MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Computer Engineering 22317 Data Structures Using Definition A data structure is a specialized format for organizing, processing, retrieving, and storing data. It provides a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. They are essential ingredients in the creation of fast and powerful algorithms Why Data Structures? Understanding data structures is crucial for: 1. Efficiency: Proper choic@’6f data structures cantléad to more efficient algorithms. 2. Data Management: Easier and efficient management of data. 3. Ease of Computation: Simplifies complex computational problems. Basic Types of Data Structures 1. Primitive Data Structures: Basic structures and directly operated upon by machine instruetions. Examples include: + Integers + Float = Char, + Pointers. 2. Non-Primitive Data Structures: More complex structures that are built upon the primitive datalstrdctures. They'can bédivided into: + Linear Data Structures: Data elements are stored sequentially and have a unique predecessor and successor. Examples includes "Arrays Lifked Lists stacks = Queues * Non-Linear Data Structures: Hierarchical data structures with top to bottom approach. Examples include: + Trees © Graphs Key Concepts in Data Structures 1. Arrays: A collection of items stored at contiguous memory locations. 2. Linked Lists: A linear data structure where each element points to the next element in the sequence. 3. Stacks: A collection of items where the item added last is the first one to come off (Last in, First Out).MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 4, Queues: A collection where the item added first is the first to come off (First In, First Out). 5. Trees: A hierarchical structure with a root element and subsequent child elements, 6. Graphs: A set of nodes that are connected together, where each node is a value. 7. Hashing: A technique to convert a range of key values into a range of indexes of an array. Applications of Data Structures 1. For Software Development: Effective use of data structures can lead to more efficient software applications, Databases: Efficient retrieval and storage of data in databases. Operating Systems: Used in the construction of memory storage and management. Compiler Design: Parsing ofisyntax and semantic analysis. Artificial Intelligence! Used in algorithms like neuralinetworks and machine learning. Concept of Data Structures A data/structure is a specific way of storing and organizing data in @ computer so that it can be ac¢essed and modified efficiently. Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and somevare highly specialized for specific tasks, Need for Data Structures 1. Efficiency: Properchoice’6f data structures can lead to more efficient algorithms which can improve-the speed of program, 2. Reusable; Data structures até generally based-on the principlesiof abstraction and are reusable aeross multiple applications. 3. Abstraction! Data structures allow the implementation details to be hidden, enabling, a clear separation between the abstract view of data and its implementation. 4, Flexibility: Differentiproblems require different waysito access data, whether it's a direct access, step-by-step/onhierarchicalAppropriate data structures provide this flexibility. 5. Reducing Complexity: Proper data structures can simplify complex problems by properly organizing data. Abstract Data Type (ADT) Concept of ADT ‘An Abstract Data Type (ADT) is a high-level description of a collection of data and the operations that can be performed on that data, It is "abstract" because it gives an implementation-independent view. The process of defining ADTS is one of specifying the type of data and the operations on the data in terms of parameters and results.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 1. Encapsulation: ADT encapsulates data and the operations on data together, where the data is not accessible to the outside world, and only the operations are allowed on it. 2. Information Hiding: ADTs expose only the necessary details, keeping the internal mechanisms hidden from users. Examples of ADT 1. List ADT: An ordered collection of items, where the same value may appear more than once. * Operations: Insert, Delete, Find, Size, etc. 2. Stack ADT: A collection of items with the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle, * Operations: Push Popy Peek, IsEmptyjetc, 3. Queue ADT: A collection of items with the First In Fist Out (FIFO) principle. + Operations: Enqueue, Dequeue, Front, IsEmpty, etc. Importance.of ADT ADTs provide a blueprint for creating data structures. They give a clear structure and set of operations without tying down the specifics of its implementation. This allows for flexibility in how the data structure can be uséd.and implemented. Data structures are,fundamental concepts.in computer science that dictate how data is stored, organized, and accessed: They can be broadly classified into two categories based ‘on how they store and relate to data: 1. Linear Data Structures 2. Non-Linear Data Structures 1. Linear Data Structures Linear data structures store data in a sequential manner, where each element is connected to its previous and next element. Arrays: + Definition: A fixed-size, contiguous memory data structure that holds elements, typically of the same data type. Access: Direct access using indices. ‘Usage: Best for scenarios with a known number of elements. ii, Linked Lists: + Definition: A collection of nodes, where each node comprises a value and a reference (oF link) to the next node in the sequence. + Types: Singly Linked List, Doubly Linked List, and Circular Linked List.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 * Usage: Suitable for applications where the size of the data set can change. Stacks: + Definition: 4 collection of elements with Last In, First Out (LIFO) ordering. Operations mainly include push (to add) and pop (to remove). © Access: Access is restricted to the top element. Usage: Used in scenarios like undo operations, backtracking, and parsing expressions. 1. Queues: ‘+ Definition: A collection of elements with First In, First Out (FIFO) ordering. Operations involve enqueue (to add) and dequeue (to remove). = Types: Simple Queue, Circular Queue, Priority Queue, and Deque. ‘+ Usage: Useful in order management, data buffering, and task scheduling. 2. Non-Linear Data Structures Non-Linear datastructures are hierarchical, meaning data is stored hierarchically and not sequentially, Trees: ‘+ Definition: 4 hierarchical structure consisting of nodes connected by edges. it has a root lode and several subtrees. + Types: Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree, AVL Tree, Heap, and more. = Usage: Utilized in scenarios like database indexing, file storage systems, and priority queues. | Graphs: + Definition: A set of nodes(vertices) connected by edges.-Unlike trees, graphs can have cycles. ‘Types: Directed Graph (Digraph), Undirected Graph, Weighted Graph, Unweighted Graph, CycliGraph, Acyclic Graph. ‘© Usage: Suitable'for scenarios like social networks, transportation networks, and path- finding algorithms. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution Algorithm complexity provides a theoretical estimation of the computational intensity in terms of resources used by an algorithm. Two of the most critical resources are time and memory, and hence, we study:MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 1, Time Complexity 2. Space Complexity 1. Time Complexity Definition: Time complexity represents the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a function of the length of the input. It gives an upper bound on the running time of an operation in the worst-case scenario, allowing us to gauge the efficiency of the algorithm. Factors Affecting Time Complexity: * Number of operations. = Number of loops. © Recursive function calls, Common Time Complexities: © 0(1): Constaiht time - The algorithm takes a constant amounitof time regardless of the input sizevE-g., accessing an array lement by its.index, O(log n); Logarithmic time - Each operation’the algorithm performs reduces the size of the problem. £.g,, binary search + O(n):Linear time - The running time inéreases linearly with the size of the input. E.e., simple search algorithms. © O(n log n): Log-linear time - More efficient than@uadratic algorithms but less than linear ones. E.