own cognition, thinking about thinking.
Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way.
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result Oriented (Outcomes) and Time Bound.

II.Subject Matter or Content (SM) comes from a body of knowledge (facts,

concepts, procedure and metacognition) that will be learned through the
guidance of the teacher. Subject matter is the WHAT in teaching. In a
plan, this is followed by the references.
III.Procedure or Methods and Strategies.
 This is the crux of curriculumimplementation. How a teacher will put life to the
intended learning outcomes and the subject matter to be used depends on this
component.
 There are many ways of teaching for the different kinds of learners (Corpuz&
Salandanan, 2013) enumerated the following approaches and methods, which
maybe useful for the different kinds of learners. Some are time tested methods,
while others are non-conventional constructivist methods.

1. Direct Demonstration Methods: Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach,

Inquiry Method, Problem-based Learning (PBL), Project method.
2. Cooperative Learning Approaches: Peer Tutoring, Learning Action cells, Thin-
Pair Share
3. Deductive or Inductive Approaches: Project Method, Inquiry-based Learning,
4. Other approaches: Blended learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning,
Outcomes-based approach.

Common Characteristics Tips for teachers about learners

Visual – uses graphs, charts, pictures. Turns notes into pictures, diagrams,
Tends to remember things that are maps. Learn the big picture first than
written in forms. details. Make mind maps and concept
maps.
Auditory – recalls information through Record lectures and listen to these.
hearing and speaking. Prefers to be told Repeats materials out loud “parrots”.
how to do things orally. Learns aloud. Read aloud.
Kinesthetic – prefers hand-on approach. Learn something while doing another
Demonstrate how to do, rather than thing (eats while studying). Work while
explain. Like group work with hand on standing. Likes fieldwork. Does many
mind on. things at one time.
Teachers have to take consideration that the different strategies should match
with the learning styles of the students. Or three learning s

Students have different learning styles.

There are many classifications of learning styles according to the different authors:
The Multiple Intelligence Theory of
Howard Garner implied several Learning Styles. But for our lesson, we will just focus
on the three learning styles which are Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic. These three
preferred styles can help teachers choose the method and the materials they will
use.

Teaching and learning must be supported by instructional materials (IMs)

Considering the teaching methodologies and learning styles, the different support
materials should be varied. This will ensure that the individual differences will be
considered. Instructional materials should complement Visual, Auditory, and Tactile
or the combination of three. However, following Dale’s Cone of Learning which is
visual device that can help teachers to make decision on what resources and
materials will maximize learning.
So, what instructional support materials will the teachers use, according to
thelearning styles and the outcomes to be achieved? Here are some guidelines.
1. Use of direct purposeful experience through learning by doing retains almost
all of the learning outcomes. Ninety percent of learning is retained. Examples
are field trip, field study, community immersion, practice teaching.
2. Participation in class activities, discussion, reporting and similar activities
where learners have the opportunity to say and write. Seventy percent of the
learning is remembered. Examples are small group discussion, buzz session,
individual reporting, role play and panel.
3. Passive participation as in watching movie, viewing exhibit, watching
demonstration will retain around 50% of what has been communicated.
4. By just looking at still pictures, paintings, illustrations and drawings will allow
the retention of around 30% of the material content.
5. By hearing as in lecture, sermon monologues, only 20% is remembered.
6. Reading, will ensure 10% remembering of the material.

Regardless of the amount of remembering from the concrete to abstract, each

layer contributes to learning and require instruction support materials.
Visual: concrete (flat, 3-dimensional, realia’s, models, etc.) or abstract
(verbal,symbols words)
Audio: recordings of sounds, natural or artificial
Audio-visual: combination of hat can be seen and heard
Kinesthetic: manipulative materials like modelling clay, rings, dumb bells.
Equipment, others.
Experiential: Utilize all modalities
Methods and materials must implement the plan: Taking action
Examples No. 1: Lesson using basic steps and parts as prescribed by
DepED Order 70 s. 2012 for teachers, two years and less in service.

