6 Content-Based Instruction and

TT 6 Content-Based instruction and CLIL 17

Content and Language Integrated Both CBI and CLIL are approaches rather than methods according to the framework
used in this book, since they refer to a set of principles for the design of language courses
Learning (CLIL) but do not prescribe the methods that can be used with them.
Several reasons account for the expansion of programs of this kind in recent years.
1. An application of principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). A defining
principle of CLT (Chapter 5) is that classrooms should focus on real communication and
the exchange of information: an ideal situation for second language learning, therefore,
would be one where the subject matter of language teaching was not grammar or func-
tions or some other language-based unit of organization, but content, that is, subject
matter from outside the domain of language. The language that is being taught could
Introduction be used to present subject matter, and the students would learn the language as a by-
product of learning about real-world content.
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) refers to an approach to second language teaching in
which teaching is organized around the content or subject matter that students will acquire, 2. ‘The basis for on-arrival and mainstreaming programs. Since the latter part of the twentieth
such as history or social studies, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus. century, many English-speaking countries have received large numbers of immigrants
as well as people displaced by upheavals in their own countries. On-arrival programs
Students thus learn language and content at the same time, each supporting the develop-
ment of the other (Lyster 2007). While the term Content-Based Instruction has been com-
typically focus on the language newly arrived immigrants and others in a country need
monly used to describe programs of this kind, particularly in North America, in Europe a for survival. Such learners typically need to learn how to deal with differing kinds of
real-world content as a basis for social survival. Content-based programs have com-
related approach is known as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). The two
monly been used in these situations. Mainstreaming programs or Programs for Students
approaches differ slightly in focus, much in the way that Situational Language Teaching and
the Audiolingual Method (one developed in Europe; one in the United States) differed in
with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP) serve especially those children whose parents
focus (see Chapters 3 and 4). Both CBI and CLIL are part of a growing trend in many parts
might be served by the on-arrival programs, but are more generally designed to provide
in-class or pullout instruction for any school-age children whose language competence
of the world to use English as a medium of instruction (Graddol 2006). They have features
is insufficient to participate fully in normal school instruction. These programs focus on
in common, but they are not identical. CBI often involves a language teacher teaching
through English, working with a content teacher to co-teach a course, or a content teacher giving students the language and other skills needed to enter the regular school curricu-
designing and teaching a course for ESL learners. CLIL often involves a content teacher lum. Such skills often involve learning how to carry out academic tasks and understand
teaching content through a second or foreign language, as does CBI, but also may involve academic content through a second language. CBI was seen as an approach that would
promote both academic skills development and language proficiency.
content from subjects being used in language classes. That is, the CLIL curriculum may
3. Support for immersion education. In attempts to promote language learning by majority
originate in the language class, whereas CBI tends to have as its starting point the goals of
language speakers, such as English-speaking Canadians studying French, an approach
a content class. CBI emerged somewhat organically, advocated by a number of academics
known as immersion education has been used in some countries since the 1980s.
and educators supported by an extensive literature extending over a considerable period
of time but without official sanction. CLIL, on the other hand, was officially proposed in a Immersion education is a type of foreign language instruction in which the regular
European Commission policy paper in which member states were encouraged to develop
school curriculum is taught through the medium of the foreign language. The foreign
language is the vehicle for content instruction; it is not the subject of instruction. Thus,
“teaching in schools through the medium of more than one language” (EC 1976). The
acronym “CLIL” has been widely circulated within member states of the European com- for example, an English-speaking child might enter a primary school in which the medi-
munity since 1994 and has become, by decree “the core instrument for achieving policy um of instruction for all the content subjects is French. Student goals of an immersion
aims directed at creating a multilingual population in Europe” (Dalton-Puffer 2007: 1).
program include: (a) developing a high level of proficiency in the foreign language; (b)
developing positive attitudes toward those who speak the foreign language and toward
And unlike CBI, CLIL not only aims at stimulating multilingualism of all citizens in the
European community but also strives to “preserve the independence and health of local
their culture(s); (c) developing foreign language skills commensurate with expectations
languages” (EURYDICE 2013). This is because CLIL does not represent an immersion pro-
for a student's age and abilities; (d) gaining designated skills and knowledge in the con-
tent areas of the curriculum. Immersion programs have been adopted in many parts of
gram in an ESL setting, but rather the development of English language skills in those who
will use English as a lingua franca. North America, and alternative forms of immersion have been devised. In the United

116
u8 Current approaches and methods r 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 19

States, immersion programs can be found in a number of languages, including French, Content provides the basis for activating both the cognitive and the interactional processes
German, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, and Hawaiian. that are the starting point for second language learning. A focus on the comprehension
. Promotion of bilingualism through CLIL, In Europe the substantial increase in CLIL- and expression of meaningful and engaging content is believed to activate a range of
based programs of different kinds is part of a policy to promote bilingualism in Europe, cognitive skills that are basic to learning and to intellectual as well as interactional
as reflected in the European Commission's white paper Teaching and Learning: Towards processes that support naturalistic second language development.
the Learning Society (1995) “in which a stated objective was the ‘1+2 policy, that is, for EU
Brinton (2007) provides a more detailed rationale for CBI:
citizens to have competence in their mother tongue plus two Community foreign lan-
guages” (Llinares, Morton, and Whittaker 2012: 1). CLIL in Europe has been described 1. ‘The content-based curriculum removes the arbitrary distinction between language and
as a response to globalization, the need for knowledge-driven economies and societies. content.
According to Coyle, Hood, and Marsh (2010: 5-6): “Much CLIL classroom practice . It reflects the interests and needs of the learner by taking into account the eventual uses

be
involves the learners being active participants in developing their potential for acquiring the learner will make of the second or foreign language.
knowledge and skills (education) through a process of inquiry (research) and by using . It offers optimal conditions for second language acquisition by exposing learners to
complex processes and means for problem-solving (innovation). Coyle et al. (2010: 8) meaningful and cognitively demanding language in the form of authentic materials and
cite four reasons for the spread of CLIL in Europe: tasks.
. It provides pedagogical accommodation to learner proficiency levels and skills.
Famllies wanting thelr children to have some competence in at least one foreign lan- . It views language as learned within a larger framework of communication.
guage; governments wanting to improve languages education for socio-economic . It holds sustained content as necessary.for providing authentic, meaningful substance
advantage; at the supranational level, the European Commission wanting to lay the for students to acquire language.
foundation for greater inclusion and economic strength; and finally, at the educational . It views rich, comprehensible input as necessary but not sufficient for the development
level, language experts seeing the potential for further integrating languages education of high-level academic language proficiency.
with other subjects. . It places a high value on feedback on accuracy to help students develop target-like
output.
As a consequence of the factors above, different kinds of content-based and CLIL courses
. It supplements exposure to input through language-enhanced instruction (e.g., skills-
are now common in many parts of the world and differ significantly from traditional
based instruction and consciousness raising about uses of grammar, lexis, style, and
approaches to second and foreign language instruction. In order to understand the prac- register).
tices that are used in CBI and CLIL programs, it will be necessary to first examine the 10. Finally, it aims for a balanced focus on fluency and accuracy.
principles that underlie them and then look at how these are applied in language teaching
programs and teaching materials. Both approaches will be considered together, except in In the case of CLIL, principles underlying the approach refer to the fact that CLIL is
areas where they differ. believed to help achieve individual as well as educational, social, and intercultural goals
for language learning. These principles, as described by Coyle et al. (2010: 42), can be sum-
marized as follows:
Approach
CBI and CLIL are built around a number of core principles that can be stated as follows: Content matter is not only about acquiring knowledge and skills, it is about the learner
creating their own knowledge and understanding and developing skills (personalized
People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means learning).
of understanding content, rather than as an end in itself. This principle distinguishes CBI Content is related to learning and thinking processes (cognition). To enable the learner
and CLIL from conventional language courses where a language syllabus is used as the to create their own interpretation of content, it must be analyzed for its linguistic
basis for organization and content is chosen according to how well it supports a linguis- demands.
tic syllabus. The language learned needs to be related to the learning context, to learning through
Content-Based Instruction better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language. that language, to reconstructing the content, and, as mentioned, to related cognitive
This principle reflects the fact that CBI programs serve to prepare learners for academic processes. This language needs to be transparent and accessible.
studies or for survival in an English language environment. CLIL programs similarly are Interaction in the learning context is fundamental to learning. This has implications
said both to support individual development and to develop a bilingual citizenry. when the learning context operates through the medium of a foreign language.
120 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 121

© The relationship between languages and cultures is complex. Intercultural awareness is Janguage is used in disciplinary-based genres is central to CBI and CLIL. Llinares et al.
fundamental to CLIL. (2012: 109) comment:
e CLIL is embedded in the wider educational context in which it is developed and
therefore must take account of contextual variables (such as the overall goals of the Students need to understand and participate in the activities that build up the disci-

curriculum) in order to be effectively realized. Plines they study, activities that to a large extent are carried out through language.
While the most obvious difference between disciplines is that of vocabulary ...
Research in educational linguistics has also shown a major difference to reside in the
Theory of language functional structuring of discourse.
A number of assumptions about the nature of language underlie CBI and CLIL. These can
4. Language use draws on integrated skills. CBI and CLIL view language use as involving
be summarized as follows:
several skills together. In a content-based class, students are often involved in activities
1. Lexis is central in integrating language and content. Since specialized vocabulary regis- that link the skills, because this is. how the skills are generally involved in the out-of-
ters are used to convey the meaning of different subjects or content areas, acquisition classroom world. Hence students might read and take notes, listen and write a summary,
of subject-specific vocabulary is an important strand of CBI and CLIL courses. Core or respond orally to things they have read or written. And rather than viewing grammar
vocabulary for different subjects can be identified through corpus research, where as a separate dimension of language, grammar is seen as a component of other skills.
language extracted from real speech, or corpora, is analyzed and used as the basis for Topic- or theme-based courses provide a good basis for an integrated skills approach
specialized word lists such as Coxhead’s Academic Word List (2000, 2010), a list of 570 because the topics selected provide coherence and continuity across skill areas and focus
word families that have high frequency in a wide range of academic texts and that are on the use of language in connected discourse rather than in isolated fragments. They
important words for students to know if they are pursuing academic studies. Llinares seek to integrate knowledge, language, and thinking skills.
et al. (2012: 191) observe:
Theory of learning
One special feature of learning a second language in CLIL contexts is that the vocabu-
CBI and CLIL draw on a number of assumptions about the nature of second language
lary needed to represent content in the instructional register is often technical and
learning. Some of these are true of learning in other approaches to second language teach-
abstract, in contrast with the type of vocabulary necessary to communicate in foreign
ing, while others are said to be specific to CBI and CLIL (e.g, dialogic talk — see below).
language classes,
1. Comprehension is a necessary condition for second language learning to occur. “The goal
2. Grammar is a resource for communicating content. Grammar is acquired according to its of teachers through any type of content-based program is to enable students to compre-
role in expressing content. Grammatical progression is based on the demands of content hend the curriculum presented through the second language” (Lyster 2011: 617). Making
rather than in terms of grammatical difficulty. “It uses a pragmatic as well as a linguistic subject matter comprehensible through the way language is used is hence crucial in CBI
approach to developing language through use” (Coyle et al. 2010: 59). This may involve and CLIL. In order to make content comprehensible to learners, teachers need to make
the need to “integrate the grammar point through different uses across CLIL lessons, the same kinds of adjustments and simplifications that native speakers make in commu-
adopting a more immersive approach; explore literacy practices across the school for a nicating with second language learners. These modifications include using a slower rate
more integrated approach” (ibid.). of speech, adjusting the topic, emphasizing key words or phrases, building redundancy
. Language is text and discourse-based. CBI and CLIL address the role of language as a into their speech by using repetition, modeling, and paraphrase and giving multiple
Dw

vehicle for learning content as well as the role of content in the learning of language. examples, definitions, and synonyms to facilitate comprehension (ibid.).
This implies the centrality of linguistic entities longer than single sentences, because the . Negotiation of meaning plays an important role in understanding content. This refers to
nv

focus of teaching is how meaning and information are communicated and constructed the collaboration of both teachers and learners in understanding content. Negotiation of
through texts and discourse. The linguistic units that are central are not limited to the meaning may take several forms: the meaning may be realized through several exchang-
level of sentences and sub-sentential units (clauses and phrases) but include features es or turns rather than in a single exchange; one speaker may expand on what the other
that account for how longer stretches of language are used and that create coherence said; one speaker may provide words or expressions the other needs; one person may ask
and cohesion within genres and text-types. Language as it is used in the creation of texts questions to clarify what another says.
is an important focus of CLIL lessons, since academic learning involves familiarity with 3. Learning is facilitated by corrective feedback. Learners do not simply “pick up” language
a core set of text-types that are found in different academic disciplines. Learning how when engaged in CBI and CLIL. They also develop language awareness and language
122 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 123