@ fast sorting algorithms like thergésort and heapsort. = 0(nA2), 0(n43}, ...: Polynomial time - Nested T6ops often result in these kinds of time complexities. E.g;pbubble"sort (O(n"2)) 2. Space Complexity Definition: Space complexity quantifies the amount of memory (or space) an algorithm uses as a function of the length of the input. It provides an upper bound on the memory required for thélworst-case scenario. Factors Affecting Space Complexity: + Variables (primitive and objects). ‘Data structures (like arrays, stacks, queues, trees). Recursive function call stack. Common Space Complexities: + 0(1): Constant space - The algorithm uses a fixed amount of space regardless of the input size. E.g,, iterative algorithms with a limited number of variables. + O(n): Linear space - The space used by the algorithm grows linearly with the size of the input. E.g., algorithms that need to store all elements of an input array.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Trade-offs: Often there's a trade-off between time and space. An algorithm that runs faster might use more memory, and one that uses minimal memory might be slower. The choice between them depends on the constraints of a particular problem or system. Data structures are foundational elements in computer science, serving as the framework to store and manage data. To interact with and manage the data within these structures, certain fundamental operations are employed. These operations include: 1, Traversing 2. Searching 3. Insertion 4. Deletion 5. Sorting 1. Traversing Definition: Traversing refers to visiting each element in a data structure, exactly once, to process the element. Use Cases: + Reading all elements of an array. © Visiting all nodés of atinkéd list or tree. Common Methods: © For arrays and linked lists: Looping from start to-end. + For trees and graphs: Depth-First Search (DFS) and Breadth-Fifst Search (BFS). 2. Searching Definition: Searching involves l6cating.a specificitém (node or value) in a data structure. Common Methods: + Linear Search: Going through each element sequentially. Used for arrays and linked lists. + Binary Search: Dividing the searching zone by half in every step. Requires the data to be sorted, ‘© Hashing: Using hash tables to fetch a value directly based on its search key. 3. Insertion Definition: Insertion is the addition of an item (node or value) to a data structure. Use Cases: * Adding an element to an array at a specific position. + Appending a node to a linked list or tree.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Common Methods: + For arrays: Shifting elements to make space for the new item. + Forlinked lists: Adjusting pointers to include the new node. + For trees: Finding the appropriate position and attaching the new node. 4, Dele Definition: Deletion involves removing a specified item (node or value) from a data structure, Use Cases: + Removing an element from an array. * Deleting a specific node from a linked list or tree. Common Methods: n + For arrays: Removing an element and shiftingsubsequent elements, + For linked lists: Adjusting pointers to bypass and refove the node. + For trees: Usingimethods like node substitution for maintaining structure. Sorting is the process of arrany or descending). Common Methods: items in a specific order (typically ascending + Bubble Sort: Repeatedly’steps through the listeompares adjacent elements, and swaps them ifthey are in the wrong order. © Merge Sort: Divides the list into halves, sorts them, and merges them back together. * Quick Sort: Selacts-@-/pivot" element and partitions the array such that all elements smaller thanythe pivot comebefore, and all greater-elements come after it. * Insertion Sort: Builds. sorted array one iterate time by comparing each item with the rest ofthe list and inserting it in the correct position. Note: This Notes is Creatéd by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell the8€ notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution, Admins Permission. It is Only,fof Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch = All Semester = AllSubjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570. YouTube: Diploma SolutionMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Searching is the process of locating a specific item within a data set. The efficiency and success of the search operation depend on the nature of the data set and the choice of the searching method. Here, we'll explore two fundamental searching algorithms: Definition: Linear search, also known as sequential search, involves inspecting each element of the data set sequentially until the desired item is found or the entire data set has been examined. Algorithm: 1. Start from the first element 2. Compare the desiréd Item with the current element 3. If they match, féturn the current position or index. 4. If they don't match, move tothe next element. 5. Repeat steps 2-4 until the jtem is found or theend ofthe data Set is reached. Complexity: + Time{Complexity: O(n) in the worst case, where n is the number of elements in the data set. * Space Complexity: O(1);as it only requires a cofistant amount of additional space. Usage: ‘+ Suitable for small datasets or unsorted data sets. + Simple to implement: Definition: Binary search is an efficient method that divides the data set in half with each iteration, narrowing down the search interval, until the desired item is found. This method requires the data set to be sorted. Algorithm: 1. Define low, high, and mid pointers. Initially, low is at the start, and high is at the end of the data set, Calculate mid as the average of low and high. Compare the item at mid with the desired item. If they match, return the mid index. If the desired item is greater than th: from step 2. item at mid, reassign low to mid + 1 and repeatMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 6. If the desired item is smaller than the item at mid, reassign high to mid - 1 and repeat from step 2. 7. If low exceeds high, the item is not in the data set. Complexity: + Time Complexity: O(log n) in the worst case, due to the data set being divided in half during each iteration. + Space Complexity: O(1) in the iterative approach and O(log n) in the recursive approach due to the call stack. Usage: + Best suited for large, sorted data sets. + Offers a significant speed advantage over linear search for large data sets. Sorting is a fundamental operation in\computer science that involves arranging data elements ina specific order. Different sorting algorithms have been developed, each with its advantages and disadvantages. Here, we'll explore five common sorting methods: Description: Bubble Sort compares adjacent’elements and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. This process is repeated until the entire data set is sorted Algorithm: 1. Start from the first element. 2. Compare itwith the next element. 3. If the next element is smaller, swap them. 4, Move to the nextypair of elements and repeat. 5. Continue until the éhttire data set is sorted, Complexity: + Time Complexity: O(n“2) in the worst and average cases. + Space Complexity: O(1), as it only requires a constant amount of additional space. Usage: + Simple to implement. + Suitable for small data sets. Description: Selection Sort divides the data set into a sorted and an unsorted region. It repeatedly selects the smallest (or largest) element from the unsorted region and places it in the sorted region.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Algorithm: 1. Find the minimum element in the unsorted region. 2. Swap it with the first element of the unsorted region. 3. Move the boundary between the sorted and unsorted regions. 4, Repeat steps 1-3 until the entire data set is sorted. Complexity: + Time Complexity: O(n42) in the worst and average cases. + Space Complexity: (2), as it only requires a constant amount of additional space. Usage: + Useful for small data sets or in scenarios where memory writes are costly. Description: insertion’ Sort builds a/sorted array-oneitem at a time by repeatedly shifting elements that are greater than the currént element. Algorithm: 1. Start from the second element. 2. Compare it with the elements before it and shift’them until the correct position is, found, 3. Repeat for all.elements. Complexity: + Time Complexity: O(n42)in the worst and-average cases;-but performs welll on small data sets. © Space Complexity: 0(1), as it only requires a constant amount of additional space. Usage: * Efficient for small data setnnearly sortedidata sets. * Simple to implement. Description: Quick Sort uses a divide-and-conquer strategy. It selects a ‘pivot! element and partitions the data set around the pivot, sorting the subarrays recursively. Algorithm: 1. Choose a pivot element. 2. Partition the data set around the pivot, with elements smaller on the left and larger on the right. 3. Recursively apply Quick Sort to the subarrays.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Comple: + Time Complexity: 0(n42) in the worst case, but average case is O(n log n). + Space Complexity: O(log n) due to the recursive calls. Usage + Efficient for large data sets. + Frequently used in practice due to its average-case performance. Description: Radix Sort sorts data by processing individual digits or bits of elements. it performs sorting by repeatediyidistributing thélélements based on each digit. Algorithm: 1. Sort the elements based on the least significant digit. 