Finding out what has been achieved: assessing achieved outcomes

At the end of the activity, the teacher will find out if the intended learning
outcomes (ILO) have been converted into achieved learning outcomes (ALO).

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DELIVERING THE CURRICULUM

Instructional media may also be referred to as media technologyor learning
technology, or simply technology. Technology plays a crucial role in delivering
instruction to learners.

Technology offers various tools of learning, and these range from non-projected and
projected media from which the teacher can choose, depending on what he sees fit
with the intended instructional setting. For example, will a chalkboard presentation
be sufficient in illustrating a mathematical procedure; will a video clip be needed for
motivating learners?

In the process, what ensues is objective-matching where the teacher decides on

what media or technology to use to help achieve the set learning objectives.

Non-projected media Projected media

Real objects Models Field trips Kits Printed materials (books, worksheets) Visuals
(drawings, photographs, graphs, charts, posters) Visual boards (chalkboard,
whiteboard, flannel board, etc.) Audio materials
Sound slides sets, Opaque, Slides,Filmstrips, Computer image projection,
multimedia presentations

Types of instructional media technology

Factors in Technology Selection

In deciding on which technology to use from a wide range of media available, the
factors on which to base selection are:

Practicality - Is the equipment (hardware) or already prepared lesson material

(software) available? If not, what would be the cost in acquiring the equipment or
producing the lesson in audial or visual form?

Appropriateness in relation to the learners. Is the medium suitable to the learners'

ability to comprehend? Will the medium be a source of plain amusement or
entertainment, but not learning?

Activity/suitability. Will the chosen media fit the set instructional event, resulting in
either information, motivation, or psychomotor display?

Objective matching. Overall, does the medium help in achieving the learning
objective(s)?

The Role of Technology in Curriculum the Role of Technology in Curriculum

Delivery

It can easily be observed that technological innovation in the multifarious fields of

commerce, science and education, is fast developing such that it is difficult to
foresee the technological revolution in the millennium, inclusive of educational
changes. For certain however, technological changes in education will make its
impact on the delivery of more effective, efficient and humanizing teaching-and-
learning.

But presently, we can identify three current trends that could carry on to the nature of
education in the future. The first trend is the paradigm shift from teacher-centered to
student- centered approach to learning. The second is the broadening realization
that education is not simply a delivery of facts and information, but an educative
process of cultivating the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and much more the
contemplative intelligence of the learners of a new age. But the third and possibly the
more explosive trend is the increase in the use of new information and
communication technology or ICT.

Already at the turn of the past century, ICT, in its various forms and manifestations
has made its increasing influence on education, and the trend is expected to speed
up even more rapidly. Propelling this brisk development is the spread of the use of
the computer and the availability of desktop micro-computers affordable not only to
cottage industries, businesses, and homes but also to schools.

For now, the primary roles of educational technology in delivering the school
curriculum's instructional program have been identified:

- Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools

- Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for
students to gain mastery of lessons and courses

- Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional

approaches to formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and lifelong
learning to adult learners

- Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to student-centered and holistic learning

STAKEHOLDERS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

What are stakeholders?

- Individuals/ institutions that are interested in the school curriculum

-They get involved in many different ways

-Curriculum affects them either directly/indirectly

1. Learners at the Core of the Curriculum

To what extent are the students involved in curriculum development2 The old view
that students are mere recipients of the curriculum, is now changing. Learners have
more dynamic participation from the planning, designing, implementing and
evaluating. However, the degree of their involvement is dependent on their maturity.
The older they are in high school or college, the more they participate. From another
angle, whether learners are in the elementary or college level, they can make or
break curriculum implementation by their active or non-involvement. After all,
learners together with the teachers, put action to the curriculum.

2. Teachers are curricularists.

Teachers are stakeholders who plan, design, teach, implement and evaluate the
curriculum. No doubt, the most important person in curriculum implementation is the
teacher. Teachers' influence upon learners cannot be measured. Better teachers
foster better learning. But teachers need to continue with their professional
development to contribute to the success of curriculum implementation. Teachers
should have full knowledge of the program philosophy, content and components of
curriculum and ways of teaching. A teacher designs, enriches and modifies the
curriculum to suit the learners! characteristics. As curriculum developers, teachers
are part of textbook committees, teacher selection, school evaluation committee or
textbooks and module writers themselves.