accuracy through the kinds of corrective feedback the teacher provides. Lyster and learning, it is even more so in CBI and CLIL: “In CLIL contexts, teachers’ scaffolding is
Ranta (1997: 203) identify six types of such feedback and their functions: even more necessary as students need to process and express complex ideas ina foreign
language” (Llinares et al. 2012; 91).
Clarification request Indication that an utterance has not been heard or understood,
sometimes with the purpose of drawing attention to non-
target forms Design
Explicit correction Provision of the correct form, indicating that something
Objectives
was incorrect
Recast Implicit correction of an utterance by means of reformulation The aims of content-based courses and CLIL courses are varied and do not necessar-
Elicitation Direct elicitation of the correct form using techniques such ily overlap because of the different contexts in which they occur. CBI courses have been
as asking for completion described as ranging from those that are more content driven, to those that are more lan-
Repetition Repetition of the error with rising intonation guage driven, as shown in the following table from Met (1999).
Metalinguistic feedback Reference to the well-formedness or correctness of the
student's utterance without providing the correct form Content-driven CBI Language-driven CBI
Content is taught in La Content is used to learn La
. Learning of both content and language is facilitated by dialogic talk, Effective discourse in
Content learning is priority Language learning is priority
CBI and CLIL classrooms is said to have the features of dialogic talk. This is described
by Alexander (2008: 30) as talk which achieves “common understanding, through struc- Language learning is secondary Content learning is incidental
tures, cumulative questioning and discussion which guide and prompt, reduce choices, Content objectives determined by course Language objectives determined by La
goals or curriculum course goals or curriculum
minimize risk and error, and expedite ‘handover’ of concepts and principles.” Dialogic
teaching is said to be an essential component of CBI and CLIL-based pedagogy “both Teachers must select language objectives Students evaluated on content to be
because of its cognitive potency and the opportunities it provides for exposure to and integrated
use of rich language in the classroom” (Llinares et al. 2012: 71). Students evaluated on content mastery Students evaluated on language skills/
Prior knowledge plays an important role in CBI. Learners bring many different kinds proficiency
5
of prior knowledge to learning, including knowledge about the world and knowledge
Total and partial immersion are examples of content-driven courses, while topic- and
about events, situations, and circumstances and the roles people play in them. They may
theme-based language classes are examples of a more language-driven approach. An
need to use text-types (e.g., expository texts, information texts, narrative texts, recounts) adjunct course has features of both and is described as one in which “a language support
that occur in their own language. They also need to access schema of different kinds in
course is paired (as an adjunct) to a regular subject-matter course to enable those who are
relation to the content they are studying as well as sociocultural knowledge related to
still learning the language of instruction to participate in classes with those who speak
situations, people, and events. Learning content in a second language can be facilitated if
it natively or more proficiently” (Crandall 2012: 150). Hence, the goals and objectives of
students are better prepared through the activation of relevant background knowledge.
a CBI course will depend on whether mastery of content through a second language or
. Scaffolded learning plays an import part in CBI and CLIL. Scaffolding is defined as “the mastery of language through content is the focus of the course. Lyster (2011: 615), however,
temporary assistance by which a teacher helps a learner know how to do something, suggests that both kinds of goals are equally important: “second language learning and
so that the learner will be able to complete a similar task alone’ (Gibbons 2002: 10).
academic achievement are inextricably linked and thus share equal status in terms of edu-
Initially, learners depend on others with more experience than themselves and gradu- cational objectives” An example of objectives of this kind in CBI was seen in a theme-based
ally take on more responsibility over time for their own learning. In the classroom,
Intensive Language Course (ILC) at the Free University of Berlin. Four objectives were
scaffolding is the process of interaction between two or more people as they carry out identified for its yearlong, multi-theme program. These objectives were linguistic, strategic,
a classroom activity and where one person (e.g., the teacher or another learner) has
and cultural (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989: 32):
more advanced knowledge than the other (the learner) (Swain, Kinnear, and Steinman
2010). During the process, discourse is jointly created through the process of assisted or 1, To activate and develop existing English language skills
mediated performance, and interaction proceeds as a kind of joint problem-solving 2. To acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language devel-
between teacher and student. While scaffolding is important in all classroom-based. opment opportunities
124 Current approaches and methods
re 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 125

3. To develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all subject areas demanding and often have to be solved independently by the learner. Interpersonal
4. To broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking peoples. communication, on the other hand, is relatively undemanding cognitively and relies on
context to clarify meaning. The relevance of the CALP/BICS distinction to CLIL is that
In the case of CLIL both very general and more specific goals are sometimes given.
a learner with well-developed CALP skills may not necessarily be proficient in using lan-
An example of the former are the following goal statements (CLIL Compendium n.d.):
guage for social and interactional purposes. As Llinares et al. (2012: 220) comment: “CLIL
To develop intercultural communication skills contexts do not seem to represent learning environments where BICS is acquired more or
To prepare for internationalization less automatically.” This means that CLIL teachers need to make a special effort to ensure
To provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives that opportunities are provided for learners to acquire interpersonal communication skills,
To access subject-specific target language terminology Students of CBI, on the other hand, tend to be in ESL settings where the development of
To improve overall target language competence interpersonal communication skills may be acquired more spontaneously.
To develop oral communication skills
To diversify methods and forms of classroom practice The syllabus
To increase learner motivation.
In CBI courses the syllabus will depend on whether it is primarily content driven or
Coyle et al. (2010: 17) give examples of more specific CLIL goals, in the domains of both language driven, as noted above. Certain areas of content are thought to be more effec-
content and language. tive as a basis for CBI and CLIL than others. For example, geography is often the “first
choice” of subject matter. Geography is “highly visual, spatial and contextual; it lends
Content Multiple perspectives for study, e.g. modules in history where authentic itself to the use of maps, charts, and realid, and the language tends to be descriptive in
texts are used in different languages. nature with use of the ‘to be; cognates and proper names” (Stryker and Leaver 1993:
Preparing for future studies, e.g. modules that focus on ICT which 288). For somewhat different reasons, “Introduction to Psychology offered an ideal situ-
incorporate international iexis.
ation in which to introduce CBI at the bilingual University of Ottawa, since it has the
Skills for working jife, e.g. courses that deal with academic study skills
equipping learners for further study. largest enrollment of any introductory course in the university” and thus was likely to
Accessing subject-specific knowledge in another language. “attract a large enough number of second language speakers to justify special lecture
Language | Improving overall target language competence, e.g. through extended or discussion sections” (Brinton et al. 1989: 46). This course was further recommended
quality exposure to the CLIL language. because of student interest in the course topics and because of “the highly structured
Developing oral communication skills, e.g. through offering a wider range nature of the content, the emphasis on receptive learning of factual information, the
of authentic communication routes. availability of appropriate textbooks and video study material” (Brinton et al. 1989: 46).
Deepening awareness of both first languages and CLIL languages, On the other hand, CBI courses have been created around a rich variety of alternative
e.g. those schools that offer 50% of the curriculum in other languages kinds of content. Case studies of CBI in foreign language education report content selec-
in order to develop a deeper knowledge and linguistic base for
tion as wide-ranging as “Themes of Soviet Life and Worldview” (Russian), “Aphorisms,
learners.
Proverbs, and Popular Sayings” (Italian), “Religion and Change in Twentieth-Century
Developing self-confidence as a language learner and communicator,
e.g. practical and authentic language scenarios such as vocational Latin America” (Spanish), and “French Media” (French), Eleven such case studies
settings. . using a variety of course content in a variety of foreign language teaching situations are
Introducing the learning and use bf another language, e.g. lessons that reported in Stryker and Leaver (1993).
are activity-oriented are combined with language-learning goals, such Davies (2003) gives an example of a syllabus for a theme-based CBI course on the topic
as in play-oriented “language showers” for younger learners. of psychology, which was team-taught with a psychologist:

Advocates of CLIL also emphasize that an integration of content learning and Unit 1 Introduction to psychology
eseee8 @#

language learning should seek to develop proficiency in using language both for the mas- Unit 2 Types of learning
tery of academic content and for interpersonal communication. The former was referred Unit 3 Advertising and psychological techniques
to as CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) and the latter as BICS (Basic Unit 4 Counseling
Interpersonal Communication Skills) by Cummins (1984). CALP refers to the special kind Unit 5 Psychological illnesses
of language proficiency needed to perform academic tasks ~ tasks that are often cognitively Unit 6 Project work
es
 126 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 127

Davies (2003) notes: Similarly, with regard to CLIL-based approaches, Mehisto, Marsh, and Frigolos (2008: 105)
comment:
Each unit took from two to three weeks to complete. The students had two classes
per week and each class lasted for two and a half hours. The syllabus that we used The multi-faceted nature of the CLIL approach involves an extra focus on student
is clearly different from a conventional Introduction to Psychology class. Our aim was interests; peer-cooperative work and the fostering of critical thinking among other
to allow the students to explore various aspects of psychology rather than attempt- methodological strategies. These foster the iearning of content and provide increased
ing to give them a thorough grounding in a subject that, we believed, would have forums for discussing and otherwise communicating about content. Those increased
been too difficult for them to understand at this stage. In fact one of the strengths of opportunities support language learning.
theme-based CBI is its flexibility; teachers can create units with specific learner needs
in mind. For example, Unit 3 began with some textbook readings followed by ques- CBI and CLIL learning activities are not intrinsically different, but may differ in practice
tions and written work. After this the students were given some advertisements to because of the age of the learners and their other needs.
analyze and also brought in their own examples for use in group discussions. Finally,
for a small group project, they designed their own advertisements and then presented Learner roles
their work to the other class members with a rationale for why they had chosen their A goal in CBI is for learners to become autonomous so that they come to “understand their
product and who the target customers would be. Among the products they designed own learning process and ..: take charge of their own learning from the very start” (Stryker
were a genetically engineered cake tree and a time vision camera, and Leaver 1993: 286). In addition, most CBI courses anticipate that students will support
each other in collaborative modes of learning. This may be a challenge to those students
In the case of language-driven CBI courses, a conventional language syllabus may provide who are accustomed to more whole-class or independent learning and teaching modes.
the core structure for the course and content used to provide an additional support for CBI is in the “learning by doing” school of pedagogy, This assumes an active role by learn-
language development. Content is often selected because it is likely to be more motivat- ers in several dimensions, Learners are expected to be active interpreters of input and to be
ing and engaging for learners; however, assessment may be based on language proficiency.
willing to tolerate uncertainty along the path of learning, as well as to explore alternative
“Content learning may be considered a gratuitous but welcome by-product, but neither stu- learning strategies and seek multiple interpretations of oral and written texts.
dents nor their teachers are held accountable for ensuring that students learn it” (Met 1999). Learners themselves may be sources of content and joint participants in the selec-
In the case of CLIL courses, syllabuses will similarly depend on the approach to CLIL tion of topics and activities. Learners need commitment to this new kind of approach to
the course is based on and whether it is designed for young learners, secondary school, or language learning, and CBI advocates warn that some students may not find this new set
tertiary-level learners. (See below for further discussion of CLIL approaches.) of learner roles to their liking and may therefore be less than ready and willing participants
Types of learning and teaching activities
in CBI courses. Some students may be overwhelmed by the quantity of new information
in their CBI courses and may need additional support. Some students are reported to have
There are a number of descriptions of activity types in CBI. Stoller and Grabe (1997) provide experienced frustration and asked to be returned to more structured, traditional classrooms.
a list of activities classified according to their instructional focus. This includes language skills In CBI learners are expected to acquire language together with content through the
improvement, vocabulary building, discourse organization, communicative interaction, study noticing and awareness-raising activities the teacher makes use of ~ hence, the learner is
skills, and synthesis of content materials and grammar. Crandall (2012: 151, 152) reviews the expected to process language consciously as well as intuitively. Lyster (2011: 618) explains:
range of teaching activities that can be used according to the type of course and its context:
Noticing and awareness activities ... aim to strengthen students’ metalinguistic aware-
In CBI, teachers can draw on a range of relevant, meaningful, and engaging activi- ness, which then serves as a tool for extracting information from content-based input
ties that increase student motivation in a more natural manner, activities that involve and thus for learning language through subject-matter instruction.
co-operative, task-based, experiential, and project-based learning. Common to these
activities is the opportunity for students to use language to perform different tasks and In the case of learners in CLIL programs, learner roles are seen as central to success:
construct and reflect upon new meaning expressed through oral or written discourse
... CBI lessons include the use of both authentic and adapted oral and written subject The respective roles of the teachers and students are central to CLIL, because its

matter materials (textbooks, audio and visual materials, and other learning materials) very nature tends to demand more student-centred approaches. Students regularly

that are appropriate to the cognitive and language proficiency leve! of the learners or acknowledge that CLIL courses are difficult, especially at the beginning. Moreover it is
that can be made accessible through bridging activities. certain that engaging with and learning appropriately cognitively challenging content
 128 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 129

through another language requires a depth of processing which cannot be attained content through a second language, to give additional support for comprehension as well
when the teacher is simply in transmission mode. as production, to facilitate dialogic and scaffolded instruction, and to provide appropriate
(Coyle et al. 2010; 88) intervention and feedback to guide both the learning of content and the learning of the
second language (Llinares et al. 2012).
Thus, both CBI and CLIL require active participation on the part of the learner, with a goal
To summarize, ensuring that students have understood the material presented is a key
toward learner autonomy.
focus of CLIL teachers. CBI teachers obviously have this as an important goal, as well, but
Teacher roles may tend to focus on their own mastery and presentation of complex content.
Both CBI and CLIL position teachers in a different, and often more demanding, role from
The role of instructional materials
that required in traditional forms of language and content teaching. They will often be
involved in cooperating with other teachers and working collaboratively on the design of In both CBI and CLIL, the materials play a central role and may be specially designed
courses and materials. In the case of CBI, teachers have to familiarize themselves with, at materials, materials used to teach content subjects, and a variety of different forms of
times, difficult and unfamiliar content and often have to develop their own courses or choose authentic materials. Because context- and situation-specific materials are required with
both approaches, commercial textbooks are not usually available. “Since off-the-shelf-CLIL
and adapt materials that provide a basis for CBI. They have to keep context and comprehen-
materials are in short supply, teachers often spend a considerable time developing and/or
sibility foremost in their planning and presentations, they are responsible for selecting and
adapting authentic materials for use in class, they become student needs analysts, and they adapting existing learning resources” (Mehisto et al. 2008: 22), With CBI Crandall (2012:
have to create truly learner-centered classrooms. As Brinton et al. (1989: 3) note:
152) suggests the following kinds of materials, a description that also applies to the role of
materials in CLIL:
They are asked to view their teaching in a new way, from the perspective of truly con-
Materials for developing the curriculum and planning CBI lessons include the use
textualizing their lessons by using content as the point of departure. They are almost
certainly committing themselves to materials adaptation and development. Finally,
of both authentic and adapted orai and written subject matter materials (textbooks,
audio and visual materials, and other learning materials) that are motivating and
with the investment of time and energy to create a content-based language course
appropriate to the cognitive and language proficiency level of the learners or that can
comes even greater responsibility for the learner, since learner needs become the hub
be made accessible through bridging activities ... These activities include the use
around which the second language curriculum and materials, and therefore teaching
of demonstrations, visuals, charts, graphic organizers and outlines, breaking down
practices, revolve.
information into smaller chunks, pre-teaching vocabulary, and establishing back-
Stryker and Leaver (1993: 293) suggest the following essential skills for any CBI instructor: ground information.