2. Repeat thé process for each subsequent digit, 3. Combine the results to get the sorteddataet. ‘Complexity: * Time Complexity: O(nk), where n is the number of elements and k is the number of digits. + Space Complexity: O(n+k), for temporary storage. Usage: ‘+ Effective for sorting integerswith,a limited range of digits. © Suitable for Scenarioswhere data elements are represented in a specific way (e.g, integers). Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sellithese notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permissionaltis'Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution2s) a AY (@) +91 8108332570 a MSBTE Diploma Solution) bs www.diplomasolution.com| a » adMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Astack is a fundamental data structure that follows a specific principle in how the operations of adding (pushing) and removing (popping) elements are performed. The principle that a stack adheres to is called Last In, First Out (LIFO). This means that the last element added to the stack will be the first one to be removed UFO Principle: The main characteristic that defines a stack. The top of the stack contains the most recent item, and the bottom holds the oldest. When an item is added, it’s placed on the top, and when an item is removed, it's taken from the top. 2. Dynamic Size: The size (oPheight) of the staeRiean typically grow and shrink as needed, dependingén the operations performed. 3. Top Pointer: Aistack often has a pointer to keep track of the top element. This is essential for'quick push and pop operations. Basic Operations: 1. Push; Add an item to the top of the stack, 2. Pop: Remove the top item from thesstack. 3. Peek/Top: View thetop item without removingiit, 4, isEmpty: Cheek if the stack is empty. 5. ize: Retuta the numberof items in the stack. Applications: 1. Function Calls: Computer programs use stacks to handle funetion calls. When a function is called, its details are pushed onto a call stack, and when the function exits, its details are popped. 2. Expression EvaluationStacks are used in algorithms that evaluate postfix (RPN) and infix expressions. 3. Undo Mechanism: Many software applications use stacks to implement the undo feature. Every action is pushed onto the stack, and the undo operation pops the last action. 4, Balancing Symbols: Used in algorithms to check for balanced parentheses, brackets, and braces in coding languages. 5. Backtracking: Helps in algorithms like depth-first search (DFS) in trees and graphs Limitations: 1. Limited Capacity: In array implementation of stacks, they have a fixed size. Although this can be resolved with linked list implementation, it introduces additional memory overhead for storing pointers.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 2. Underflow and Overflow: Without proper checks, trying to pop an element from an empty stack can cause underflow, and trying to push an element onto a full stack can cause overflow, A stack can be efficiently implemented using an array, a fundamental data structure that allocates a block of contiguous memory locations. Using an array, a stack has a fixed size, which means it can store a limited number of elements. Here's how a stack is represented in memory when implemented using an array: Memory Layout: 1. Contiguous Memory! An array uses a block of memory cells, one next to the other, allowing directaecess by index. 2. Fixed Capacity: When implemented with an array, a stack has a fixed size, determined at the time of its creation, This means there's a.maximum number of elements it can hold. Components: 1. Array: The primary memory space where the stack’s elements are stored. 2. Top Pointer: Arvinteger or pointer that keeps trackof the index of the top element in the stack, 3. Capacity: The raximunrtiumber of elements the stack can hold. Basic Operations: 1. Push + Check ifthe stack is full (top pointer is equal to capacity - 1). + If not full, inérement the top pointer. + Add the element atithe position indicated by the top pointer in the array, 2. Pop: + Check if the stack is empty (top pointer is -1). + Ifnot empty, retrieve the element at the position indicated by the top pointer. + Decrement the top pointer. + Return the retrieved element. 3. Peek/Top: + Check if the stack is empty. + If not, return the element at the position indicated by the top pointer without modifying the stack. 4, isEmpty: + Return true if the top pointer is -1, otherwise return false. 5. isFull: ‘+ Return true if the top pointer is equal to capacity - 1, otherwise return false.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Advantages of Using Array for Stack: 1. Random Access: Arrays provide O(1) time complexity for accessing an element, ‘making push and pop operations efficient. 2. Space Efficiency: No additional memory for pointers, as in linked-list implementations. Limitations: 1. Fixed Size: The size of the stack is fixed, leading to stack overflow if you try to push more elements than its capacity or stack underflow if you try to pop elements from an empty stack. 2. Memory Utilization: if the stack doesn't use its full capacity, it can result in wasted memory. Astackis a classic example of an Abstratt Data Type (ADT), whichis a high-level description of a collection of data and the operations on that data. An ADT describes what operations are to be performed but not how these operations will be implemented. This allows for implementation flexibility. For the stack, the primary operationsre pushing and popping, and the core principle is that the last item pushed is the first item to be popped (Last In, First Out - LIFO). Defini A stack ADTis a list or collection with the restriction that all ingertions and deletions are made at one end, typically called the ‘top’. Data: * Acollection of elements. = Apointer, top, to indicate the current top element in the stack. Operations: 1. Push(element): ‘+ Purpose: Add an element to the top of the stack. + Input: The item to be added. © Output: None (or confirmation that the item was added), ‘* Purpose: Remove and return the top element from the stack. © Input: None. + Output: The top item, or an error if the stack is empty.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution Whats App No: 8108332570, 3. Peek{) or Top() + Purpose: Return the top element of the stack without removing it. © Input: None. + Output: The top item, or an error if the stack is empty. 4. isEmpty(): + Purpose: Determine if the stack has no elements. + Input: None. * Output: True if the stack is empty; otherwise, false (): + Purpose: Return the number of elements in the stack. + Input: None. * Output: An integer representing the number of elements. Behaviors: 1, The stack startsjempty. 2. Elements caf be added to or removed from the top only. 3. An attempt to pop anélement from,an empty staek-results in an error or a predefined exception. An attempt to push an element onto a fill stack (in case of limited capacity implementations like arrays) results in an error or a predefined exception. Applications: Stacks are widely Used in various computing scenaros, including: + Expression parsing-and-eValuation (for instance, evaluating postfix notation or checking for;balanced parentheses). © Algorithmic problems.involving depth-first search. Tracking execution in recursive algorithms or function calls inyprogramming, Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell theg@ notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution, Admins Permission. It is Only,fof Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch = All Semester » All'Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570. YouTube iploma Solution Astack isa linear data structure that operates based on the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle, meaning the last element added to the stack will be the first one to be removed. ‘The primary operations that govern this behavior in a stack are PUSH (to add an element) and POP (to remove the top element)MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 1. PUSH Operation ‘The PUSH operation is used to insert an element onto the stack. Algorithm: 1. Check if the stack is full (relevant for stacks with a capacity implemented using arrays). 2. If the stack is full, return an overflow error or handle it accordingly. 3. If the stack is not full: + Increment the top pointer (or index) + Place the new element in the position indicated by the top. 4. Confirm the addition of the element. it, like those Usage: + Toadd an elementto'the stack. + Tostore data temporarily for later retrieval in reverse order. Pseudocode: 2. POP Operation. The POP opefation is used-to-remOve the tepmost-element from the stack. Algorithm: 1. Check if the staekis empty. 