Some of the roles that the teachers do in curriculum

implementation are:

1. guiding, facilitating and directing the activities of the learners,

2, choosing the activities and the methods to be utilized:

3, choosing the materials that are necessary for the activity:

4. evaluating the whole implementation process, and

5. making a decision whether to continue, modify or terminate the curriculum

3. School leaders are curriculum managers.

Principals and school heads, too, have important roles in curriculum implementation
process in schools. They should understand fully the need for change and the
implementation process. They should be ready to assist the teachers and the
students in the implementation. Communication line should be open to all concerned
should the school leaders lead in curriculum teamwork. Convincing the parents on
the merits of the job of the school heads. They should be committed to change and
should employ strategies to meet the needs of the teachers, and learners like
buildings, books, library, and other needed resources.

4. Parents Parents are significant school partners.

Besides the students, teachers and school administrators, play an important role in
curriculum implementation. When children bring home a homework from school,
some parents are unable to help. Schools need to listen to parents' concerns about
school curriculum like textbooks, school activities, grading systems and others.
Schools have one way of engaging parents' cooperation through Brigada Eskwela. In
this event, parents will be able to know the situation in the school. Most often parents
volunteer to help. They can also be tapped in various co-curricular activities as
chaperones to children in Boy and Girl Scouting, Science Camping and the like.
Parents may not directly be involved in curriculum Implementation, but they are
formidable partners for the success of any curriculum development endeavor.

5. Community as the Curriculum Resources and a Learning

Environment

"It takes the whole village to educate the child" goes the statement of former First
Lady Hillary Clinton. What do you think of this statement?

Yes, it is true that the school is in the community, hence the community is the
extended school ground, a learning environment. All the barangay leaders, the
elders, others citizens and residents of the community have a stake in the
curriculum. It is the bigger school community that becomes the venue of learning.
The rich natural and human resources of the community can assist in educating the
children. The community is the reflection of the school's influence and the school is a
reflection of the community support.
6. Other Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation and
Development

Some stakeholders may not have direct influence on the school curriculum. These
are agencies and organizations that are involved in the planning, design,
implementation and evaluation of the school curriculum. To name a few, the list
follows.

6.1 Government Agencies

-DepEd, TESDA, CHED- trifocalized agencies that have regulatory and mandatory
authorities over the implementation of the curricula.

- Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) and Civil Service Commission (CSC)

the agency that certifies and issues teacher licenses to qualify one to teach and
affirms and confirms the appointment of teachers in the public schools.

- Local Government Units (LGU) include the municipal government officials and the
barangay officials. Some of the teachers are paid through the budget of the LGUS.
They also construct school buildings, provide equipment, support the professional
development teachers and provide school supplies and books. They are the big
supporters in the implementation of a school curriculum

6.2 Non-Government Agencies Non-government agencies

are organizations and foundations that have the main function to support education.
To name a few, this includes the following:

Gawad Kalinga (GK)-to build communities means to include education. The full
support of GK in early childhood education is very significant. In each village, a
school for preschool children and out-of-school youth have been established.

Synergia- an organization/foundation that supports basic education to elevate

education through Reading, Science, Mathematics and English.

Metrobank Foundation- supports continuing teacher development programs

Professional Organizations -like Philippine Association For Teachers and
Educators (PAFTE), State Universities and Colleges Teacher Educators Association
(SUCTEA), National Organization of Science Teachers and Educators (NOSTE),
Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) and many more. A
school curriculum, whether big or small is influenced by many stakeholders. Each
one has a contribution and influence in what should replace, modify and substitute
the current curriculum. Each one has a significant mark in specific development and
change process of curriculum development.
 EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM

Evaluation has a long history. As Guba and Lincoln (1981) pointed out, a
Chinese emperor in 2200 b.c. required that his public officials demonstrate their
proficiency in formal competency tests. In the United States, the concern for
evaluating schools can be traced at least as far back as the recommendations of the
Committee of Ten, which at the end of the 19th century set perhaps the first example
of “evaluative standards” for the nation’s secondary schools (National Education
Association, 1969).