. Varying the format of classroom instruction

. Using group work and team-building techniques
Contemporary models of CBI and CLIL
SB wn

. Organizing jigsaw reading arrangements

AY

. Defining the background knowledge and language skills required for student success The principles of CBI and CLIL can be applied to the design of courses for learners at any level
. Helping students develop coping strategies of language learning. The following are examples of different applications of CBI and CLIL.
. Using process approaches to writing
CBI courses
, Using appropriate error correction techniques
The four models listed below are all appropriate for university courses. Courses at the
oN

. Developing and maintaining high levels of student esteem

elementary and secondary levels tend to use a theme-based or adjunct approach.
CBI therefore places different demands on teachers from regular ESI. teaching. Likewise,
program administrators are required to make decisions about the choice and preparation Theme-based model
of teachers and the kinds of support and resources they will need as well as developing new This is a language course in which the syllabus is organized around themes or topics such as
approaches to assessment. Hence, teachers with a high level of motivation and commitment “the modern cinema” or “cities” The language syllabus is subordinated to the more general
to CBI may be essential. theme. The course might be taught by a language teacher or team-taught with a content
In the case of CLIL, additional teacher roles have been identified (and referred to else- specialist. At university level a general theme such as “business and marketing” or “immi-
where in this chapter). Teachers are expected to modify the language they use in teaching grants in a new city” might provide organizing topics for two weeks of integrated classroom
30 ~©6Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 131

work, Language analysis and practice evolve out of the topics that form the framework for about material they are currently studying in an academic course or that the language or
the course. A topic might be introduced through a reading, vocabulary developed through composition course itself simulates the acadernic process (e.g., mini-lectures, readings, and
guided discussion, audio or video material on the same topic used for listening compre- discussion on a topic lead into writing assignments). Students write in a variety of forms
hension, followed by written assignments integrating information from several different (e.g., short-essay tests, summaries, critiques, research reports) to demonstrate understand-
sources. Most of the materials used will typically be teacher-generated and the topic treated ing of the subject matter and to extend their knowledge to new areas. Writing is integrated
will involve all skills. A common model at secondary or grade-school level is one in which with reading, listening, and discussion about the core content and about collaborative and
students complete theme-based modules that are designed to facilitate their entry into the independent research growing from the core material.
regular subject-areas classroom. These models do not provide a substitute for mainstream
content classes but focus on learning strategies, concepts, tasks, and skills that are needed CLIL courses
in subject areas in the mainstream curriculum, grouped around topics and themes such as Advocates of CLIL often describe it with what one reviewer (Paran 2013: 140) refers to as
consumer education, map skills, foods, and nutrition.
“rather grandiose pronouncements.’ The following is typical:
‘Theme-based courses also provide a framework for courses and materials in many
programs outside the public school and university sector, such as the private language- CLIL is a lifelong concept that enibraces all sectors of education from primary to
school market. With theme-based courses, a set of themes might be selected as the basis for adults, from a few hours per week to intensive modules lasting several months. It may
a semester's work, and each theme used as the basis for six or more hours of work in which involve project work, examination courses, drama, puppets, chemistry practicals and
the four skills and grammar are taught drawing on the central theme. mathematical investigations. In short, CLIL is flexible and dynamic, where topics and
subjects ~ foreign languages and non-language subjects — are integrated in some kind
Sheltered model
of mutually beneficial way so as to provide value-added educational outcomes for the
This refers to content courses taught in the second language by a content-area specialist to
widest possible range of learners.
a group of ESL learners who have been grouped together for this purpose. This approach
(Coyle 2006: 6)
is sometimes used at university level (¢.g., in Canada and the United States), Since the ESL
students are not in a class together with native speakers, the instructor will be required The all-encompassing nature of CLIL courses is seen in Coyle et al. (2010: 18-22), who give
to present the content in a way which is comprehensible to second language learners and the following examples of CLIL courses at primary and secondary level. The first three exam-
in the process use language and tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty. Typically, the ples pertain to primary school (ages 5-12) and the remainder to secondary school (ages 12-19).
instructor will choose texts of a suitable difficulty level for the learners and adjust course © Confidence-building: an introduction to key concepts. An example is a theme-based
requirements to accommodate the learners’ language capacities (e.g, by making fewer
module on climate change, which requires 15 hours of learning time involving class-
demands for written assignments).
based communication with learners in another country. The class teacher approaches
Adjunct model the module using CLIL-designed materials and a networking system.
In this model, students are enrolled in two linked courses, one a content course and one © Development of key concepts and learner autonomy. The example given is subject-based
a language course, with both courses sharing the same content base and complementing learning on home economics and requires 4o hours of learning time involving trans-
each other in terms of mutually coordinated assignments. These courses are often designed languaging, where activities are developed through the CLIL models using bilingual
to prepare students for “mainstreaming” (e.g., preparing children to enter high schools materials. Subject and language teachers work together.
in English-speaking countries or to enter an English-medium university), and will often © Preparation for a long-term CLIL program. An example is an interdisciplinary approach
contain a focus on the language and vocabulary of academic subjects as well as academic involving a set of subjects from the natural sciences where the learners are prepared
study skills. Such a program requires a large amount of coordination to ensure that the two for in-depth education through the CLIL model. Subject and language teachers work
curricula are interlocking, and this may require modifying both courses. together following an integrated curriculum.

Skills-based model At the secondary level, some logistical considerations become important, as reflected in the
first two examples.
This is characterized by a focus on a specific academic skill area (e.g., academic writing)
that is linked to concurrent study of specific subject matter in one or more academic dis- e Dual-school education. Schools in different countries share the teaching of a specific
ciplines, and hence it has much in common with an ESP (English for Specific Purposes) course or module using VoIP (Voice overInternet Protocol, e.g., Skype) technologies
or EAP (English for Academic Purposes) approach. This may mean that students write where the CLIL language is an additional language in both countries.
132 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CUIL 133

e Bilingual education, Learners study a significant part of the curriculum through the which they have not been trained. Team-teaching proposals involving language teachers
CLIL language for a number of years with the intention of developing required content- and subject-matter teachers are often considered unwieldy and likely to reduce the effi-
learning goals and advanced language skills. ciency of both. Similarly, CLIL teachers who are unfamiliar with teaching their subject in a
e Interdisciplinary module approach. A specific module, for example environmental sci- CLIL language may need considerable preparation and ongoing support. Both approaches
ence or citizenship, is taught through CLIL involving teachers of different disciplines involve assembling appropriate teaching materials and resources, and supporters of both
(e.g., mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and language). approaches believe they offer considerable advantages over conventional approaches.
e Language-based projects, This type differs from the models above in that it is the lan- However, in the case of CLIL, research to date does not justify the somewhat extravagant
guage teacher who takes primary responsibility for the CLIL module. This may be claims that are often made for it as a panacea for achieving successful learning of both
done through international partnerships and is an extension of both content-based language and content (Paran 2013). In recent years a growing number of researchers have
and Communicative Language Teaching. The module involves authentic content begun to investigate the nature of the instructional strategies and learning in the domains
learning and communication through the CLIL language, and is scaffolded through of language and content in both CBI and CLIL classrooms (e.g., Duff 2001; Lyster, Collins,
language-teacher input. and Ballinger 2009; Dalton-Puffer 2007, 2011; Lyster 2011). Because of the complexity of the
© Specific-domain vocational CLIL. Learners develop competence in the CLIL language so issues involved, the results are often incoriclusive and their investigation beyond the scope
that they are able to carry out specific task-based functions which might range from cus- of this chapter, Many factors relating to the school environment and student population
tomer service through to accessing and processing information in different languages. may determine whether CLIL is successful. Advantages are claimed for a CLIL approach
Where applicable, this is carried out by content and language teachers working in tan- in some contexts (e.g., Austria), but not in others (e.g., Belgium [Dalton-Puffer and Smith
dem. It marks a shift away from existing practice, such as teaching language for specific 2007]). However, given the widespread adoption of CBI and CLIL approaches in many
purposes, toward practice which seeks to achieve the same objectives through a closer parts of the world, expansion in their use is expected to continue in the years to come.
tie to content teaching and learning. This model has much in common conceptually with
the adjunct model used in CBI programs. Discussion questions
i. What are the basic goals of CBI and CLIL? What are some of the similarities? Can you
describe some ways in which CBI and CLIL are different?
Procedure
Since CBI and CLIL refer to an approach rather than a method, no specific techniques 2. Are on-arrival and mainstreaming programs common in your country? Can you
or lesson procedures are associated with either model. In a content-driven approach, think of an advantage for each of these two groups of combining subject and language
procedures typically used to teach subject matter in a content class are used, with instruction?
appropriate adjustments according to the learners’ level of language proficiency, as 3. The rationale for CLIL and CBI is not purely pedagogical; economic and political factors
noted earlier in this chapter. In a language-driven approach, procedures more typically (such as the European Union's desire for a lingua franca) also play a role. Give both a
used in language courses (e.g., using a communicative or text-based approach) might positive (beneficial to learners) and a negative (detrimental to learners) example of these
be used. economic and political factors for each approach (CLIL and CBI).
An example of a CLIL textbook lesson may be found in the appendix to this chapter.
4. Lexis lies at the core of CLIL and CBI. Much of it is technical, or specific to the subject
being taught. In a sense, much of the lexis could be considered subject-specific terminol-
Conclusion ogy that is new to most of the learners, including Li speakers. For example, it is unlikely
Content-based approaches in language teaching have been widely used in a variety of that many of the learners in a science class would know the meaning of the word
different settings since the 1980s and CLIL-based approached have become increasingly refractometer. To what extent can we still speak of language instruction in such cases?
Would Lz speakers still have special needs in cases where Li learners would find the
popular in Europe since the late 1990s. Indeed the rapid global spread of CLIL “has sur-
language equally unfamiliar? And if so, how could the needs of L2 learners be taken into
prised even its most ardent advocates” (Maljers, Marsh, and Wolff 2007: 7), CBI and CLIL
raise important issues for both teachers and learners. Critics have noted that most lan-
account? Discuss with a colleague.
guage teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill rather than to teach a content 5. What are the academic (as opposed to language-related) goals of the program described
subject. Thus, language teachers may be insufficiently grounded to teach subject matter in on pages 125-6?
134 Current approaches and methods 5 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 135
: = aa

6. Lookat the examples of language (not content) goals of CLIL given on page 124. Which References and further reading
of these appear to be different from most non-CLIL language courses? Which appear
Alexander, R. 2008. Towards Dialogic Teaching: Rethinking Classroom Talk. North Yorkshire:
to be the same? Discuss with a colleague.
Dialogos.
7. You have started teaching a CBI course for the first time this semester and three weeks Brinton, D, M. 2007. Content-based instruction: reflecting on its applicability to the teaching of
in some students come to you and say they are not happy with this type of instruction. Korean. Paper presented at the 12th annual conference of American Association of Teachers
Having read this chapter, what could be some of the reasons for this? How could you of Korean. Chicago 2007.
Brinton, D. M., M. A. Snow, and M. B. Wesche. 1989. Content-Based Second Language
anticipate and deal with them? Instruction,
New York: Newbury House.
. CBI and CLIL courses can sometimes be rather all-encompassing (see the examples on CLIL Compendium. n.d. CLIL Dimensions and Focuses. Available at: http://www.clilcompendium.
co

pp. 131-2). Can you think of any downsides to this? Can you think of other downsides com; accessed May 6, 2013.
to the implementation of CBI and CLIL? Coxhead, A. 2000. A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly 34: 213-38.
Coxhead, A. 2011. The academic word list 10 years on: research and teaching. TESOL Quarterly 45:
9. In one university in an English-speaking country, approximately 40% of the 35,000
355-62.
students have English as an Additional Language (EAL). For many of these students, Coyle, D. 2006. Developing CLIL: towards a theory of practice. In Monograph 6. APAC Barcelona.
additional support in English is beneficial. Clearly, it would not be possible, and would 5-29.
probably be inefficient, to teach these students in special language classes. Take one Coyle, D., P. Hood, and D, Marsh, 2010. Content and Language Integraied Learning. Cambridge:
group of students from a particular program (e.g., a student in physics in the faculty of Cambridge University Press.
science) and consider the following: Crandall, J. 2012. Content-based language teaching. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds.), The
Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge
a) How would you identify those students’ English needs?
University Press. 140-60.
b) How would you identify what possible language needs exist among Li speakers and Cummins, J. 1984. Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in Assessment and Pedagogy. Clevedon,
the overlap with the EAL students’ needs? UK: Multilingual Matters.
c) What type of CLIL provision(s) do you think would be most suitable? (You can use Dalton-Puffer, C. 2007. Discourse in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Classrooms,
the table on p. 124 and the models for CBI courses presented on pp. 129-31.) Amsterdam and Philadelphia. John Benjamins.
d) How should these be implemented (Who should teach them? Will this be a separate Dalton-Puffer. C. 2011. Content-and-language integrated learning: from practice to principles,
program for EAL students or will it be integrated?)? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31: 182-204.
e) What downsides to this approach and possible additional forms of support that will Dalton-Puffer, C., and U. Smith 2007. Empirical Perspectives on CLIL Classroom Discourse. Frankfurt
need to be established. and Vienna: Peter Lang.
f) What professional development needs you might be able to imagine. Davies, S. 2003. Content based instruction in EFL contexts, The Internet TESL Journal 9(2), February.
html
Available at: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Davies-CBL
10. Work with a colleague and observe a class, Note examples of each of the feedback Duff, P. 2001. Language, literacy, content, and (pop) culture: challenges for ESL students in main-
types described on page 122. Discuss with each other afterwards and identify how these stream courses. The Canadian Modern Language Review 58: 103~32.
instances may have contributed to students’ learning. EURYDICE. 2033. http://www.eurydice.org/index.shmtl; accessed May 6, 2013. No longer available.
Gibbons, P. 2002. Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second Language Learners in
Feedback type Example Benefit for learning the Mainstream Classroom. Sydney: Heinemann.
Graddol, D, 2006. English Next. London: British Council.
Clarification request Llinares, A., T. Morton, and R, Whittaker 2012. The Role of Languages in CLIL. Cambridge:
Explicit correction Cambridge University Press.
Lyster, R, 2007. Learning and Teaching Languages through Content: A Counterbalanced Approach,
Recast Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Elicitation Lyster, R. 2011. Content-based second language teaching. In E. Hinkley (ed.), Handbook of Research
in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Vol IL. New York: Routledge. 611-30.
Repetition Lyster, R., and L. Ranta. 1997. Corrective feedback and learner uptake: negotiation of form in com-
Metalinguistic feedback municative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 37-66.
136 Current approaches and methods 6 Content-Based Instruction and CLIL 137

Lyster, R., L. Collins, and S. Ballinger. 2009. Linking languages: a bilingual read-aloud project. Appendix: A CLIL lesson
Language Awareness 18(3/4): 366-83.
Maljers, A., D, Marsh, and D. Wolff (eds.). 2007. Windows on CLIL: Content and Integrated Learning
in the Spotlight. The Hague: European Platform for Dutch Education.
Mehisto, P., D. Marsh, and M. J. Frigolos. 2008. Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated
Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Oxford: Macmillan.
Met, M. 1999. Content-Based Instruction: Defining Terms, Making Decisions. NLFC Reports.
Washington, DC; The National Foreign Language Centre. Living things are related to each other. ¥
Let's study how they live together.
Paron, A. 2013, Review of Coyle, Hood and March, Content and Language Integrated Learning. ELT n eee
Journal 67(1): 137-40.
Stoller, F,, and W. Grabe. 1997. A Six-T’s Approach to Content-Based Instruction. In M. Snow and Gp In groups, match the living things that belong to the same species.
Justify your answers.
D. Brinton (eds.), The Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on Integrating Language and
Content. White Plains, NY: Longman. 78-94.
Swain, M., P. Kinnear, and L. Steinmann 2010. Sociocultural Theory in Second Language Education.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Stryker, S., and B. Leaver. 1993. Content-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education.
Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

& wi Look at the diagram. Use the internet link and write the words in the correct boxes.