2. If the stack is empt¥ilreturn an underflow error or handle it accordingly. 3. If the stack is not empty: ‘+ Retrieve the element at the position indicated by the top. + Decrement the top pointer (or index). 4, Return the retrieved element. Usage: © Toretrieve the last stored element from the stack. ‘= Used in scenarios like backtracking, parsing expressions, and recursive function calls. Pseudocode:MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 A stack, being a linear data structure, has boundaries in terms of how many elements it can hold, especially if it's implemented using arrays. Consequently, certain conditions like the stack being full or empty are crucial to consider when performing stack operations, Failing to check these conditions’éan lead to datalcorruption or application crashes. 1. Stack Full / Stack Overflow Description: A stacks’said to be fullwhen it has-reached its capacity and can no longer accommodate new elements. Attempting to push an element onto a full stack results in aleondition termed as "Stack Overflow”. Implications: * Data could get overwritten, leading to corruption. = The applicatign’Could crash or behave unpredictably. Handling: ‘+ Always checkiif the.stacksis full,before;pushing a newelement, * Offer mechanisms like-resizing the stack, if applicable andfeasible. + Return a clear error or exception indicating the stack overflow condition. Pseudocode: . Stack Empty / Stack Underflow Description: A stack is said to be empty when it doesn't contain any elements, ‘Attempting to pop an element from an empty stack result in a condition termed as "Stack Underflow", Implications: + Trying to access non-existing data might lead to unpredictable behavior.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 © The application could crash or return invalid data, Handling: + Always check if the stack is empty before popping an element. + Return a clear error or exception indicating the stack underflow condition. Pseudocode: Stacks, with their Last In, Fitst Out (LIFO) principle, are versatile date structures that have numerous applications in computer science, software development, and various algorithms. Let's delve intosome of the most comin and critical applications of stacks. 1. Expression Evaluation and Conversion: ‘+ Infix to Postfix/ Prefix: Convertsstandard arithmetic expressions (infix) to postfix (Reverse'Polish Notation)-or prefix formats. + Postfix/Prefix Evaluation: Compute the result of an expression presented in postfix or prefix form. 2. Backtracking Algorithins; Stacks are the backbone ofialgorithms that require backtracking, like: ‘+ Maze Solving: Retrace steps when a dead-end is encountered. + N-Queens Problem: Position queens on a chessboard such that no two queens threaten each other. 3. Parentheses Matching: Check for balanced parentheses, braces, or brackets in an expression or code. For every open symbol, push it onto the stack, and for every closing symbol, pop from the stack. 4, Function Call Management: Every time a function is called in a program, the address to return to and the function's local variables are pushed onto a call stack. When the function completes, these values are popped from the stack.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 5. Undo Mechanism in Software: Software applications, especially word processors or graphic tools, use stacks to implement undo operations. Each action is pushed onto a stack, and the undo operation pops the most recent action. 6. Memory Management: The stack memory holds local variables and function call details. It’s managed in a LIFO manner, with data pushed onto the stack and popped off it 7. Compiler Syntax Analysis: Compilers use stacks to validate syntax rules, ensuring proper nesting of { }in C or begin/end in Pascal, for example. 8. Binary Tree Traversals: Stacks can assist in various binary tree traversal techniques, especially in-depth-first search (DFS) like in-order, pre-order, or post-order traversal. 9. History Mecha Browsefs!"The back button in web browsers tracks the URLs of pages you have visited using a stack. Each new page youlwisit is pushed, and when you click the back button, theleurrent URL is popped. 10, Dynamic Memory Allocation: Somé memory allocation patterns utilize stack-based memory allgeation, especially for scenarios where memory allocation and deallocation are clear, deterministic, and of short duration. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution-Adminis Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution One of the intuitivélapplications of a stack is reversing @ list (or an array or a string). The Last In, First Out (LIFO) property of the stackimidkes it an excellent tool for this purpose. How It Works: 1. Pushing Elements: Begin by pushing each element of the list onto the stack, starting from the first element (index 0) to the last element. 2. Popping Elements: Once all the elements of the list are pushed onto the stack, start popping elements from the stack. As you pop each element, place it back into the list. 3. Reversed List: When the stack is empty, the list is now reversed.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Step-by-step Algorithm: 1. Create an empty stack 2. For each element in the list: + Push the element onto the stack. 3. Initialize a loop until the stack is empty: * Pop an element from the stack. + Replace the current list element with the popped element. 4, The list is now reversed. Pseudocode: Example: Suppose welhavea list-{1, 2,3, 4, 5] + After pushingall the elements onto thé stack;-the top ofthe stack has the element 5. + Aswe popland replace the elements in the list, the list becomes: [5, 4, 3, 2, 1] Advantages: 1. Intuitive: The method is straightforward towniderstand and implement. 2. In-place Reversal: The list is reversed in place, meaning no additional memory (apart from the stack) is used. Disadvantages: 1. Extra Space: While the list is reversed in place, we still use a stack, so there's additional memory overhead. 2. Slower than Direct Approach: Directly swapping elements from the start and end until they meet in the middle can be faster.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 ‘+ Polish notations Polish notations are a mathematical notation system that eliminates the need for parentheses to indicate the order of operations in arithmetic expressions. Developed by the Polish mathematician Jan tukasiewicz, these notations come in three forms: prefix, infix, and postfix. 1. Prefix Notation: In prefix notation, also known as Polish prefix notation, the operator precedes the ‘operands. Each operator has a fixed number of operands. The notation is evaluated from right to left. Example: + Infix:243*4 © Prefix: +2*34 Evaluation: © Multiply 3 and 4:3 * 4=12 + Add 2 andithe result of the multiplication: 2 +12=-14, 2. Infix Notation: In infix notation, which is the standard mathematical notation, operators are placed between operands. Parentheses are used to indicate’ the order of operations. Example: Inf +34 Evaluation: © Multiply and 4: 3*4=42 + Add 2 andlthe result of the multiplication: 2 + 12 = 14 3. Postfix Notation: In postfix notation, also krigwn as Reverse/Polish Notation (RPN), the operator follows the operands. Like prefix notation, each operator has a fixed number of operands. The notation is evaluated from left to right. Example: © infix: 2434 = Postfix: 234*+ Evaluation: © Multiply 3 and 4:3 *4=12 + Add 2 and the result of the multiplication: 2 +12 = 14MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Advantages: = No Ambiguity: Polish notations eliminate ambiguity in expressions by clearly defining the order of operations without the need for parentheses. + Ease of Evaluation: Postfix and prefix notations are particularly suitable for computer evaluation, as they avoid the complexities of parentheses parsing. Applications: + Calculators: Some calculators use postfix notation for efficient computation. ‘+ Compiler Design: Polish notations are used in parsing expressions during compiler design. + Computer Science Algorithms: Prefix and postfix notations are used in algorithms like expression parsing and evaluation. 3.2. Conversion of infix to postfix expression, Evaluation of postfix expression, ‘Converting an infix into prefix expression, Evaluation of prefix expression, Recursion, Tower of Hanoi 1. Conversion of Infix to Postfix Expression: Infix expressions are naturalfor humans but can baddifficult for computers to evaluate directly. Converting to postfix allows for easier evaluation using a stack. Steps: Initialize an empty-stack: Read the infix expression fromieft to,right, If the symbolis ar operand, add it to the postfix-string. If the symbol is an open parenthesis (, push it onto the stack, If the symbollis a close parenthesis }, pop symbols off the stack and add them to the postfix string until an open parenthesis (is at the top of the stack. 