EVALUATION MODELS

How can the merit and worth of such aspects of curriculum be determined?
Evaluation specialists have proposed an array of models, an examination of which
can provide useful background for the process presented in this work.

MODELS FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model

How can a developed curriculum be assessed and evaluated for

effectiveness? Bradley’s (1985) book Curriculum Leadership and Development
Handbook provides 10 key indicators that can be used to measure the effectiveness
of a developed curriculum.

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model for Curriculum Development Indicators

Indicator Description

Vertical curriculum continuity The course of study reflects a K–12

format that enables teachers to have
quick and constant access to what is
being taught in the grade levels below
and above them. Also, upward
spiraling prevents undue or useless
curricular repetition.

Horizontal curriculum continuity The course of study developed

 provides content and objectives that
are common to all classrooms of the
same grade level. Also, daily lesson
plans reflect a commonality for the
same grade level.

Instruction based on curriculum Lesson plans are derived from the

course of study, and curriculum
materials used are correlated with the
content, objectives, and authentic
tasks developed

Curriculum priority Philosophical and financial

commitments are evident. Clerical
assistance is provided and
reasonable stipends are paid to
teachers for work during the summer
months. In addition, curriculum topics
appear on school board agendas,
administrative meeting agendas, and
building-staff meeting agendas

Broad involvement Buildings in the district have teacher

representatives on the curricular
committees; elementary, middle level
or junior high, and high school
principals (or designees) are
represented; and school board
members are apprised of and
approve the course of study.

Long-range planning Each program in the district is

included in the 5-year sequence and
review cycle. Also, a philosophy of
education and theory of curriculum
 permeate the entire school district.

Decisionmaking clarity Controversies that occur during the

development of a program center on
the nature of the decision, and not on
who makes the decision.

Positive human relations Also, the initial thoughts about the

curriculum come from teachers,
principals, and the curriculum leader.
All participating members are willing
to risk disagreeing with anyone else;
however, communication lines are not
allowed to break down.

Theory-intopractice approach The district philosophy, vision,

mission, exit (graduation) outcomes,
program philosophy, rationale
statement, program goals, program
objectives, learning outcomes, and
authentic tasks are consistent and
recognizable.

Planned change Tangible evidence shows that the

internal and external publics accept
the developed program course of
study for the school district. The
process of developing a course of
study for each program or discipline
in a school district is no longer one of
determining how to do it, but one of
determining how to do it better.

The Tyler Model

 The Tyler model, a curriculum evaluation model that takes into account
information from the active learner and pays close attention to how well the goals
and objectives of the curriculum are supported by the experiences and activities
provided, was named after its creator, Ralph Tyler, and focuses on four main areas

The Tyler model has several advantages:

It is relatively easy to understand and apply.

It is rational and systematic.

It focuses attention on curricular strengths and weaknesses, rather than

being concerned solely with the performance of individual students.

It also emphasizes the importance of a continuing cycle of assessment,

analysis, and improvement. As Guba and Lincoln (1981) pointed out, however, it
suffers from several deficiencies.

It does not suggest how the objectives themselves should be evaluated. It

does not provide standards or suggest how standards should be developed.

Its emphasis on the prior statement of objectives may restrict creativity in

curriculum development

it seems to place undue emphasis on the pre-assessment and post-

assessment, ignoring completely the need for formative assessment.

Similarly, Baron and Boschee (1995), in their book Authentic Assessment:

The Key to Unlocking Student Success, stress that “we are encountering
fundamental changes in the way we view and conduct assessment in American
schools” (p. 1). And “sixty years have passed since we experienced such a deep-
seated and thoughtful revaluation of our assessment methods”

The Tyler approach moved rationally and systematically through several

related steps:

 Begin with the behavioral objectives that have been previously determined.
Those objectives should specify both the content of learning and the student
 behavior expected: “Demonstrate familiarity with dependable sources of
information on questions relating to nutrition.”