( COMMUNITY — SPECIES ECOSYSTEM POPULATION )

338 Current approaches and methods
7 Whole Language

QM Justify your answers.

SEAR TIE
LANGUAGE HELP
#, The ofange group represents the
i © The next group is the + Decause
Paes
Introduction
While directions in language teaching are generally initiated from
within the field of
language teaching itself, sometimes trends and movements in general educatio
n impact
language teaching practices as well. Such is the case with the Whole Language
movement ~
the focus of this chapter — as well as with the notion of multiple intellige
nces which we
turn to in Chapter 12, While the term Whole Language as used in second language
teach-
ing came to encompass the four skills, the term was created in the 1980s by
a group of
US educators concerned with the teaching of what is referred to as
language arts, that
is, the teaching of reading and writing for first language learners.
The development of
reading and writing in the first language (often termed the teaching of literacy)
is a very
active educational enterprise worldwide, and, like the field of second language
> Sing teaching,
has led to a number of different and at times competing approaches and
methodologies,
Traditionally, a widespread approach to the teaching of both reading and writing
We can see different —__.__._._____ such as horses, sheep, vultures and grass focused
on a “decoding” approach to language. By this is meant a focus on teaching
in this habitat.
A group of horses is calleda herd. Allthe horsesin
an areaarecalleda__. the separate
components of language such as grammar, vocabulary, and word recogniti
of horses. The animals we see ail live in the same a high mountain area, so they on, and in par-
ticular the teaching of phonics. Phonics is based on the theory that reading involves
all forma iden-
tifying letters and turning them into sounds. Other reading theories approach
reading
through a focus on the individual skills or micro-skills that are believed to
be involved
in fluent reading. The Whole Language movement was developed as a reaction
to teach-
ing methods such as these. It emerged when “top-down” reading theories
Species are groups of or other living things that are were being
promoted (the use readers make of context, background knowledge, and inferenci
able to breed and fertile offspring. The group of animals, plants or
ng to
enable them to avoid word-by-word or “bottom-up” reading strategies
other living things of the same species in an area is called a . All species ) by influential
reading specialists such as Kenneth Goodman, Marie Clay, and Frank
which live in the same area are called a . The community and the type of Smith. The Whole
Language movement was strongly opposed to approaches to teaching reading
_.._______ where this community lives form an and writ-
ing that focused on isolated and discrete features of language and argued

we
that language
should be taught as a “whole”: “If language isn't kept whole, it isn’t language
anymore”
(Rigg 1991: $22).
Whole Language emphasized learning to read and write naturally
with a focus on
real communication and reading and writing for pleasure.
In the 1990s this approach
became popular in the United States as a motivating and innovative
way of teaching
language arts skills to primary school children. It soon attracted the interest
of special-
ists in second language teaching since it appeared compatible
with the principles of

139
140 Current approaches and methods
7 Whole Language 141

both Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the Natural Approach (Chapter 14), signals for “apologizing,” » “A whole language perspective requires an authentic, ‘real’ situa-
which were also dominant methodologies during the 1990s. It shares a philosophical tion in which one truly needs to apologize to another” (Rigg 1991: 524).
and instructional perspective with CLT (Chapter 5) since it emphasizes the importance Whole Language also views language cognitively as a vehicle for internal “interaction”
of meaning and meaning making in teaching and learning as well as the emphasis on for egocentric speech, for thinking. “We use language to think: In order to discover what we
experiential learning, the integration of skills, and the role of authentic language. It also know, we sometimes write, perhaps talk to a friend, or mutter to ourselves silently” (Rigg
relates to “natural approaches” to language learning (see Chapter 14) since it is designed 1991: 323). A functional model of language is also referred to in many articles on Whole
to help children and adults learn a second language in the same way that children are Language. Language is always seen as something that is used for meaningful purposes and
believed to learn their first language. A Whole Language approach was widely used in to carry out authentic functions.
first language reading programs from the 1990s and has also been used in a number of Whole Language also rejects the view that language can be broken down into separate
basic and family literacy programs as well as in some workplace literacy programs in skills, Language is always linked to authentic contexts for its use, which typically involve
Canada, the United States, and elsewhere. “What began as a holistic way to teach reading an integration of skills, Grammar is not taught in isolation but is linked to situations where
has become a movement for change, key aspects of which are respect for each student learners need to use it, such as in editing a piece of written text.
as a member of a culture and as a creator of knowledge, and respect for each teacher as
a professional” (Rigg 1991: 521). However, in both first-language reading instruction and Theory of learning
language teaching, interest in the Whole Language movement has waned in recent years.
‘The learning theory underlying Whole Language is in the humanistic and constructivist
In both fields it has been overtaken by a movement toward skills-based or competency-
schools. The descriptions of Whole Language classrooms recall terms familiar to humanis-
based approaches and by the adoption of standards that are linked to the mastery of
tic approaches to education and to language learning: Whole Language is said to be authen-
discrete skills and competencies (Chapter 8).
tic, personalized, self-directed, collaborative, pluralistic. Such characteristics are believed to
In the 1990s considerable discussion was devoted to whether Whole Language
focus learner attention and to motivate mastery. Constructivist learning theory holds that
is an approach, a method, a philosophy, or a belief. In a survey of sixty-four articles
knowledge is socially constructed, rather than received or discovered. Thus, constructiv-
on Whole Language, Bergeron (1990) found Whole Language treated as an approach
ist learners “create meaning,” “learn by doing” and work collaboratively “in mixed groups
(34.4% of the articles), as a philosophy (23.4%), as a belief (14.1%), or as a method (6.3%).
on common projects.” Rather than transmitting knowledge to students, teachers collabo-
Watson (1989) commented: “Whole language is not a program, set of materials, method,
rate with them to create knowledge and understanding in their mutual social context. As
practice, or technique; rather, it is a perspective on language and learning that leads to
Bomengen (2010) puts it:
the acceptance of certain strategies, methods, materials and techniques.” We see it as
an approach based on key principles about language (language is whole) and learning Whole language is a constructivist approach to education; constructivist teachers
(writing, reading, listening, and speaking should be integrated in learning). Each Whole emphasize that students create (construct) their own knowledge from what they
Language teacher was encouraged to implement the theories of Whole Language as he encounter. Using a holistic approach to teaching, constructivist teachers do
not
or she interprets them and according to the kinds of classes and learners he or she is believe that students Jearn effectively by analyzing small chunks of a system, such as
teaching. learning the letters of the alphabet in order to learn language. Constructivist instructors
see learning as a cognitive experience unique to each learner’s own experience and
Approach prior knowledge, which forms the framework for new knowledge,

Theory of language Rather than seeking to “cover the curriculum? learning focuses on the learners’ expe-
Whole Language views language organization from what we have earlier called an inter- rience, needs, interests, and aspirations. In this sense, Whole Language does not seek
actional perspective. This perspective is most obviously a social one that views language to offer a complete integration of language and content, as do approaches more widely
as a vehicle for human communication and in which there is an interactional relationship used today, such as Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and CLIL (Chapter 6). However,
between readers and writers. “Language use is always in a social context, and this applies to sociocultural perspectives on learning are also used to support Whole Language,
both oral and written language, to both first and second language use” (Rigg 1991: 523). Heavy particularly the notion of scaffolded learning, equally important in CBI and CLIL.
emphasis in Whole Language is placed on “authenticity,” on engagement with the authors Students provide scaffolding for each other when they work collaboratively on tasks
of written texts, and also on conversation. For example, in mastering the sociolinguistic and projects.
142 Current approaches and methods 7 Whole Language 143

Design Learner roles

Objectives ‘The learner is a collaborator, collaborating with fellow students, with the teacher, and with
The major principles and goals underlying the design of Whole Language instruction are writers of texts. Students are also evaluators, evaluating their own and others’ learning, with
as follows: the help of the teacher. The learner is self-directed; his or her own learning experiences are
used as resources for learning. Students are also selectors of learning materials and activi-
e ‘The use of authentic literature rather than artificial, specially prepared texts and exer- ties, “Choice is vital in a whole language class, because without the ability to select activi-
cises designed to practice individual reading skills ties, materials, and conversational partners, the students cannot use language for their own
e A focus on real and natural events rather than on specially written stories that do not purposes” (Rigg 1991: 526).
relate to the students’ experience
The reading of real texts of high interest, particularly literature Teacher roles
Reading for the sake of comprehension and for a real purpose ‘The teacher is seen as a facilitator and an active participant in the learning community rather
Writing for a real audience and not simply to practice writing skills than an expert passing on knowledge. The teacher teaches students and not the subject matter
Writing as a process through which learners explore and discover meaning and looks for the occurrence of teachable moments rather than following a preplanned lesson
The use of student-produced texts rather than teacher-generated or other-generated plan or script. The teacher creates a climate that will support collaborative learning, The teacher
texts has the responsibility of negotiating a plan of work with the learners and providing support
Integration of reading, writing, and other skills throughout the learning process by “help[ing] children develop skills for interacting with each
Student-centered learning: students have choice over what they read and write, giving other, solving interpersonal conflicts and problems, supporting one and other in learning, and
them power and understanding of their world taking substantial responsibility for their own behavior and learning” (Weaver 1995).
Reading and writing in partnership with other learners
Encouragement of risk taking and exploration and the acceptance of errors as signs of Role of instructional materials
learning rather than of failure. Whole Language instruction advocates the use of real-world materials rather than com-
mercial texts. A piece of literature is an example of “real-world” materials in that its creation
Types of learning and teaching activities was not instructionally motivated but resulted from the author’s wish to communicate with
Lyons and Beaver emphasize “flexibility within structure” as the guiding principle for the the reader. Other real-world materials are brought to class by the students in the form of
design and selection of teaching activities. newspapers, signs, handbills, storybooks, and printed materials from the workplace in the
case of adults. Students also produce their own materials. Rather than purchase pedagogi-
Instead of having children do one brief activity or worksheet after another, whole lan~
cally prepared textbooks and “basal readers;’ schools make use of class sets of literature,
guage teachers organize the day in larger biocks of time, so that children can engage
both fictional and nonfictional.
in meaningful pursuits. Thus they engage in fewer different tasks, but larger and more
Certainly an interest in and suggestions for the engagement of literature in the teach-
satisfying projects. They may have a readers’ and writers’ workshop, for instance, ing of second languages is not unique to Whole Language proposals Many language teach-
when the children read books and perhaps use them as models for their own writing.
ers enter the language teaching field with literature training as their primary background
They may study a theme or topic at least part of the day for several days or weeks,
and maintain an interest in literature and its teaching throughout a career in language
using oral and written language and research skills to pursue learning in the realm of
teaching. Prominent researchers and applied linguists in the field bring with them a strong
social studies and/or science and math, and using language and the arts to demon-
literary background and maintain that interest in application to second language pedagogy.
strate and share what they have learned. Together and individually, the students have
Maley (2001), for example, overviews the field of literature in the language classroom and
many choices as to what they will do and learn, which enables them to take significant
outlines approaches to using literature, citing authors and exercise types in his overview.
responsibility for their learning. However, the teacher guides, supports, and structures
the children’s learning as needed. Flexibility within the larger time blocks offers the
time that learners need (especially the less proficient) in order to accomplish some-
Procedure
thing meaningful and significant. The issue of what instructional characteristics are specific to Whole Language is somewhat
(Lyons and Beaver 1995: 127) problematic. Bergeron (1990) found that Whole Language was described differently in each
144 Current approaches and methods 7 Whole Language 145

article of the sixty-four articles she surveyed (except those written by the same author).
She found only four classroom features mentioned in more than 50% of the articles. These
included: “theata fotad allegeat oral border of the 3ath Parallel was ever s so snug under the bright
high autumn’ sky. In the space between the two: main rooms of the empty fi rm house @
the use of literature
the use of process writing
encouragement of cooperative learning among students
concern for students’ attitude.
Activities that are often used in Whole Language instruction are: would you choose to live in? Why %
. Do the contrasting opening sentences set up any different expectations jiin the re ser
individual and small-group reading and writing as to what kind of story will follow arid what the tone of the story will be? -.
ungraded dialogue journals 3. Oh a map of Korea, each pariner should indicate where he/she thinks thevillage i is
writing portfolios > focated. Are the locations the same? lf not, why not?-
writing conferences : Write an opening sentence ofa ‘short story in-which you
student-made books of.1a as it might appear in winier rather. than autumn. ae
story writing. Write two parallel text, opening Seritences in-which you describe 1 in alfererit words
x a
Many of these activities are also common in other instructional approaches, such as CLT oo Millage you: know: Ask apartner which village he/she prefers. « : é
(Chapter 5), CBI (Chapter 6), and Task-Based Language Teaching (Chapter 9). Perhaps . Discuss what different kinds of stories might follow on the basis of the opening gen-
the only feature of Whole Language that does not also appear centrally in discussions tences. Write an original first sentence of this story thinking of yourself as tranelator”
of communicative approaches to language teaching is the focus on literature, although and drawing on both an :
this has obviously been of concern to other writers on ELT methodology. Suggestions = (Rodgers i938)
for exploitation of literary resources in the Whole Language classroom will be familiar to
language teachers with a similar interest in the use of literature in support of second lan-
Conclusion
guage learning. What differs in Whole Language teaching is not the incidental use of such
activities based on the topic of the lesson or an item in the syllabus but their use as part of The Whole Language movement was advocated not as a teaching method but as an approach
an overall philosophy of teaching and learning that gives a new meaning and purpose to to learning that sees language as a whole entity. In language teaching, each language teacher
such activities. was free to implement the approach according to the needs of particular classes. Advantages
The following is an example of the use of literary pieces in a Whole Language claimed for Whole Language are that it focuses on experiences and activities that are relevant
workshop and involves activities built around the use of “Parallel Texts.” Two English to learners’ lives and needs, that it uses authentic materials, and that it can be used to facili-
translations of the same short story is an example of parallel texts. Study of the two tate the development of all aspects of a second language. Critics, however, see it as a rejection
translations highlights the range of linguistic choices open to the writer (and translator) of the whole ESL approach in language teaching and one that seeks to apply native-language
in the contrast of linguistic choices made by the translators and the responses made principles to ESL. Whole Language proposals are seen as anti-direct teaching, anti-skills, and
to these choices by the students as readers. In pairs, one student acts as presenter/ anti-materials, assuming that authentic texts are sufficient to support second language learn-
interpreter of one of the two short-story translations and a partner acts as presenter/ ing and that skill development will follow without special attention (Aaron 1991). Likewise,
interpreter of the other. since the 1990s those reading specialists opposed to the Whole Language approach as it is
used with first language learners have criticized it on both theoretical and practical grounds.
The Thomas B. Fordham Foundation in 2000 commented:
Parallel Texts: Opening sentences from iwo translations ofa Korean si story We:
12." “Cranes” by Hwang Sun-Won (transiatedby. Kevin Oo Rourke) The whole-language approach to reading instruction continues to be widely used in
the primary grades in U.S. schools, despite having been disproven time and again by
“The village on the northern side of the 3th parallel frontier. was.‘ever so quiet and desc:
careful research and evaluation. Whole language still pervades textbooks for teachers,
late beneath the high, ‘elear autumn sky. White gourds leaned on white gourds as they
instructional materials for classroom use, some states’ language-arts standards and
swayed in the yard of an empty house.”
other policy documents, teacher licensing requirements and preparation programs,
146 Current approaches and methods 7 Whole Language 147