6. If the symbol is an Operator, pop operators off the.stéek and add them to the postfix string until the stack is emptyjor.a lower-precedence operator (or an open parenthesis) is at the top. Push the read operator onto the stack. 7. After reading the infix expression, pop the remaining operators from the stack and add them to the postfix string, yawne 2. Evaluation of Postfix Expression: Steps: Initialize an empty stack. Read the postfix expression from left to right. If the symbol is an operand, push it onto the stack. If the symbol is an operator, pop the necessary number of operands off the stack, perform the operation, and push the result back onto the stack. The final result will be the top (and only) item on the stack.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 3. Converting an Infix to Prefix Expression: The process is similar to the infix-to-postfix conversion, but with a reversal twist. Steps: 1. Reverse the infix string. 2. Convert the reversed string to postfix notation using a method similar to the one above (with adjusted parenthesis handling). 3. Reverse the postfix string. This gives the prefix notation. 4. Evaluation of Prefix Expression: Steps: 1. Read the prefix expression in reverse (from right to left). 2. If the symbol is an operandjpush it onto thélstack 3. If the symbol is an.opérator, pop the necessary nutiber of operands from the stack, perform the opération, and push the result back onto thesstack. 4. The result isthe top (and only) item on the stack when all symbols are read. 5. Recursion: Recursion/is a method where the solution to,a problem depends on smaller instances of the same problem. In programming, it refers tofunctions calling themselves with reduced or simpler inputs. 6. Tower of Hanoi: The Tower of Hanoi is a classiciproblem of recursion, It consists of three pegs and multiple discs of different sizes which can slidé Onto’any peg. The puzale starts with the discs in ascending ordet of size on one peg, and the objective is to move the entire stack to another peg, Steps: 1. Move n-1 discs from the source peg to.theatixiliary peg. 2. Move the nth disc from the source peg to the destination peg. 3. Move the n-1 discs from the auxiliary peg to the destination peg. The recursive formula: TowerOfHanoi(n, source, destination, auxiliary) Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma SolutionMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 A queue is a fundamental data structure that organizes items in the order they were added, much like a real-world line or queue. It follows the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle, which means that the first item added to the queue will be the first one to be removed. Basic Characteristics: 1. FIFO Principle: As mentioned, queues operate on the First In, First Out principle. The item at the front is the first to be removed, while new items are added to the rear. 2. Two Ends - Front and Rear: Unlike stacks, which have a single point of addition and removal, queues have two ends: + Front: The end from which items are removed (or dequeued). + Rea he end at which items are added (or enqueued). Primary Operations: 1. Enqueue: Adds an item to the rear of the queue. Dequeue;Removes.afid returns the front item fromthe queues Peek/Front: Returns the front item without’removing it IsEmpty: Checks if the queue is empty, IsFulli Checks if the queue is full (especially relevant for queues with a capacity limit, like those implemented using arrays). ‘Types of Queues: 1. Simple Queue? Basic FIFO data structure. 2. Circular Queue: Amore advanced queue-where therearwraps around to the start, making optimal use of memory. 3. Priority Queue: Elements are dequeued based on their priorities rather than the order they were efiqueued. 4, Double-Ended Queue (Deque): Elements can be addedi6r removed from both the front and rear. 5. Linked Queue: Implementédhusing linkedb ists! Applications: 1, Job Scheduling: Operating systems often keep a queue of processes that are ready to execute or that are waiting for a particular event to occur. 2. Order Processing: E-commerce websites or any system that processes orders typically uses a queue to maintain a backlog of orders. 3. Data Buffers: Queues are used in scenarios where data is transferred asynchronously between two processes. For instance, IO Buffers, pipes, file IO, etc. 4, Breadth-First Search: In graph algorithms like BFS, a queue helps in keeping track of nodes that need to be explored.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 1. Fixed Size: In the case of array implementations, the queue has a fixed size, leading to overflow if more items are added. 2. Inefficient Memory Utilization: In array implementations, even after performing multiple enqueue and dequeue operations, the space of dequeued elements is not utilized, leading to inefficient memory use. Circular queues are a remedy to this, problem. Using an array to represent a queue in memory is one of the most straightforward and common implementations. Thesptimary advantage of this approach is the direct access provided by the array strii¢ture. However, the size of thélqueue is fixed in an array representation, which can lead to inefficiencies if not managed well. Basic Components: 1. Array: This will store the elements of thé queue. 2. Front Pointer: This points to the position of the first (frontmost) element in the queue. 3. Rear Pointer: This points ta the position Where the next new element will be added (the end of the queue): Initialization: When a queue is empty: + Set Front =-1 Set Rear Primary Operations: 1. Enqueue (Insertion): 2. Dequeue (Removal):MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 3. IsEmpty: Pros and Cons of Array-baSed Queue: Pros: 1. Direct Access: Due to the inherent properties of arrays, accessing elements is straightforward and constant time. 2. Simple Implementation: For beginners, the array-based approach might be more intuitive and easy to grasp. 1. Fixed Size: The sizeof the queue is fixed, leading to overflow if t's not adequately managed. 2. Memory Wastage: Afterdequieuing an’element;the memoty of the dequeued element remains unutilized, unless a circular queue is implemented. Circular Queue (Enhancement): To better manage memoryland.avoid theiinefficiencies of a linear array-based queue, we can use a circular queue. In this approach, when the end of the array is reached, the rear pointer wraps around to the beginning of the array. This way, the entire array is utilized efficiently, and enqueue operations can continue as long as there's space. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students, Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570. YouTube: Diploma Solution2s) a AY (@) +91 8108332570 a MSBTE Diploma Solution) bs www.diplomasolution.com| a » adMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 = Queue as an ADT An Abstract Data Type (ADT) is a type of data structure that is described by a set of, operations it can perform and not by its concrete implementation. When it comes to queues, the ADT provides a clear, high-level overview of the main operations without delving into the details of how they're accomplished, Queue ADT Components: 1. Data: The elements in the queue, typically organized in a linear order, adhering to the FIFO (First-In, First-Out) principle. 2. Operations: The set of standard operations that can be performed on the queue. Operations on Queue ADT: 1, Enqueue: This operation adds an element to the rear end of the queue. ignature: 2. Dequeue: This operation removes and returns the front element from the queue Signature: 3. Front: This operation returns the front element without removing it from the queue. nature, 4, IsEmpty: This operation checks if the queue is empty. Signature: 5. Size: This operation returns the number of elements currently in the queue. Properties of Queue ADT: 1. Encapsulation: The internal structure of the queue (whether implemented using an array, linked list, or any other data structure) is hidden from the user. Users interact, with the queue only through its operations. 2. Consistency: Regardless of its internal implementation, the behavior of the queue remains consistent due to the operations’ definitions. 3. Flexibility: ADTS allow for multiple implementations. The queue ADT can be realized as a simple linear queue, a circular queue, a priority queue, etc. Usage Scenarios: Queue ADT can be useful in various scenarios like: 1, Job Scheduling: In operating systems, where processes are lined up for execution,MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 2. Data Buffering: In scenarios like keyboard buffer where keystrokes are stored and then processed in the order they were received. 3. Order Processing: Systems that handle requests or orders, processing them in the order they arrive. 