 Identify the situations that will give the student the opportunity to express the
behavior embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior.
Thus, if you wish to assess oral language use, identify situations that evoke oral
language.

 Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the

instruments for objectivity, reliability, and validity.

 Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results.

 Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given
periods in order to estimate the amount of change taking place.

 Analyze the results in order to determine strengths and weaknesses of the

curriculum and to identify possible explanations about the reason for this
particular pattern of strengths and weaknesses.

 7. Use the results to make the necessary modifications in the curriculum

The purpose of the curriculum being evaluated (the objectives) The

experiences that are provided to support that purpose (the strategies and content).

 How these experiences are organized (organization of the content)

 How the outcomes are evaluated (assessment)

It has been criticized, however, for its simplicity and because assessment is a
final step rather than an ongoing part of the process.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model Michael Scriven (1972)

Was the first to question the assumption that goals or objectives are crucial in
the evaluation process.
 After his involvement in several evaluation projects where so-called side effects
seemed more significant than the original objectives, he began to question the
seemingly arbitrary distinction between intended and unintended effects. His goal-
free model was the outcome of this dissatisfaction.

Scriven’s main contribution, obviously, was to redirect the attention of

evaluators and administrators to the importance of unintended effects—a redirection
that seems especially useful in education.

If a mathematics program achieves its objectives of improving computational

skills but has the unintended effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it
cannot be judged completely successful.

Scriven’s emphasis on qualitative methods also seemed to come at an

opportune moment, when there was increasing dissatisfaction in the research
community with the dominance of quantitative methodologies.

As Scriven himself notes, however, goal-free evaluation should be used to

complement, not supplant, goal-based assessments. Used alone, it cannot provide
sufficient information for the decision maker. Some critics have faulted Scriven for
not providing more explicit directions for developing and implementing the goal-free
model; as a consequence, it probably can be used only by experts who do not
require explicit guidance in assessing needs and detecting effects.

The Taba Model

The Taba model, a curriculum evaluation model emphasizing inductive

reasoning, was created by Hilda Taba who believed that true curriculum should be
developed by the teacher, rather than decided upon by administration or another
authority.

The Taba model, also called the ''Inductive Approach,'' uses a series of
stages or steps, which can be applied in both the development and evaluation of
curriculum.

These stages are:

 Deciding on objectives
 Selecting content

 Organizing content

 Selecting learning experiences and activities

 Organizing learning experiences and activities

 Deciding what and how to evaluate

Stake's Model (Countenance Model)

In the 1950s, Robert Stake formulated the Countenance model, also known
as Stake's model, which looks at curriculum from a more scientific point of view by
examining three distinct areas of the curriculum

Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to curriculum evaluation in his

development of the responsive model, because the responsive model is based
explicitly on the assumption that the concerns of the stakeholders—those for whom
the evaluation is done—should be paramount in determining the evaluation issues.

He made the point this way: To emphasize evaluation issues that are
important for each particular program, I recommend the responsive evaluation
approach.

It is an approach that trades off some measurement precision in order to

increase the usefulness of the findings to persons in and around the program. . . .

An educational evaluation is a responsive evaluation if it orients more directly

to program activities than to program intents; responds to audience requirements for
information; and if the different value perspectives present are referred to in reporting
the success and failure of the program.

Stake recommends an interactive and recursive evaluation process that

embodies these steps:

 The evaluator meets with clients, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their
perspectives on and intentions regarding the evaluation.

 The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to
determine the scope of the evaluation project.
 The evaluator observes the program closely to get a sense of its operation and
to note any unintended deviations from announced intents.

 The evaluator discovers the stated and real purposes of the project and the
concerns that various audiences have about it and the evaluation.

 The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which

 The evaluation should be concerned. For each issue and problem,

 The evaluator develops an evaluation design, specifying the kinds of data

needed.

 The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often,
the means will be human observers or judges.

 The evaluator implements the data-collection procedures.