and the professional context in which teachers work. Yet reading science is clear: advocates make use of a rich array of materials that offer an integrated approach to ESL
young children need instruction in systematic, synthetic phonics in which they are instruction and that could be adapted for use in a wide variety of contexts (e.g., Whiteson
taught sound-symbol correspondences singly, directly, and explicitly. Although most 1998). Whole Language activities may prove useful particularly for younger learners in ESL
state education agencies, schoo! districts, and federal agencies claim to embrace environments. Many of the activities for older learners in other environments are similar
“balanced” reading instruction — implying that worthy ideas and practices from both to those recommended in other instructional approaches, for example, Communicative
whole-language and code-emphasis approaches have been successfully integrated — Language Teaching and Cooperative Language Learning (Chapter 13), which can also serve
many who pledge allegiance to balanced reading continue to misunderstand reading as resources to support a Whole Language approach.
development and to deliver poorly conceived, ineffective instruction.
Almost every premise advanced by whole language about how reading is learned has Discussion questions
been contradicted by scientific investigations that have established the following facts: 1. What was the goal of the Whole Language movement as it applied to second language
e Learning to read is not a natural process. Most children must be taught to read learning? How does Whole Language differ from Content-Based Instruction and CLIL?
through a structured and protracted process in which they are made aware of . Rigg comments, “Iflanguage isn't kept whole, it isn’t language anymore” (p. 139). Do you agree

b
sounds and the symbols that represent them, and then leam to apply these skills with this statement? Can you find examples of this thinking in materials you are familiar with?
automatically and attend to meaning.
3. Whole Language emphasizes the importance of authenticity. For example, in the case of
e Our alphabetic writing system is not learned simply from exposure to print.
practicing apologizing, Rigg states that creating this authenticity “requires an authentic,
Phonological awareness is primarily responsible for the ability to sound words out. The
‘teal’ situation in which one truly needs.to apologize to another” (p. 141). What chal-
ability to use phonics and to sound words out, in turn, is primarily responsible for the
lenges can you see in this, especially with beginner learners?
development of context-free word-recognition ability, which in turn is primarily respon-
sible for the development of the ability to read and comprehend connected text. 4. Whole Language is based on a constructivist approach to learning. Explain to a col-
Spoken language and written language are very different; mastery of each requires league what impact this has on the language classroom, and in particular on the roles of
unique skills. the teacher and the learner.
e@ The most important skill in early reading is the ability to read single words com-
5. In Whole Language, writing is done for a real audience and not simply to practice writ-
pletely, accurately, and fluently.
ing skills. How can technology support this type of activity?
e Context is not the primary factor in word recognition.
. Authentic materials take precedence over commercial texts. In particular, Whole

an
The writer then goes on to suggest how Whole Language can be “rooted out” from reading Language teachers use newspapers, literature, signs, and other forms of non-instructional
classrooms, and lists several recommendations including the following: texts. What are some of the possible downsides of such materials?

1. Every state should have language-arts content standards and curricular frame- 7. Whole Language does not simply attempt to “cover the curriculum” in terms of teaching
works for each grade from kindergarten through third grade that are explicitly based a fixed set of skills or language content. Instead, it focuses on the learners’ experience,
on solid reading-research findings. needs, interests, and aspirations. Read the paragraph again by Beaver about “flexibility
2, State assessments should be calibrated to show the effects of reading instruction within structure” on page 142 for some ideas of how this is done in practice. Now take a
as delineated in well-written state standards. lesson plan (from your own school curriculum, the Internet, or a textbook) and use the
3. State accountability systems should emphasize the attainment of grade-appropriate questions below to help you redesign it so that it is based on Whole Language principles.
reading, spelling, and writing skills by third grade.
(Thomas B. Fordham Foundation 2000) Current lesson plan Changes

Length of lessons
In comparison to the heated discussion that Whole Language aroused in the field
of reading instruction, the second language teaching profession has perhaps been kinder
to Whole Language, since it never prompted the same level of debate and controversy. It List of topics for each lesson
was generally not promoted as a replacement for other approaches to language teaching
and could presumably be used in conjunction with other approaches, such as communi- (Continued)
cative, task-based and text-based approaches (see Chapters 9 and 10). Whole Language
146 Current approaches and methods 7 Whole Language 147

and the professional context in which teachers work. Yet reading science is clear: advocates make use of a rich array of materials that offer an integrated approach to ESL
young children need instruction in systematic, synthetic phonics in which they are instruction and that could be adapted for use in a wide variety of contexts (e.g., Whiteson
taught sound-symbol correspondences singly, directly, and explicitly. Although most 1998). Whole Language activities may prove useful particularly for younger learners in ESL
state education agencies, schoo! districts, and federal agencies claim to embrace environments. Many of the activities for older learners in other environments are similar
“balanced” reading instruction - implying that worthy ideas and. practices from both to those recommended in other instructional approaches, for example, Communicative
whole-language and code-emphasis approaches have been successfully integrated — Language Teaching and Cooperative Language Learning (Chapter 13), which can also serve
many who pledge allegiance to balanced reading continue to misunderstand reading as resources to support a Whole Language approach.
development and to deliver poorly conceived, ineffective instruction.
Aimost every premise advanced by whole language about how reading is learned has Discussion questions
been contradicted by scientific investigations that have established the following facts: 1. What was the goal of the Whole Language movement as it applied to second language
e Learning to read is not a natural process. Most children must be taught to read
learning? How does Whole Language differ from Content-Based Instruction and CLIL?
through a structured and protracted process in which they are made aware of 2, Rigg comments, “If language isn’t kept whole, it isn’t language anymore” (p. 139). Do you agree
sounds and the symbols that represent them, and then learn to apply these skills with this statement? Can you find examples of this thinking in materials you are familiar with?
automatically and attend to meaning.
3. Whole Language emphasizes the importance of authenticity. For example, in the case of
e Our alphabetic writing system is not learned simply from exposure to print.
practicing apologizing, Rigg states that creating this authenticity “requires an authentic,
Phonological awareness is primarily responsible for the ability to sound words out. The
‘teal’ situation in which one truly needs.to apologize to another” (p. 141). What chal-
ability to use phonics and to sound words out, in turn, is primarily responsible for the
lenges can you see in this, especially with beginner learners?
development of context-free word-recognition ability, which in turn is primarily respon-
sible for the development of the ability to read and comprehend connected text. 4. Whole Language is based on a constructivist approach to learning, Explain to a col-
e Spoken language and written language are very different; mastery of each requires league what impact this has on the language classroom, and in particular on the roles of
unique skills. the teacher and the learner.
e The most important skill in early reading is the ability to read single words com-
5. In Whole Language, writing is done for a real audience and not simply to practice writ-
pletely, accurately, and fluently.
ing skills. How can technology support this type of activity?
e Context is not the primary factor in word recognition.
6. Authentic materials take precedence over commercial texts. In particular, Whole
‘The writer then goes on to suggest how Whole Language can be “rooted out” from reading Language teachers use newspapers, literature, signs, and other forms of non-instructional
classrooms, and lists several recommendations including the following: texts. What are some of the possible downsides of such materials?
1. Every state should have language-arts content standards and curricular frame- 7 Whole Language does not simply attempt to “cover the curriculum’ in terms of teaching
works for each grade from kindergarten through third grade that are explicitly based a fixed set of skills or language content. Instead, it focuses on the learners’ experience,
on solid reading-research findings. needs, interests, and aspirations. Read the paragraph again by Beaver about “flexibility
2, State assessments should be calibrated to show the effects of reading instruction within structure” on page 142 for some ideas of how this is done in practice. Now take a
as delineated in well-written state standards. lesson plan (from your own school curriculum, the Internet, or a textbook) and use the
3. State accountability systems should emphasize the attainment of grade-appropriate questions below to help you redesign it so that it is based on Whole Language principles.
reading, spelling, and writing skills by third grade.
(Thomas B, Fordham Foundation 2000) Current lesson plan Changes

Length of lessons
In comparison to the heated discussion that Whole Language aroused in the field
of reading instruction, the second language teaching profession has perhaps been kinder
to Whole Language, since it never prompted the same level of debate and controversy. It List of topics for each lesson
was generally not promoted as a replacement for other approaches to language teaching
and could presumably be used in conjunction with other approaches, such as communi- (Continued)
cative, task-based and text-based approaches (see Chapters 9 and 10). Whole Language
148 Current approaches and methods ! 7 Whole Language 149

Lyons, C. A., and J. M. Beaver. 1995. Reducing retention and learning disability placement through
Current lesson plan Changes
reading recovery: an educationally sound, cost-effective choice. In R. L. Allington and S. A.
Frequency and types of Walmsley (eds.), No Quick Fix: Rethinking Literacy Programs in America’s Elementary Schools.
feedback Language and Literacy Series. New York: Teachers College Press. 116-36.
Maley, A. 2001. Literature in the language classroom. In R. Carter and D, Nunan (eds.), Teaching
Opportunities for students to
English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 180-5.
collaborate
Manzo, K. K. 2007. Whole Language, Education Week, February 6, 2007.
Opportunities for students to Patzelt, K, E. 1993. Principles of Whole Language and Implications for ESL Learners. ERIC document
self-direct their learning (ED400526).
Opportunities for students to Rigg, P. 1991. Whole Language in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 25(3): 521-54.
select content and activities
Rodgers, T. S. 1993. Teacher trainirig for Whole Language in ELT, Paper given at City University of
Hong Kong Seminar on Teacher in Education in Language Teaching, April 1993.
Type of assessment Shao, X. 1996. A Bibliography of Whole Language Materials. Biblio, Series 1993, No. 1. ERIC document
(ED393093).
Stahl, S, A. 1994. The Effects of Whole Language Instruction: An Update and a Reappraisal. ERIC
Did you have to make many changes to your lesson plan? What areas of overlap existed document (ED364830).
between the two plans? And what differences? Do you think some of the changes you Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. 2000, Whole language lives on: the illusion of balanced reading
would have to make might be beneficial? instruction. Washington DC. Available at: http://www.LDonline.org/article/6394/
Watson, D. 1989. Defining and describing whole language. Elementary School Journal 90(2): 129-42.
8. A colleague whose classes are based on the Whole Language approach suggests you try
Weaver, C. 1995. On the nature of whole language education. In C. Weaver, L. Gillmeister-Krause, and
to use literature in your classes and recommends a particular book. You think the book
G. Vento-Zogby (eds.), Creating Support for Effective Literacy Education. New York: Heinemann.
is interesting and relevant to your learners, but you are not sure that they will be willing Available at: http://www.heinemann.com/shared/onlineresources/08894/08894f6 html
to read a whole book. Think of activities you could use to introduce the book to the class Whiteson, V. 1998. Play’ the Thing: A Whole Language Approach. New York: St. Martin's Press.
and engage your learners with it.