1. Linear Queue: A Linear Queue, often simply referred to as a queue, is the most basic form of the queue data structure where elements are added (enqueued) to the rear and removed (dequeued) from the front, adhering strictly to'the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle. Characteristics: + Rear Pointer: Represents the end of the queue, and newielements are added here. + Front Pointer: Represents the beginning of the queue, fromiwhere elements are removeds © When the queue is full, no more elements/€an be addedi(Queue Overflow). ‘= Whenjthe queue is empty, no element can be dequeued (Queue Underflow). Drawbacks: ‘+ Inanarray-based representation, even after sevéral enqueue and dequeue operations, the’Memory space from dequeuéd eléments is not reused, leading to inefficient space utilization. 2. Circular Queues A Circular Queue is an enhancement of the linear queue to overcome its inefficiencies. in this structure, théjrear pointer wraps around to the beginning ofthe queue when it, reaches the end, allowing for better memory utilization. Characteristics: + The condition for a full quélebecomesi(reat 1) % capacity of the queue. + Dequeue operations make space available for future enqueue operations + Itovercomes the problem of unutilized space in a linear queue. front, where size is the 3. Priority Queue A Priority Queue is a more advanced and specialized queue in which every element has a priority. The removal of elements is based on the priority rather than the FIFO principle, Concept: + _ Instead of being processed in a linear order, elements are processed based on their assigned priority. + _Iftwo elements have the same priority, they are processed based on their order in the queue (like a standard FIFO queue).MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 + Priority Queues can be implemented using various structures like arrays, linked lists, or binary heaps. Applications: + Task Scheduling: In operating systems, where processes are given priorities, and higher priority processes are executed first. ‘+ Dijkstra's Shortest Path Algorithm: A graph algorithm that determines the shortest path in a weighted graph. + Data Compression Algorithms: Such as Huffman coding. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch =/All Semester “All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Youtube: Diploma Solution Queue: A queue is a linear data structure that follows the First In First Out (FIFO) principle. It means that the first item inserted'is the first one toibé removed. The operations on a queue resemble thos® in real-world queues or lines. 1. INSERT Operation (Also known as ENQUEUE): The INSERT of ENQUEUE operation is Used'td.add.ah item tothe reat end of the queue. Steps: 1. Check if the queue is full. fit is, the operation cannot proceed as there's no space to insert a new elément (Queue Overflow), 2. If the queue isn’t fllincrease the rear pointer. 3. Add the new element to'the position pointedit6 by the rear pointer. Pseudocode:MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 2. DELETE Operation (Also known as DEQUEUE): The DELETE or DEQUEUE operation is used to remove an item from the front of the queue. Steps: 1. Check if the queue is empty. If itis, the operation cannot proceed as there's no element to remove (Queue Underflow). 2. Retrieve the item from the front of the queue. 3. If the front and rear pointers are at the same position (only one item in the queue), reset them to their initial position, 4, If there are more items, just increase the front pointer to point to the next item. Pseudocode: Considerations: 1. For array-based implementations, there's a maximum size, and once the queue is filled, no more items-carr'be added unless space is freed by a DELETE operation. 2. Ifa cireular queve-implementation is used, the rear;pointerjcan wrap around to the beginning of the array-when it reaches'the end, optimizing space usage. + Queue Operations Conditions - Queue Full, Queue Empty Queues, being linear data structures that follow the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle, have certain operational boundaries. These boundaries are mainly determined by the capacity of the queue and its current state, leading to two primary conditions: when the queue is full and when it is empty. These conditions dictate whether elements can be added to or removed from the queue. 1. Queue Full The "Queue Full" condition arises when there is no more space in the queue to accommodate new elements.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Signs: + Inanarray-based linear queue, if the Rear pointer points to the last position of the array, it indicates the queue is full + Inan array-based circular queue, the queue is considered full if (Rear + 1) % size Front, where size is the capacity of the array. Implications: + INSERT/ENQUEUE Operations: When the queue is full, any attempt to insert a new element (enqueue operation) will result ina "Queue Overflow" error. + DELETE/DEQUEUE Operations: Even if the queue is full, elements can still be removed. Removing elements creates space for new ones, 2. Queue Empty: The "Queue Empty:\ondition is encountered whefilthere are no elements left in the queue. Signs: + If both the Front and Rear pointers ate sett0 -1, it indicates the queue is empty. + Another sign can be if the Front pointerexceeds the Rear pointer in a linear queue scenario. Implications: + INSERT/ENQUEUE Operations: When the queue is empty, elements can be added freely, Often, after the first insértion post an empty condition, both Front and Rear pointers are resetto-point to the start. + DELETE/DEQUEUE Operations; Attempting to remove,an-element from an empty queue results in a "Queue Underfiow’'error, indicating there's nothing to dequeue. Applications of Queue Queues, given their First In, First Out (FIFO) structure, are pivotal in numerous applications across various domains in computer science and real-world scenarios. Here's a closer look at some of the prominent applications of queues: 1. Job Scheduling: + Operating Systems: Modern multi-tasking operating systems use queues to manage processes waiting for CPU time, I/O operations, and other resources. It ensures that tasks are executed in the order they're received or based on priority. 2. Data Buffering * 10 Buffers: Keyboards have a buffer to store keystrokes, ensuring no key press is missed even if the computer is temporarily busy.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 + Video Streaming: When streaming videos online, data is buffered (pre-loaded) to ensure smooth playback even with inconsistent internet speeds. 3. Order Processing Systems: ‘+ E-commerce Platforms: When you place an order online, it goes into a queue for processing, ensuring orders are handled in the sequence they're received. * Call Centers: Incoming calls are placed in a queue and directed to the next available representative. 4, Real-world Queues: + Ticket Counters: Whether it's at a movie theater, a train station, or an amusement park ride, queues help manage crowd flow efficiently. ‘+ Print Queue: In environments with shared printers, print tasks are queued up to be executed in order. 5. Network Traffic Management: + Routers and/Switches: In networking hardware, packets arélstored in queues until they can be processed or forward&d,to their next destination. 6. Breadth-First Search (BFS) in Graphs: ‘+ Graph Algorithms: BFS uses a queue to keep track of nodes that must be explored, ensuring all nodes in a graph are visited. 7. Caching: © Web Browsers: Browsers used form of queue to’ manage cache. The oldest cached items (those that were-adided first) are removed when the cache reaches its limit. 8. Synchronization in Multithreaded Environments: + Message Queues: In multi-threaded systems, message queues help threads communicateand exchange data without conflicts. ). Simulation * Queueing Models: Used inibusiness to. model/feal-world systems (like banks or supermarkets) to optimize service and reduce wait times. 10. Priority Queue: + Hospitals: in emergency departments, patients are often triaged based on the severity of their condition. Those with the most critical needs are attended to first. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don’t Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma SolutionMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 A linked list is a linear data structure where each element is a separate object, known as anode. Each node holds data and a reference (or link) to the next node in the sequence. Here are the fundamental terminologies associated with linked lists: 1. Node: * Anode is an individual unit in the linked list that contains two fields: the data field and the next pointer. 