 The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares “portrayals”
that communicate in natural ways the thematic reports.

 The portrayals may involve videotapes, artifacts, case studies, or other “faithful
representations.”

 By again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders,

 the evaluator decides which audiences require which reports and chooses
formats most appropriate for given audiences. (as cited by Glatthorn, 1987, pp.
275–276) Clearly,

 the chief advantage of the responsive model is its sensitivity to clients.

 By identifying their concerns and being sensitive to their values, by involving

them closely throughout the evaluation, and by adapting the form of reports to
meet their needs, the model, if effectively used, should result in evaluations of
high utility to clients.

 The responsive model also has the virtue of flexibility:

 The evaluator is able to choose from a variety of methodologies once client

concerns have been identified.

 Its chief weakness would seem to be its susceptibility to manipulation by clients,

who in expressing their concerns might attempt to draw attention away from
weaknesses they did not want exposed.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

 Elliot Eisner (1979) drew from his background in aesthetics and art education
in developing his “connoisseurship” model, an approach to evaluation that
emphasizes qualitative appreciation.

The Eisner model is built on two closely related constructs: connoisseurship

and criticism. Connoisseurship, in Eisner’s terms, is the art of appreciation—
recognizing and appreciating through perceptual memory, drawing from experience
to appreciate what is significant.

It is the ability both to perceive the particulars of educational life and to

understand how those particulars form part of a classroom structure. Criticism, to
Eisner, is the art of disclosing qualities of an entity that connoisseurship perceives.

In such a disclosure, the educational critic is more likely to use what Eisner
calls “nondiscursive”—a language that is metaphorical, connotative, and symbolic. It
uses linguistic forms to present, rather than represent, conception or feeling.
Educational criticism, in Eisner’s formulation, has three aspects.

The descriptive aspect is an attempt to characterize and portray the relevant

qualities of educational life—the rules, the regularities, the underlying architecture.
The interpretive aspect uses ideas from the social sciences to explore meanings and
develop alternative explanations—to explicate social phenomena.

The evaluative aspect makes judgments to improve the educational

processes and provides grounds for the value choices made so that others might
better disagree.

The chief contribution of the Eisner model is that it breaks sharply with the
traditional scientific models and offers a radically different view of what evaluation
might be. In doing so, it broadens the evaluator’s perspective and enriches his or her
repertoire by drawing from a rich tradition of artistic criticism. Its critics have faulted it
for its lack of methodological rigor, although Eisner has attempted to refute such
charges. Critics have also argued that use of the model requires a great deal of
expertise, noting the seeming elitism implied in the term connoisseurship
 SOME CURRICULUM INNOVATIONS

“Curriculum holds an outstanding place when seeking to promote innovation

in education, as it reflects the vision for education by indicating knowledge, skills,
and values to be taught to students. It may express not only what should be taught to
students, but also how the students should be taught.”-– Kiira Kärkkäinen

Innovation means doing things in new ways, and in curriculum, it means

adopting different designs for learning to help make learning more meaningful for
21st-century learners. Some practices in education have become outmoded, and
learning experiences should be redesigned to be more relevant to student interests,
abilities, and cultures.

An additional challenge is that with a more diverse population of students

who have a broad range of abilities, innovations must be linked to curriculum goals
as well as being challenging and differentiated to provide for an array of learning
experiences.

Agencies of Curriculum Change

Agencies of change include institutes of education, curriculum development

centers, research institutes, schools, colleges, universities, departments of
education, publishing companies, school districts, school boards, and communities.

Curriculum Innovations

Innovation involves the introduction of something new in curriculum that

deviates from the standard practice, often because society has changed and so must
the curriculum. To meet these changes, innovations are created.

Models of Curriculum Innovation

Various scholars have proposed different models of innovation. For instance,

Ronald Havelock (1969) identified three main models of innovation:

 Research, Development, and Diffusion (RD&D) model

 Social Interaction (SI) model

 Problem-Solving (PS) model

The Research, Development and Diffusion (RD&D) Model

In this model, an idea or practice is conceived at the central planning unit and
then fed into the system. RD&D is effective where curriculum development is done
on a large scale and ideas have to reach wide geographical areas and isolated
users. It is a highly organized, rational approach to innovation.