References and further reading

Aaron, P. 1991. Is there a hole in whole language? Contemporary Education 62 (Winter): 127.
Adunyarittigun, D, 1996. Whole Language: A Whole New World for ESL Programs. ERIC document
(ED386024).
Bergeron, B. S. 1990. What does the term Whole Language mean? Journal of Reading Behavior 22(4): 6-7.
Bomengen M. 2010. What is the whole language approach to teaching reading? [blog post]
Reading Horizons, http://www.readinghorizons.com/blog/post/2010/09/23/What-is-the-Whole-
Language-Approach-to-Teaching-Reading.aspx; accessed January 23, 2013.
Brockman, B. 1994. Whole Language: A Philosophy of Literacy Teaching for Adults Too! ERIC docu-
ment (ED376428).
Chitrapu, D. 1996. Whole Language: adapting the approach for large classes. Forum Magazine 34(2):
28-9.
Freeman, D., and Y. Freeman. 1993. Whole Language: How Does It Support Second Language
Learners? ERIC document (ED360875).
Goodman, K. 1986. What’ Whole in Whole Language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Hao, R. N. 1991. Whole Language: some thoughts. Kamehameha Journal of Education (March): 16-18.
Heymsfeld, C. R. 1989. Filling the hole in Whole Language. Educational Leadership 46(6).
Krashen, S. 1998. Has Whole Language Failed? ERIC document (ED586010).
Lems, K, 1995. Whole Language and the ESL/EFL Classroom. ERIC document (ED384210).
 Ty 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 151
8 Competency-Based Language
Teaching, standards, and the Common movement (encompassing other standards-based frameworks), and the Common European
Framework of Reference.
European Framework of Reference
1 Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT)
Introduction
CBLT is an example of an approach known as Competency-Based Education (CBE) - an
educational movement that focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning in the devel-
opment of language programs. CBE addresses what the learners are expected to do with
the language, however they learned to do it. The focus on outputs rather than on inputs to
Introduction learning is central to the competencies perspective. CBE emerged in the United States in
the 1970s and advocated defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable descrip-
A common way of developing language courses is to first make decisions about what to
teach, then to determine how to teach it, and finally to assess what was learned. With this tions of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course
of study. The characteristics of CBE are described by Schenck (1978: vi):
process, what is learned is assumed to be the result of what is taught and how well it is
taught. This approach to course planning is referred to as forward design in Chapter 21 Competency-based education has much in common with such approaches to learn-
of this book and often reflects the assumption that the learning outcomes of a course are ing as performance-based instruction, mastery learning and individualized instruc-
dependent upon a well-designed syllabus and effective teaching methods. Consequently, we
tion. It is outcome-based and Is adaptive to the changing needs of students, teachers
see throughout this book that discussion of the most appropriate form for a syllabus as well
and the community ... Competencies differ from other student goals and objectives
as the most appropriate teaching methods have been a recurring focus in language teaching in that they describe the student's ability to apply basic and other skills in situations
for over a hundred years, However, there is another tradition in educational planning that that are commonly encountered in everyday life. Thus CBE is based on a set of out-
appears to reverse the typical sequence of activities in which a course is developed. This comes that are derived from an analysis of tasks typically required of students in life
approach begins with a description of learning outcomes, or what the learner should be role situations.
able to do at the end of the course, and issues related to methodology and syllabus follow
from the statements of learning outcomes. This approach is referred to as backward design, CBLT, as mentioned, is an application of the principles of CBE to language teach-
and has had a considerable impact on educational planning in general as well as in lan- ing. Such an approach had been widely adopted by the end of the 1970s, particularly
guage teaching since the 1970s (Wiggins and McTighe 2006). It is discussed in more detail as the basis for the design of work-related and survival-oriented language teaching
in Chapter 21. Leung (2012: 161~2) comments that “outcomes-based teaching in the past programs for adults. It has also been widely used since. Indeed, in many large-scale
thirty years or so can be associated with the wider public policy environments in which the language programs of different types and at all levels, competency-based curricula are
twin doctrines of corporatist management (whereas the activities in different segments of how a common strand. In work-related programs it is no longer the assumption that
society are subordinated to the goals of the state) and public accountability (which requires employees will develop competence through work experience: educational institutions
professionals to justify their activiites in relation to declared public policy goals) have pre- are expected to deliver professionals with the competencies expected (Hoogveld 2003;
dominated? They represent attempts to set standards against which student performance Baines and Stanley 2006), The Center for Applied Linguistics called competency-
and achievement can be judged and compared at any given stage of a teaching program. based ESL curricula “the most important breakthrough in adult ESL” (1983). By the
Leung further notes that the terms used to designate outcomes-based approaches include 1990s, CBLT had come to be accepted as “the state-of-the-art approach to adult ESL
attainment targets, benchmarks, core skills, essential learnings/skills, outcomes-based edu- by national policymakers and leaders in curriculum development as well” (Auerbach
cation, performance profiles, and target competencies. Figueras similarly observes (2012: 1986: 411), and any refugee in the United States who wished to receive federal assistance
479): “Curricula and language programmes today are often outcomes-based, drawn up with had to be enrolled in a competency-based program (Auerbach 1986: 412). Typically,
much more attention to real-life uses, and focused on what students will be able or should such programs were based on “a performance outline of language tasks that lead to
be able to do at the end of a course” a demonstrated mastery of language associated with specific skills that are necessary
In language teaching a focus on learning outcomes characterizes the three approaches for individuals to function proficiently in the society in which they live” (Grognet and
that will be described in this chapter: Competency-Based Language Teaching, the standards Crandall 1982: 3).

150
152 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 153

Advocates of CBLT see it as a powerful and positive agent of change: Western Governors University’s competency-based degree programs, saying, “While
such programs are now the exception, | want them to be the norm.”
Competency-based approaches to teaching and assessment offer teachers an
opportunity to revitalize their education and training programs. Not only will the qual- Auerbach (1986: 414-15) provided a useful review of factors involved in the implemen-
ity of assessment improve, but the quality of teaching and student learning will be tation of CBLT programs and identified eight key features:
enhanced by the clear specification of expected outcomes and the continuous feed-
1. A focus on successful functioning in society. The goal is to enable students to become
back that competency-based assessment can offer. These beneficial effects have
autonomous individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.
been observed at all levels and kinds of education and training, from primary school
2. A focus on life skills, Rather than teaching language in isolation, CBLT teaches language
to university, and from academic studies to workplace training.
as a function of communication about concrete tasks. Students are taught just those
(Docking 2994: 15)
language forms/skills required by the situations in which they will function. These forms
Comments such as Docking’s above are still common today. Mendenhall (2012), the presi- are determined by “empirical assessment of language required” (Findley and Nathan
dent of an American university - thus reports: 1980: 224).
3. Task or performance-centered orientation. What counts is what students can do as a result
!mplemented effectively, competency-based education can improve quality and con- of instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather than on knowledge or the abil-
sistency, reduce costs, shorten the time required to graduate, and provide us with true ity to talk about language and skills.
measures of student learning. We must: 4. Modularized instruction. “Language learning is broken down into manageable and
1. Measure student learning rather than time. immediately meaningful chunks” (Center.for Applied Linguistics 1983: 2). Objectives are
2. Harness the power of technology for teaching and learning. Computer-mediated broken into narrowly focused sub-objectives so that both teachers and students can get
instruction gives us the ability to individualize learning for each student. Because a clear sense of progress,
each student learns at a different pace and comes to college knowing different 5. Outcomes that are made explicit a priori. Outcomes are public knowledge, known and
things, this is a fundamental requirement of competency-based education. agreed upon by both learner and teacher. They are specified in terms of behavioral
3. Fundamentally change the faculty role. When faculty serve as lecturers, holding objectives so that students know exactly what behaviors are expected of them.
scheduled classes for a prescribed number of weeks, the instruction takes place 6. Continuous and ongoing assessment. Students are pretested to determine what skills they
at the lecturers’ pace. For most students, this will be the wrong pace. Some will lack and post-tested after instruction in that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level
need to go more slowly; others will be able to move much faster. Competency- of mastery, they continue to work on the objective and are retested. Program evaluation
based learning shifts the role of the faculty from that of “a sage on the stage” is based on test results and, as such, is considered objectively quantifiable.
to a “guide on the side.” Faculty members work with students, guiding learning, 7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. Rather than the traditional paper-and-
answering questions, leading discussions, and helping students synthesize and pencil tests, assessment is based on the ability to demonstrate pre-specified behaviors.
apply knowledge. 8. Individualized, student-centered instruction. In content, level, and pace, objectives are
4. Define competencies and develop valid, reliable assessments. The fundamental defined in terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into
premise of competency-based education is that we define what students should account in developing curricula, Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their
know and be able to do, and they graduate when they have demonstrated their own rates and concentrate on just those areas in which they lack competence.
competency. This means that we have to define the competencies very clearly. There are said to be several advantages of a competencies approach from the learner's point
Getting industry input is essential to make sure that we've identified relevant com- of view:
petencies, Once the competencies are established, we need experts in assessment
to ensure that we're measuring the right things. 1. The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the learner's
needs and interests.
The benefits of this competency-based approach have been recognized by policy 2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful.
makers and influencers in higher education. The Center for American Progress recently 3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public - hence, the
released a white paper that found, “Competency-based education could be the key learner knows exactly what needs to be learned.
to providing quality postsecondary education to millions of Americans at lower cost.” 4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what has been
In a speech in the fall of 2012, U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, referred to learned and what still remains to be learned.
154 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 155

Let us now examine the assumptions and practices associated with CBLT at the levels Skill learning theory suggests that complex behaviors are made up of a hierarchy of
of approach, design, and procedure. skills.
© Successful language performance depends upon practice. Central to the notion of skill-
Approach based learning that underlies CBLT is the notion of practice. Practice refers to repeated
Theory of language opportunities to use language over time. Practice is normally accompanied by feedback,
allowing the learner to gradually improve his or her performance (DeKeyser 2007).
CBLT is based on a functional and interactional perspective on the nature of language. It
Cook (2008) comments:
seeks to teach language in relation to the social contexts in which it is used. The following
understandings of the nature of language are assumed in CBLT. Processing models ... see language as the gradual development of preferred ways of
© Language is a means of achieving personal and social needs. In CBLT language always doing things. Much language teaching has insisted on the value of incremental prac-
occurs as a medium of interaction and communication between people for the achieve- tice, whether it is the audio-lingual structure drill or the communicative information gap
ment of specific goals and purposes. CBLT has for this reason often been used as a game ... The processing models remind us that language is behaviour and skills as
framework for language teaching in situations where learners have specific needs and well as mental knowledge. Some skills are learnt by doing them over and over again.
are in particular roles and where the language skills they need can be fairly accurately These ideas are support for the long-held teaching views about the value of practice —
predicted or determined. However, it has also been used in developing courses with and more practice.
much more general aims.
Language links forms and functions. CBLT reflects the notion that language form can be
inferred from language function; that is, certain life encounters call for certain kinds of Design
language. This assumes that designers of CBLT competencies can accurately predict the
Objectives
vocabulary and structures likely to be encountered in those particular situations that are
central to the life of the learner and can state these in ways that can be used to organize Since CBLT courses are developed as a response to perceived learners’ specific goals
teaching/learning units. and needs, needs analysis (the process of determining learners’ needs) is the starting
» Language can be broken down into its component parts. Central to both language and point in developing the objectives for a CBLT-based course. Needs analysis procedures
learning theory is the view that language can be functionally analyzed into appropriate may include interviews, questionnaires, observations, tests, and other means that can be
parts and subparts: that such parts and subparts can be taught (and tested) incrementally. used to determine appropriate course objectives. (Needs analysis is discussed further in
CBLT thus takes a “mosaic” approach to language learning in that the “whole” (com- Chapter 21.)
municative competence) is constructed from smaller components correctly assembled.
The syllabus
Theory of learning The syllabus for a CBLT language course consists of a description of learning outcomes in
CBLT has several assumptions in terms of learning theory. terms of “competencies,” so it is important to understand how these differ from other syl-
labus frameworks, Docking (1994) points out that the traditional approach to developing a
e Language learning is skill-based. CBLT reflects a skill-based view of learning, Skills are
syllabus involves using one’s understanding of subject matter as the basis for syllabus plan-
integrated sets of behaviors that are learned through practice. They are made up of indi-
ning. One starts with the field of knowledge that one is going to teach (e.g., contemporary
vidual components that may be learned separately and that come together as a whole to
European history, marketing, listening comprehension, or French literature) and then
constitute skilled performance.
selects concepts, knowledge, and skills that constitute that field of knowledge. A syllabus
The basic claim of skill acquisition theory is that learning of a wide variety of skills and the course content are then developed around the subject. Objectives may also be spec-
shows a remarkable similarity in development from initial representation of knowledge ified, but these usually have little role in the teaching or assessing of the subject. Assessment
through initial changes in behaviour to eventual fluent, largely spontaneous, and highly of students is usually based on norm referencing, that is, students will be graded on a single
skilled behaviour, and that this set of phenomena can be accounted for by a set of scale with the expectation either that they will be spread across a wide range of scores or
basic principles common to the acquisition of all skills. that they conform to a preset distribution. A student receives a set of marks for his or her
(DeKeyser 2007: 97) performance relative to other students, from which it is very difficult to make any form
156 Current approaches and methods 8 GBLT, standards, and the CEFR 157

of judgment about the specific knowledge or skills a student has acquired. Indeed, two Competencies for the listening and speaking component of the adult ESL course
students may receive the same marks on a test but in fact have widely different capacities referred to above are described as follows (Mrowicki 1986: 28):
and knowledge in the subject:
Students will demonstrate the following language skill proficiencies eee exit from Est
CBT by comparison is designed not around the notion of subject knowledge but
around the notion of competency. The focus moves from what students know about
language to what they can do with it. The focus on competencies or learning outcomes
underpins the curriculum framework and syllabus specification, teaching strategies, g identify ththe main : topic:of conversation in familiar materia "
assessment and reporting. Instead of norm-referenced assessment, criterion-based Demonsttate understanding ofinon- -face-to-face speech in Jamiliar cont ts, such as
assessment procedures are used in which learners are assessed according to how simple phone conversations and. routine announcements. ; j
well they can perform on specific learning tasks. . Recognize words that signal differences between present, past, and future events.
(Docking 1994: 16) ° : Respond
. appropriately to short emergency warnings. :
‘e » Respond to commands and short directions through physical ‘actions:
Competencies consist ofa description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and Demonstrate ‘strate gies ‘to chéck. for. understanding — by asking ‘for repetition for
behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity. These activities example. ©
may be related to any domain of life though have typically been linked to the field of work Listen and identity sp cific information in the context ofo preva, leamed language.
and to social survival in a new environment. For example, areas for which competencies Speaking : § a 5 Bs 3
have been developed in a vocationally oriented ESL curriculum for immigrants and refu-
eo Answer simple questions related
1 to basic needs. using previously learned dprrasos or0
gees include (Mrowicki 1986):
2. esimple: sefitences, 0. 02 eas 2
Task performance Make statements in the ardent ‘past, or future tenses relating io bala heeds and
Safety common activities, using previously learned phrases. or simple sentences.
General word-related Ask questions related.to basic needs using previously learned utterances.
Work schedules, time sheets, paychecks “Communicate simple personal information on thetelephone.
Social language job application job interview » Give simple commands, ‘warnings, and directions.
Ask for and give clarification.
For the area of “Retaining a Job” the following competencies are described:
e Follow instructions to carry out a simple task. Docking (1994: 12) points out the relationship between competencies and job performance:
Respond appropriately to supervisor’s comments about quality of work on the job,
A qualification or a job can be described as a collection of units of competency, each
including mistakes, working too slowly, and incomplete work.
of which is composed of a number of elements of competency. A unit of competency
Request supervisor to check work.
might be a task, a role, a function, or a learning module. These will change over time,
Report completion of task to supervisor.
and will vary from context to context. An element of competency can be defined as any
Request supplies.
attribute of an individual that contributes to the successful performance of a task, job,
Ask where object is located: Follow oral directions to locate an object.
function, or activity in an academic setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific
Follow simple oral directions to locate a place.
knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, and perceptual and physical skills. Nothing is
Read charts, labels, forms, or written instructions to perform a task.
excluded that can be shown to contribute to performance. An element of competency
State problem and ask for help if necessary.
has meaning independent of context and time. It is the building block for competency
Respond to inquiry as to nature or progress of current task; state amount and type
specifications for education, training, assessment, qualifications, tasks, and jobs.
of work already competed.
® Respond appropriately to work interruption or modification. Tollefson (1986) observes that the analysis of jobs in terms of their constituent functional
(Mrowicki 1986: 26-7)
competencies in order to develop teaching objectives goes back to the mid-nineteenth
158 Current approaches and methods
Tr 8 CBLI, standards, and the CEFR 159

century. In the 1860s, Spencer (cited in Tollefson) outlined the major areas of human Learner roles
activity he believed should be the basis for curricular objectives. Similarly, in 1926 Bobbitt Learners are active participants in the learning process in CBLT. Primary roles assumed for
developed curricular objectives according to his analysis of the functional competencies learners are as follows:
required for adults living in the United States. This approach has been picked up and refined
as the basis for the development of CBLT since the 1960s. Northrup (1977) reports ona study e To monitor their learning in reference to the target competencies. Learners need to
commissioned by the US Office of Education in which a wide variety of tasks performed develop skills in self-assessment to monitor their learning in relation to the learning
by adults in American society were analyzed and the behaviors needed to carry out the targets.