2. Address: ‘= The location wherel@ node (or any other variable) is 8tored in memory. This is a unique identifier thatallows for the retrieval of stored data. 3. Pointer: ‘* Avariable that stores the address of anothér variable. in'the context of linked lists, pointers are typically used to point to the next node in the list. 4. Information Field / Data Field: © The part of the nodethat stores the actual data For example, in a linked list of integers, the jfformation field offeach node will hold an integer value. . Next Pointer: + Thisis a)pointer jpresentin.ainode that points to thesubsequentinode in the list. If it's the last flode'in the list, the next pointer typically paints to null 6. Null Pointer: © Apointer that déesn't point to any valid node or memafy location. It is usually used to denote the end of allinked list. In many programmifig languages, it is represented as null or None. 7. Empty List: © Alinked list is considered empty if it doesn't contain any nodes. in such cases, the head (starting node) of the list typically points to null Lists are a foundational concept in data structures, providing dynamic and efficient ways to manage collections of data. Among the different types of lists, the Linear List and Circular List stand out due to their distinct characteristics and use cases.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 1. Linear List: A Linear List, often referred to simply as a linked list, is a sequential collection of elements or nodes. Each node in the list contains data and a pointer to the next node. Characteristics + Start and End: The list has a clear beginning, known as the "head", and an ending, referred to as the "tail" Traversal: You can traverse from the head to the tail, but there's no direct way to loop back to the start once you reach the end. + Null Termination: The last node (tail) in a linear list typically has its ‘next’ pointer set to null, indicating the end of the list. Applications: * Dynamic memory mahagement where the size of thelist can change frequently. + Implementing data structures like stacks and queues. Real-world stenarios like a music playlist where songs play ihsequence. Circular List: A Circular List or Circular Linked List is similar to the linear list with one key differenc the ‘next! pointer of the lastnodé in the list points back to the first node, creating a closed loop or circle. Characteristics: + Looped Structuiresthere'ls no clear end to the list as the tail node is connected back to the head node. © No Null Pointers: Unlike'the linear list; there's:no node inthe tircular list with a ‘next’ pointer setito null. This circular nature ensures continuous traversal. + Equal Accessievery node serves as an entry point. Startingfrom any node, one can traverse the entire list. ns Development of algorithms that need to rotate around data, like round-robin scheduling algorithms. ‘+ Multimedia applications where a slideshow might need to loop back to the beginning after reaching the last slide. * Data structures that need to be cyclically connected, such as certain advanced data structures used in computer graphics. A Singly Linked List is a list where each node contains data and a pointer to the next node in the sequence. It has a starting point, known as the "head," and the sequence endsMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 with a node whose pointer points to null, signifying the end. Various operations can be performed on a singly linked list 1. Traversing a Singly Linked List: ‘Traversing refers to going through or visiting each nod starting from the head. Steps: 1. Initialize a pointer, usually named current, to point to the head of the list. 2. Move through the list by repeatedly advancing the pointer to the next node until the pointer reaches null. 3. Process the data in each node as required (e.g., printing it). the list sequentially, typically 2. Searching for a Key in the Linked List: To find a specifioglement (or "key") in the list: Steps: Start atithe head of the list, ‘Traverse through the list comparing the@ata in each node with the key. If a match is found, return the node of its position, If the end of the list is reached without finding the key, the key is not present in the list. 3. Inserting a New. Node in aLinked List: There are typically three scenarios for inserting a node: + At the Beginning: The new node becomes the head. + Atthe End: The new node is appended after the current last node. ‘+ Ata Specific Position: The new node is placed between two existing nodes. Steps for Inserting at thé Beginning: 1. Create a new node. 2. Point the new node's ‘next! to the current head. 3. Update the head to point to the new node. Steps for Inserting at the End 1. Create a new node and set its 'next' to null. 2. Traverse the list to find the last node. 3. Set the 'next' of the last node to the new node. Steps for Inserting at a Specific Position: 1. Create a new node. 2. Traverse to the desired position or the node before the desired position. 3. Adjust pointers to insert the new node between two existing nodes.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 4. Deleting a Node from a Linked List: Steps: 1. Locate the node to be deleted by traversing the list. 2. Adjust the ‘next’ pointer of the previous node to point to the subsequent node, skipping over the node to be deleted. 3. If the node to be deleted is the head, update the head to the next node. 4, Free or delete the node. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these notes and Don't Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution2s) a AY (@) +91 8108332570 a MSBTE Diploma Solution) bs www.diplomasolution.com| a » adMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 In computer science, a tree is a widely used abstract data type (ADT) that simulates a hierarchical tree structure with a set of linked nodes. It represents a structure inherent to various domains, from biological classifications to organizational structures and more. Basic Terminology: 1. Node: Each item in the tree is called a node. it's a fundamental part of the tree that can have a name, called a "key." Root: The top node in a tree. It's the only node in the tree that has no parent. Edge: The link between two nodes Child: A node directly connected.to another node when moving away from the root. Parent: The converse,ndtion of a child, Leaf: A node withiho children. Siblings: Nodes with the same parent. Level: The level of a noderrepresents the generation of a node, The root is at level 0, its childrén are at Iével 1, and so on. Depth of a Tree: The maximum level for,ahy node in the tree. Trees, as hierarchical data structufes, ‘come with théir own set of terminologies that provide claritynd structure when discussing and designing tree-related algorithms. Here's a detailed breakdown of these terms: 1. Tree: A tree is a collectiomiof entities, called nodesjéonnected by edges. Each node contains a value and may or may not HaV@'a Child node. There's exactly one path between any two nodes. 2. Degree of a Node: The degree of a node is the number of children it has. For instance, in a binary tree, the degree of a node can be 0 (for leaf nodes), 1 (for nodes with either left or right child), or 2 (for nodes with both left and right children) 3, Degree of a Tree: The degree of a tree is the highest degree of any node in the tree. For a binary tree, the degree is 2.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 4, Level of a Node: The level of a node defines how far it is from the root. The root node is at level 0, its immediate children are at level 1, and so forth. 5. Leaf Node: A leaf node, or simply a "leaf," is a node that doesn't have any children. In other words, its degree is 0. 6. Depth/Height of a Tree: The depth or height of a tree is the number of edges on the longest path from the root to a leaf. A tree with a single node (just the root) has a depth of 0. 7. In-degree & Out-Degree: These'térms are MOteoften associated with directed graphs. + In-degree: The number of edges coming into a nodes + Out-degree: The number of edges going out of a node. In the context ofitrees, the in-degree of a node is always 1, except for the root, where it's 0. The out-degreé is equivaleht to the dedtee of the nodeinthe tree, 8. Path: Aipath in a tree is a sequence of nodes where each adjacent pair of nodes in the sequence is connected by an edge. For instance, the sequence from a root nade through its descendants to a leaf node's 4 path, 9. Ancestor & Descendant Node: + Ancestor Node: if there's.a path fromnode A to node,B, then A isan ancestor of B. This includes not just the immediate parent but any nodealong'the path from the root to node B. * Descendant Node: Conversely, if there's a path from node,A to node B, then Bis a descendant of Ay ‘Trees are among the most crucial data structures in computer science, offering efficient ways to represent hierarchical structures and facilitating numerous operations. Let's explore some popular types of trees and common tree traversal methods. ‘Types of Trees: 1. General Tree: A tree in which each node can have any number of child nodes. There's no specific constraint on the degree of the node.