Following is a logical sequence of activities in using the RD&D model:

 Basic research by a central project team which develops a new curriculum

devises and designs prototyped materials,

 field trials of the prototyped materials and redesign them where necessary,

 mass production of the modified prototyped materials,

 mass dissemination or diffusion of the innovation through courses, conferences,

and workshops, and

 implementation of the innovation by the users (school, teachers, and pupils).

This model is used in areas that have centralized systems of education, such as
universities or departments of education

The Social Interaction (SI) Model

The model grew out of the progressive education movement in the 1930s
when it split into two camps: one that focused on the individual student as a learner
and the other on society as an education laboratory (Ellis, 2004). This view sees
students as capable of reforming society with support from leadership to provide a
curriculum that may become “a classroom without walls” and a community where
students and teachers can ultimately change the world (Ellis, 2004).

This model operates through social interaction and emphasizes

communication. It stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of information,
opinion of leadership, personal contacts, and social integration. The model also has
its roots in the notion of democratic communities “helping students to be as well as to
become.” (Sergiovanni, 1994).

The SI model also stresses the relationship of the individual to other people
and society, and the instructional methods used by teachers in the classroom to
facilitate group work. The model is student-centered, and students are encouraged
to interact with each other in a structured setting. When implementing this strategy,
students often serve as facilitators of content and help their peers construct
meaning.

The students are to question, reflect, reconsider, seek help and support, and
participate in group discussions.

The three most common strategies include:

 group projects,

 group discussions, and

 cooperative learning (Patel, 2013).

The interactions are often face-to-face but may also be interactive using
online tools and technologies. The steps of instruction using social interaction often
vary, but they have these steps

The Problem Solving (PS) Model

The PS model is based on the assumption that innovation is part of a

problem-solving process. The following steps are characteristic of the PS model.

The PS model is referred to as a “periphery-center” approach to innovation.

The innovations are initiated, generated, and applied by the teachers and schools
based on their needs. Such innovations have strong user commitment and the best
chance for long term survival.

In this model, the receiver is actively involved in finding an innovation to solve

their own unique problem. The model is flexible enough to encompass all types of
innovations, including materials, methods, and groupings of learners.
 Thus, the PS model is local in nature, usually limited in size, and may not be
of high quality compared with more centralized approaches to curriculum
development.

REFERENCES

Bradley, L. H. (1985). Curriculum leadership and development handbook.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brandt, R. S. (Ed.). (1981). Applied
strategies for curriculum evaluation. Alexandria,

Eisner, E. W. (1979). The educational imagination: On the design and

evaluation of school programs. New York: Macmillan

Glatthorn, A. A. (1987). Curriculum leadership. New York: HarperCollins.

Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1981). Effective evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Stake, R. E. (Ed.). (1975). Evaluating the arts in education: A responsive

approach. Columbus, OH: Bobbs-Merrill. Stufflebeam, D. L. (1971). Educational
evaluation and decision making. Itasca, IL: Peacock. Tyler, R. W. (1950). Basic
principles of curriculum and instruction: Syllabus for Education 305. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. Worthen, B. R. (1981). Journal entries of an
eclectic evaluator. In R. S. Brandt (Ed.), Applied strategies for curriculum
evaluation (pp. 58–90). Alexandria, VA: ASCD
 REPORT OUTLINE

IN

TEACHER

IN THE

SCHOOL CURRICULUM

(Prof ED 609)

PASS TO:

NURULAJI MAMALINTA

SUBJECT INSTRUCTOR

GROUP MEMBERS:

JOHN LENNON P. BARON - LEADER

MAHANIE E. ABDULLAH

JUHAIMIN B. ALIG

NORAINA D. ALAY

NORAISA RODER

LINA GAMPAS

SAMERA GUIAPAR

CRISHNA LANJE

NORJIYA SWEB