tasks were classified into five knowledge areas and four basic skill areas. From this analysis, e To develop a range of learning strategies. Successful mastery of target competencies
65 competencies were identified. Docking (1994) describes how he was involved in a depends upon the ability to use strategies to achieve communication. For example,
project in Australia in 1968 that involved specifying the competencies of more than a Rubin (1975: 45-8) identified seven characteristics of “good language learners” that are
hundred trades. applicable to learning within a CBLT framework:
e They are willing and accurate guessers who are comfortable with uncertainty.
e ‘They have a strong drive to communicate, or to learn from communication, and are
Types of learning and teaching activities willing to do many things to get their message across.
CBLT is an approach to designing courses but does not imply any particular meth- e They are often not inhibited and are willing to appear foolish if reasonable
odology of teaching. The teacher is free to choose any set of activities or to make use communication results,
of any methods that will enable the learning outcomes to be achieved and the indi- e They are prepared to attend to form, constantly looking for patterns in the
vidual competencies to be acquired. In the case of the adult ESL program previously language.
referred to, guidelines for the choice of learning activities are based on a description of e They practice, and also seek out opportunities to practice.
standards for adult ESL instruction in California (California Department of Education e They monitor their own speech and the speech of others, constantly attending to
1992: 5-8): how well their speech is being received and whether their performance meets the
standards they have learned.
1. Instructional activities integrate the four language skills (listening, speaking, read-
e They attend to meaning, knowing that in order to understand a message, it is not
ing, and writing) to emphasize the holistic nature of language.
sufficient to attend only to the grammar or surface form of a language.
2, Language tasks in the classroom consist of meaningful interchanges that enhance
To be able to transfer knowledge and skills to new situations, Learners must be prepared
students’ communicative competence.
to apply skills learned in the classroom to situations outside of the classroom and hence
3. Instructional activities focus on the acquisition of communication skills necessary
be prepared to take risks as they seek to apply what they have learned.
for students to function in real-life situations.
4. Instruction focuses on the development of the receptive skills (listening and read- Teacher roles
ing) before the development of the productive skills (speaking and writing).
Teachers too have an active role in CBLT, although the role of the teacher will depend on
5. A variety of grouping activities are used in the classroom to facilitate student-
the extent to which the teacher is primarily implementing a CBLT course design that has
centered instruction.
been developed by others, or developing a course for a specific group of learners.
. Instructional activities are varied to address different learning styles (aural, oral,
a

visual, kinesthetic) of the students. e Needs analyst. The teacher may be required to conduct a needs analysis of his or her
7. Instructional activities integrate language and culture so that students learn about students and is able to select suitable competencies based on the learners’ needs.
the US culture in terms of significant and subtle characteristics that compare and Materials developer and materials resource assembler. The teacher may be required to
contrast with those of their own cultures. assemble suitable materials - including technology-supported materials - as well as to
. Learning activities develop the language necessary for students to access higher develop materials to address specific target competencies.
9

level thought processes (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). e Assessor. The teacher is engaged in ongoing assessment of students’ learning and may
g. Instructional activities require students to take active roles in the learning process, need to re-teach skills that have not been adequately mastered.
transferring critical thinking to real problem-solving situations in their everyday ° Coach. The teacher is also expected to guide students toward use of appropriate learning
lives. strategies and to provide the necessary guidance and support for this purpose.
160 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 161

The role of instructional materials sample texts and assessment tasks that provide examples of texts and assessment
tasks that relate to the competency
Since CBLT is built around specific learning targets, these can form the basis for the
design of published courses as well as teacher-developed materials and technology- An example of a lesson plan template for use in a CBLT course is given below and
supported materials. A wide range of published courses are available based on CBLT, demonstrates how a PPP lesson format is compatible with CBLT.
particularly those intended for work-related or social-survival courses, such as the
Ventures series (Cambridge University Press), that are linked to competency-based CBLT fesson plan format © = : see
standards. Asingle learning objective ‘nay be ‘addressed nan activity during a lesson, in-a full lesson,
or eveit duririg-a unit consisting of several lessons in a row.:if 2 learning objective.is tobe .
addressed in more than one day's lesson, each new class period should begin with a new
Procedure Warm-up/Review | and Introduction stage tcto eae ‘students oo the fearing ear,
Examples of how many of these principles apply in practice are seen in the work of the ‘Wa. up/Review :
Australian Migrant Education Program, one of the largest providers of language train- An initial lesson state inwhioti sat fro previous lessons isé reviewed andi brain-
ing to immigrants in the world. The program has undergone a number of philosophical storming or interactive task gets the students thinking about a new. topic.”
reorientations since the mid-1970s, moving from “centralised curriculum planning with its Introduction
content-based and structural curriculum in the late 1970s, to decentralised learner-centred, An initial lesson stage in which the teacher states the objective of tlie lesson and tells:stu-.
needs-based planning with its multiplicity of methodologies and materials in the 1980s dents what they will be doing: This Shouid ocollr after is yer Hage.0of He oe
and yet more recently, to the introduction of competency-based curriculum frameworks” :
Presentation ie
(Burns and Hood 1994: 76). In 1993, a competency-based curriculum, the Certificate in An initialJesson ‘Stage in4 ener the erner expieina, inicio, and drills the new Pare
Spoken and Written English, was introduced as the framework for its programs. Learning tion; language functions, or language forms that. students will be using in that. lesson, Any.
Presentation of anew learning objective should be ybraceried by an introduction
outcomes are specified at three stages in the framework, leading to an Advanced Certificate
in Spoken and Written English at Stage 4 of the framework. Hagan (1994: 22) describes how Comprehension check :
the framework operates: Anessential part of the presentation stage in ‘which the teacher c ms udent under
standing of what has eh bean ea before gong. on to the Practica stage.
After an initial assessment, students are placed within the framework on the basis ‘Guided practice
of their current English proficiency level, their learning pace, their needs, and their A.mini-lesson stage in which atudents bedi © use the language: ing short, controlled
social goals for learning English. The twelve core competencies at Stages 1 and 2 activity. This should occur after the presentation stage of the lesson and before the com-
relate to general language development ... At Stage 3, learners are more often mo nicative Practice. ,

grouped according to their goal focus and competencies are defined according Communicative practice :
to the three syllabus strands of Further Study, Vocational English, and Community A mini-lesson stage in which students use the language: they have been practicing to
Access ... The competency descriptions at each stage are divided into four complete a‘communicative task, usually i in bere or groups. This should o¢cur-after the
guided practice pane a ee lesson. -
domains ... :
1. Knowledge and learning competencies Evaluation - ; Ee ;
2. Oral competencies A finat lesson ais inwhich students demonstrate their‘rohit of what they have
3. Reading competencies
learned by-showing, explaining, analysing or reflecting on what they have learned suring.
4. Writing competencies

All competencies are described in terms of:

- elements that break down the competency into smatler components and refer to anew situation of apply their knowledge to complete a new and different activity.
the essential linguistic features of the text (otto: ://kennedysanfernandoces. nét/documents/cbe_ course._outlines/esl/50-o1-92, pdf).
- performance criteria that specify the minimal performance required to achieve a
competency An example of a competency-based textbook lesson may be found in the appendix to
range of variables that sets limits for the performance of the competency this chapter.
162 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLI, standards, and the CEFR 163

2 The standards movement into grade-level clusters: pre-K-3, 4-8, and 9-12. Each cluster addresses all goals and
standards with descriptors, progress indicators, and vignettes specific to that grade
An important realization of a competency perspective in many parts of the world has been
range. More recently (2006) the TESOL organization have developed the TESOL PreK-12
through a focus on “standards,” which has dominated educational discussions in many
English Language Proficiency Standards Framework, which presents five language profi-
countries since the 1990s. Describing its impact in the United States, Glaser and Linn (1993:
ciency standards and reflects the competencies students need to master to be successful
xiii) noted:
in specific content areas. They include both social and academic uses of the language
In the recounting of our nation’s drive towards educational reform, the last decade of students must acquire for success in and beyond the classroom. Some of these standards
this century will undoubtedly be identified as the time when a concentrated press for will resemble the objectives of both Content-Based Instruction and the Whole Language
national educational standards emerged. The press for standards was evidenced by movement (Chapters 6 and 7). The English language proficiency standards are as follows:
the efforts of federal and state legislators, presidential and gubernatorial candidates,
teacher and subject-matter specialists, councils, governmental agencies, and private Standard: 4: English language learners communicate for social, intercuttural, and
foundations. eee eee purposes within the schoof setting.

Second language teaching, especially ESL in the United States, was a late entry in the Standard 2: English language learners communicate information, ideas; and ¢ cepts
necessary. for academic success in the area of language arts.°
standards movement. As the ESL project director for ESL standards development noted in
1997: “It quickly became apparent to ESL educators in the United States at that time (1991)
‘standard 3:3 English ee eae ‘communicate information, ideas, and concepts
that the students we serve were not being included in the standards setting movement that necessary for pce eTnC SUCCESS) in oe area mi pruetneration a |ae a
was sweeping the country” (Short 1997: 1). In a recent survey Katz and Snow (2010: 67)
comment: Standard 4 ‘English lahguege jaarniers ene torreeen ideas, ae Gericapts
necessary. for academic success in the area of science.
The major benefit of standards is that they set out clear expectations for all involved
in the educational enterprise, including parents. They provide a “common language” Standard 5: ‘English language eos communicate : Information; idéas, and concepts
for talking about the process of teaching and learning (Harris and Carr, 1996). For stu- pea for academic success in theaarea oftegcials Studien: 2
dents, they set clear performance expectations, assisting them to understand what
(TESOL, 2006)
they should know and be able to do to meet standards. For teachers and administra-
tors, they provide guidelines for designing instruction, curricula, and assessment; set Similar specifications of standards have been developed in a number of other
criteria for program excellence; and perhaps for promotion and career advancement. countries (McKay 2000). Katz and Snow report (2010: 69-70):
For teacher trainers, they set out the competencies needed by prospective teachers
as they prepare for teaching careers.
Over the past decade, standards have become the lynchpin of educational sys- In Oman... the Ministry of Education. Uses the term competencies in:describing stu-
terns both in English-medium countries and in a growing number of other countries dent learning outcomes foreach grade level: These outcomes. are divided into the four
around the world. Also known by labels such as attainment targets, band-scales, domains of reading, writing, listening and speaking, and within. each domain, the out-
eplatyare eae categorized. Followmg is an eae from Grade 4,readings
benchmarks, competencies, essential skills and knowledge, profiles, and saviors and
étres, standards form the basis of a reform model. By organizing around a central and
coherent vision of instructional outcomas, educational systems — schools, governmen-
tal agencies, ministries of education — strive to create the kind of changes in program
delivery that will lead to higher levels of learning.
understand sentences.
In the United States the Washington-based Center for Applied Linguistics under
understand. the use of punctuation
contract to the TESOL organization undertook to develop the K-12 “school” standards and capital letters.
for ESL. These were completed in 1997. The ESL standards are framed around three goals recognize. and understand words
and nine standards. Each standard is further explicated by descriptors, sample progress
indicators, and classroom vignettes with discussions. The standards section is organized
164 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 165

3 The Common European Framework of Reference

Specific outcomes © sneteooutcomes
The most influential example of an outcomes-and competency-based approach in language
CAN? 28 CANS" ieee
understand Staeriart, : re fa), ©), i (e} undetsterid a variety of 4 : teaching is the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) - a framework for
understand the-use of capital letters Short texts and (ji) longer, more.complex * language teaching and assessment developed by the European Council of Europe (2001).
and the punctuation marks already The outcomes statements contained in the CEFR (known as the “can do” statements) in
many cases are simply a restatement of some of the “language functions” contained in
recognize and understand the most» = narratives: the earlier Threshold Level syllabus (Chapter 5). Thus, the CEFR is often combined with
important vogapulaty jiee i already a — series of instructions Communicative Language Teaching.
introduced, ? : :recognize. and understand the mos The Council of Europe has been actively involved in promoting reform and innova-
important vocabulary, pornsoe fy
tion in language teaching in Europe for many years and, as we saw in Chapter 5, developed
introduced, 2
one of the first models of a communicative syllabus in the 1970s (the Threshold Level syl-
labus - Van Ek 1975) which was a key-document in the development of Communicative
Language Teaching. CEFR was conceived not simply as a framework for the teaching of
English but in order to promote successful learning of languages within the European
In China, a major project was recently undertaken by McGraw-Hill Education, TESOL, and
community. It was part of a strategy “Io ensure, as far as possible, that all sections of
the National Foreign Language Teaching and Research Association to produce two sets of their populations have access to effective means of acquiring a knowledge of the lan-
standards, one for learners and one for teachers (Agor 2006, cited in Katz and Snow 2010).
guages of other member states” (CEFR Appendix to Recommendation R(82)18 of the
The learner standards cover primary level (grades 3-6), junior level (grades 7-9), and sen- Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe). The CEFR framework is built around
ior level (grades 10-12) and cross over three domains: The Learner, The Language, and The statements of learning outcomes at different levels of proficiency in relation to the skills of
World. An example standard under The Learner domain is: ‘The learners will “develop and listening, speaking, reading, and writing. “It describes in a comprehensive way what lan-
use a range of strategies to derive, express, and clarify meaning in reading, writing, speak- guage learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what
ing, and listening to English.” knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively” (Council of
The standards movement has thus sought to identify the characteristics of quality Europe 2001: 1).
language teaching and to use statements of standards as benchmarks that can be used to What the CEFR descriptors seek to do is to operationalize what is normally under-
assess the quality of language teaching programs. However, this view has been criticized as stood by a basic, intermediate, or advanced level of language proficiency. It describes six
imposing a set of standards derived from one context that may not be applicable elsewhere. levels of achievement divided into three broad categories, from lowest (A1) to highest (C2),
Organizations such as ‘TESOL have therefore collaborated with ministries of education in which describe what a learner should be able to do in listening, speaking, reading, and
different countries to try to develop standards that are relevant in local contexts (e.g.. Gu writing at each level.
et al, 2006).
Basic user - Ai, A2
Independent user - Bi, Ba
Approach, design, and procedure Proficient user - C1, C2
The standards movement in itself does not represent a theory of language teaching, but More popularly these six levels have been given the labels
like CBLT reflects a skill-based approach to language learning. The standards move-
Mastery C2
ment is an attempt to measure and quantify the learners’ mastery of discrete skills and
Effective Operational Proficiency C1
may combine with any approach that has as one of its components the ability for skills
Vantage B2
to be measured. At the level of learner roles, learning strategies and scaffolding may be
Threshold B1
involved. In this regard, the standards movement is a type of competency-based learning;
Waystage A2
it could be said that only the specific skills to be learned will be different. The procedure
Breakthrough Al
will vary according to the specific syllabus of the program and teaching approach or
method chosen. An example of the outcomes for “conversation” is given below (Council of Europe 2001).
 166 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 167