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 2. Binary Tree: A tree where each node can have at most two children, often differentiated as "left" and "right" children. 3. Binary Search Tree (BST): A specialized binary tree where for every node, all the nodes in its left subtree have values less than the node's value, and all the nodes in its right subtree have values greater than the node's value. ary Tree Traversal: ‘Traversal is the process of visiting all the nodes in a tree and performing an operation (such asa print operation) on each node. Due to the hierarchical nature of trees, there are multiple ways to traverse them, 1, In-order Traversal: + Traverse the left subtree first. * Visit the current nod! + Traverse theifight subtree. In the context of a BST, in-order traversal retrieves data in sorted order. 2. Pre-order Traversal: + Visit the currefit node. + Treverse the left subtree, + [Traverse the right subtree. Pre-order traversal is useful for creating a copy of the tree 3. Post-order Traversal + Traverse the leftsubtree. + Traverse'the right subtree! * Visit the current node Post-order traversal is beneficial for deleting nodes and going bottom-up, like in algorithmie problems where children nodes must be processed before their parent. Note: This Notes is Created by Diploma Solution Team, Don’t Sell these,flotes and Don’t Use this Notes without Diploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma AllBranch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution An expression tree represents mathematical expressions and operations in a tree structure, Each node in the expression tree corresponds to an elementary operation (like addition or multiplication) or an operand. Expression trees are particularly useful for evaluating expressions, translating expressions into different forms, and performing symbolic computations.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Components of an Expression Tree: 1. Leaf Nodes: These are terminal nodes that contain operands (values or variables). For example, in the expression 3 + x, both 3 and x would be leaf nodes. 2. Internal Nodes: These nodes contain operators. Using the above example, the + would be an internal node, with its children being 3 and x. Construction of an Expression Tre To construct an expression tree, one often uses postfix (Reverse Polish Notation) or prefix notations of the expression, as these notations do not require parentheses and can be parsed efficiently. For example, consider the infix expression a + b * c, Its postfix notation isa bc * +. To construct the expression treeifrom the postfixinotation: 1. Start from the left and read symbols one by one. 2. If the symbol isan operand (like a, b, or c), create a singl@node tree and push it onto a stack. 3. If the symbol is an opérator (like *%, etc.), then-pop:the requited number of trees from the stack, create a new tree with the®perator as the root and the popped trees as subtrees, and push this new tree back onto the stack. 4, Continue until all symbols are read. The final tree left on the stackis the expression tree. \n Tree; Evaluation of an Expre: To evaluate an expréssion tree: 1, If the eurrentnodeisan operandpreturn its value, 2. If the current node is an operator, tecutsively-evaluate its-feft and right children and then combine their results using the operator. Using a recursiveltraversal, such as post-order traversal, is effective for this evaluation. ns: Expression trees can simplify or differentiate mathematical 1, Symbolic Computat expressions symbolically, 2. Translators and Compilers: Expression trees help in translating high-level languages into machine code. 3. Query Optimization: In database systems, expression trees represent queries and are optimized to improve performance.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 A graph isa versatile and foundational data structure in computer science and mathematics, representing relationships between pairs of objects. It consists of nodes (or vertices) that are connected by edges (or arcs). Understanding graph terminology is essential for grasping many algorithms and systems that rely on graph theory. 1. Node (or Vertices): Nodes or vertices are the fundamental units or points in a graph representing entities. 2. Ares (or Edges): Edges or arcsiaré the lines thaticonnect two nodes, representing the relationship between thefh 3. Directed Graph: In a dirécted graph (or digraph), edgeshave a ditection. That is, each edge movesfrom one vertex and points to, another, indicating a one-way relationship. 4. Undirected Graph: In an undirected graph, edges have no direction, signifying a mutual relationship between the connected nodes. 5. In-degree: For a ditected graph, the in-degree of a node is the number of edges coming into the node. It represents the number of predecessors, 6. Out-degree: For.a directed graph, the out-degree of a node isthe number of edges going out from the flode, pointing to other nodes. It indicates the number of successors. 7. Adjacent: Two nodes are said to be adjacent if there's an edge directly connecting them. 8. Successor: In a directed graph, if there's an edge from node A to node B, then Bis considered a successor of A. 9. Predecessor: In a directed graph, if there's an edge from node A to node B, then Ais deemed a predecessor of B.MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 10, Path: A path in a graph is a sequence of vertices where each adjacent pair is connected by an edge. For instance, in the sequence of nodes A, B, C, A and B must be connected by an edge, and B and C must also be connected by an edge. 11. Sink: In a directed graph, a node is considered a sink if it has an in-degree greater than zero and an out-degree of zero. That means there are edges pointing to this node, but none going out from it. 12. Articulation Point: An articulation point (or cut vertex) in a graph is a vertex that, when, removed along with associated edges, increases the number of connected components. It's a point that, if failed or removed, can split the graph into two or more separate pieces. Graphs ean be represented in various waysin computer memory, The most common representations are the Adjacency List and the Adjacency Matrix. The choice between these two often depends on the nature of the graph and the operations that need to be performed frequently. 1. Adjacency List: An adjacency listis-an-array of linked lists. The index of the array represents a vertex and each elementiinjtsiinked:ist represents the other vertices that form an edge with the vertex. + Directed Graph: For a directed graph with an edge (U, V), U isithe source vertex and V is the destination vertex. In the adjacency ist, V will appearin U's list ‘+ Undirected Graph: For an undirected graph with an edge (U, V), both U and V will appear in each othet'siist. Advantages: + Space efficient for representing sparse graphs. + It's easier to determine the neighbors of a vertex. Disadvantages: * Consumes more time O(n) to check the presence of an edge. 2. Adjacency Matri An adjacency matrix is a 2D array of size V x V where V is the number of vertices in a graph. The value mfi]{j] is 1 if there's an edge between i and j, otherwise 0. * Directed Graph: if there isa directed edge from vertex U to V, then m[U][V] = m[vitu] = 0. + Undirected Graph: If there's an edge between vertices U and V, then m[U][V] = 1 and m[V][U] = 1. , whileMSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com YouTube: Diploma Solution WhatsApp No: 8108332570 Advantages: ‘+ Faster to check the presence of an edge between two vertices, O(1) time. * Efficiently represents dense graphs. Disadvantages: + Consumes more space O(V2), irrespective of the number of edges. Requires more time O(V42) to iterate over all edges. Which one to use? ‘+ Sparse Graphs: If the graph is sparse (number of edges is much less than V7.2), using an adjacency list is generally better. © Dense Graphs: If the graph is dense (number of edges is close to V*2), an adjacency matrix is more suitable. ‘+ Specific Operations: If thevalgorithm frequiéntly checks the presence of edges, the (0(1) lookup time ofan adjacency matrix can be befieficial. If the algorithm often iterates over edges, an adjacency list can be more efficient, Note: This Notesis Created by Diploma Solution|Team/Don’t Sell thse notesand Don't Use this Notes without Biploma Solution Admins Permission. It is Only for Diploma Solution Students. Download MSBTE Diploma All Branch - All Semester - All Subjects Notes on Google. WhatsApp No: 8108332570 YouTube: Diploma Solution2s) a AY (@) +91 8108332570 a MSBTE Diploma Solution) bs www.diplomasolution.com| a » ad