Assessment (formerly known as Cambridge ESOL) is a multi-level test designed for com-
panies and organizations used to test English, French, German, and Spanish and provides
C2 Can converse comfortably and appropriately, unhampered by any linguistic
a score related to a CEFR level. Kantarcioglu and Papageorgiou (2012: 85) comment:
limitations in conducting a full social and personal life.
C1} Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including The proficiency scales of the CEFR have gained popularity because they describe in
emotional, allusive and joking usage. a comprehensive way objectives that learners can set to achieve at different levels

B2 | Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly of language proficiency. The descriptors are always phrased positively, as they are
participatory fashion, even in a noisy environment. intended to motivate learners by describing what they can do when they use the lan-
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing guage, rather than what they cannot do. What is more, this set of language-learning
or irritating them or requiring them to behave other than they would with a native objectives is available as a common metalanguage to teachers and learners, who can
speaker. now compare the ievel of proficiency required by curricula, language courses, and
Can convey degrees of emotion and highlight the personal significance of events examinations across different educational settings.
and experiences.
Bi Can enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
CEER is also increasingly being used for the design of courses and published mate-
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday rials. However, like earlier frameworks used for planning language courses (such as the
conversations, though will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular Threshold Level), CEFR is not research based and has been developed largely from the
words and phrases. intuitions of experts. And since it is intended to be used across many different languages,
Can maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be difficult to it does not specify the actual language or discourse skills that learners need to acquire to
follow when trying to say exactly what he/she would like to. reach any given level. These have to be claborated by users of the CEFR. In working with
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness,
the framework, teachers and textbook writers are hence similarly dependent upon intui-
interest and indifference.
tion in deciding what linguistic knowledge and skills learners should be taught, depending
A2+ | Can establish social contact: greetings and farewells; introductions; giving on their learning context and needs. However, Fulcher points out that although the levels
thanks. identified in standards frameworks such as CEFR cannot be justified empirically, they often
Can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters directed at
have practical value in that they enable learners to have a sense of progression from course
him/her, provided he/she can ask for repetition or reformulations from time to
to course or from year to year. Teachers and materials developers are consequently often
time.
tequired to match their teaching to specific levels on CEFR or other scales, and testing is
Can participate in short conversations in routine contexts on topics of interest.
Can express how he/she feels in simple terms, and express thanks. similarly often linked to the standards. Numerous standards documents and standards-
based tests are available on the Internet. However, standards can also be developed by
A2_ | Gan handle very short social exchanges but is rarely able to understand enough
teachers for their own contexts; “standard-setting in a local context for clearly defined pur-
to keep conversation going on his/her own accord, though he/she can be made
poses can be a focus of real professional development and curriculum renewal” (Fulcher
to understand if the speaker will take the trouble.
2010: 248). Leung (2012: 165) comments:
Can use simple everyday polite forms of greeting and address.
Can make and respond to invitations, suggestions and apologies.
Quite clearly teachers will need to judge the appropriateness of the Bi descriptors (or
Can say what he/she likes and dislikes.
any other within the CEFR scaies) in relation to the students they are teaching. if one
Al Can make an introduction and use basic greeting and leave-taking expressions. is working with, say, a group of Halian-speaking bank employees learning English for
Can ask how people are and react to news.
professional reasons, then some of the descriptors might make sense at some stage
Can understand everyday expressions aimed at the satisfaction of simple needs
of their teaching. However, if one is teaching linguistic minority students in England
of a concrete type, delivered directly to him/her in clear, siow and repeated
speech by a sympathetic speaker. who are learning to use English to do academic studies, then these descriptors would
only be, at best, appropriate in a very vague and abstract sense; they would need to
The CEFR is now referred to in many widely used language examinations, which are be adapted and expanded focally because an independent user of English as a sec-
referenced to the proficiency level they assess on the CEFR. For example, the BULATS ond language in school would have to do a good deal more than what is covered in
(Business Language Testing Service) test published by Cambridge English Language these CEFR descriptors.
 168 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 169

Approach, design, and procedure Because competencies are designed to enable learners to participate effectively in
As mentioned, the CEFR often combines with the Communicative Approach (Chapter 5) society, Tollefson and others have pointed out that they typically represent value judgments
and, as such, may be used in classrooms that have adopted an interactive, sociocultural, about what such participation involves. Some would claim that competencies for refugee
and skill-based approach to language learning. The CEFR does not present a syllabus or settlement programs in the United States, for example, atternpt to inculcate attitudes and
procedure, nor does it specify roles for learners and teachers, or instructional materials. At values that will make refugees passive citizens who accept the status quo rather than chal-
present, these need to reflect the approach or method adopted in the classroom. Projects lenge it. On the other hand, it could be argued simultaneously that the practical competen-
such as English Profile (http://www.englishprofile.org) are underway that are aimed at cies help with integration, thereby enabling newcomers to understand and, if they so wish,
developing a design and syllabus for the CEFR. question their new culture.
Despite the criticisms, outcomes-based approaches continue to be widely used inter-
nationally. Such outcomes-based approaches have, in particular, attracted a large political
Conclusion
following from those seeking “accountability” for educational investment. The standards
In this chapter, we have presented Competency-Based Language Teaching, other types of movement and more recently CEFR have also been subject to critical review. Cook (2011:
standards contained in the standards movement, and the Common European Framework 1460), writing of CEFR, comments:
of Reference. Outcomes-based approaches to language teaching - whether described as
competencies, benchmarks, or standards ~ are now a well-established tradition in language Its research base is the checking of descriptors by a group of teachers, equivalent
teaching as well as in other fields of education and training. They are also now a feature to the claim by advertisers of a washing powder that ten million housewives can’t be
of government documents, teaching and assessment guidelines in many countries as well wrong. In language teaching methodology it relates to traditional communicative lan-
as of current international coursebooks. Cook’s comment on CEFR could apply to each of guage teaching, rather than to more recent developments. {t rests on the authority of
the outcomes-based approaches described in this chapter: “For practical purposes, because a group of experts recruited from prominent language teaching administrators.
of the high regard given to it by local authorities in different countries, it can no longer be
ignored, whatever one thinks of it” (Cook 2011: 146). Rylatt and Lohan's (1997: 18) prediction of the future of CBLT has proven to have been accu-
CBLT has been similarly embraced in language teaching since the 1980s. However, it rate when they observed: “It can confidently be said, as we enter a new millennium, that
is not without its critics. These criticisms are both practical and philosophical. 'Tollefson the business of improving learning competencies and skills will remain one of the world’s
(1986) argued that there are in fact no valid procedutes available to develop competency fastest growing industries and priorities.” The development and reception of the standards
lists for most programs. Many of the areas for which competencies are needed, such as movement and the CEFR offer yet further confirmation of their prediction.
“adult living, “survival,” and “functioning proficiently in the community? are impossible to
Discussion questions
operationalize. Others have pointed out that dividing activities up into sets of competen-
cies is a reductionist approach, and that the sum of the parts does not equal the complex- 1. Having read the chapter, explain to a colleague what (1) underlies ali three of the follow-
ity of the whole. Auerbach, summarizing the work of Paolo Friere and others, points out ing approaches, and (2) how they are different:
that CBLT reflects what Friere has characterized as a “banking” model of education. This e Competency-Based Language Teaching
assumes the following: e the standards movement
« the Common European Framework of Reference
There is a structure of socially prescribed knowledge to be mastered by students.
2, CBLT is based on a theory of learning that sees skills as integrated sets of behaviors that
Here, the function of education is to transmit the knowledge and to socialise learn-
are learned through practice and that are made up of individual components that may be
ers according to the values of the dominant socio-economic group. The teacher’s
learned separately and that come together as a whole to constitute skilled performance.
job is to devise more and more effective ways to transmit skills: what counts is
How does this view differ from that of Whole Language (Chapter 7)?
success in delivery. Educational progress is defined in terms of “improving” delivery
systems. . On page 159 you read about the seven characteristics of the good language learner
w

(Auerbach 1986: 416-17) as suggested by Joan Rubin. These characteristics represent a skill-based learn-
ing theory. Now refer to the theories of language learning presented in Chapter 2
CBLT is therefore seen as prescriptivist in that it prepares students to fit into the status quo
(pp. 25-8). What theory or theories of language learning do you think underlie these
and maintain class relationships. In addition, teaching typically focuses on behavior and suggestions?
performance rather than on the development of thinking skills.
170 Current approaches and methods 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 171

Center for Applied Linguistics. 1983. From the Classroom to the Workplace: Teaching ESL to Adults.
4. Read the sample standards from the United States, Oman, and China on pages 162-4.
Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Which seem to be the most useful? What are some of the similarities and differences in
Cook. V. J. 2008, Second Language Learning and Teaching, London: Hodder Education.
(a) the focus (i.e., what is included in the standards), and (b) how they are phrased? Can
Cook, V. J. 2011. Teaching English as a foreign language in Europe. In E. Hinkel (ed.), Handbook of
you think of downsides to the use of standards? Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Vol. Il. New York: Routledge, 140-54.
5. You take up a new job in a school that does not clearly express curriculum outcomes as Coombe, C., P. Davidson, B, O'Sullivan, and S. Stoynoff (eds.). 2012. The Cambridge Guide to Second
competencies or use standards. What arguments will you use to convince the Director Language Assessment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
of Studies to consider implementing these? Council of Europe 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6. List some of the competencies that might be needed for these occupations: DeKeyser, R. 2007. Practice in Applied Linguistics: Perspectives from Applied Linguistics. New York:
« Aclerk at the check in counter at an airport Cambridge University Press,
Docking, R. 1994. Competency-based curricula - the big picture. Prospect 9(2): 8-17.
e A teacher of English at primary school
Figueras, N. 2012. The impact of the CEFR. ELT Journal 66(4): 477-86.
e Asales clerk in a department store
Findlay, C. A., and L. Nathan. 1980. Functional language objectives in a competency-based curricu-
7. Your school is moving towards competency-based instruction and has asked you to lum. TESOL Quarterly 14(2): 221-32.
identify what changes may need to be made to the curriculum. One aspect of CBLT is Freed, B, 1984. Proficiency in context: the Pennsylvania experience. In S, Savignon and M. Berns
that “Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and concentrate (eds.), Initiatives in Communicative Language Teaching. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
on just those areas in which they lack competence” (p. 153). How will this impact course 221-40.
Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
planning? How will you, for example, accommodate different learners learning at a dif-
Fulcher, G. 2010. Practical Language Testing. London: Hodder Education.
ferent pace?
Glaser, R., and R. Linn. 1993. Foreword. In L. Shephard, Setting Performance Standards for
8. A colleague is unhappy with the move to a CBLT curriculum. She says that “it is impos- Student Achievement. Stanford, CA: National Academy of Education, Stanford University.
sible to accurately predict the vocabulary and structures that learners will need.” How xii-xiv.
would you respond to this colleague? Does she have a point? Grognet, A. G., and J, Crandall. 1982. Competency-based curricula in adult ESL. ERIC/CLL New
Bulletin 6: 3-4.
g. Look at the outcomes given for conversation in the CEFR (p. 166). Choose one of the Gu, P, J. Hughes, T. Murphey, J. Robbins, D. F Zemach, and Z. Wei. 2006. Integrating EFL Standards
levels. How would you translate these outcomes into a design? Consider objectives, the into Chinese Classroom Settings, Vols. I-III. Alexandria, VA: TESOL and New York: McGraw
syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities, learner and teacher roles, and instruc- Hill.
tional materials. Refer to Chapter 5 (Communicative Language Teaching) as needed. Hagan, P. 1994. Competency-based curriculum: The NSW AMES experience. Prospect 9(2): 19-30.
Harding, A., B. Page, and S, Rowell. 1980. Graded Objectives in Modern Languages. London: Centre
for Information on Language Teaching and Research.
References and further reading Harris, D. E., and J. B. Carr. 1996. How to Use Standards in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association
Agor, B. (ed,). 2006. Integrating EFL Standards in Chinese Classroom Settings: Senior Level (Grades for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
101-2). New York: McGraw Hill. Higgs, T. V. (ed.). 1984. Teaching for Proficiency: The Organizing Principle. Skokie, IL: National
Auerbach, E, R. 1986, Competency-based ESL: one step forward or two steps back? TESOL Quarterly Textbook Company.
* 20(3): 421-30. Hood, S., and A. Burns. 1994, The competency-based curriculum in action: investigating course
Baines, L. A., and G. K. Stanley. 2006, The iatrogenic consequences of standards-based education. design practices. Prospect 9(2): 76-89.
Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 79(3): 119-23. Hoogveld, A. 2003. The teacher as designer of competency-based education. PhD dissertation, Open
Bottomley, Y., J. Dalton, and C. Corbel. 1994. From Proficiency to Competencies. Sydney: National University of the Netherlands.
Centre for English Teaching and Research. Ingram, D. E. 1982. Designing a language program. RELC Journal 13(2): 64~86.
Burns, A., and S, Hood. 1994. The competency-based curriculum in action: investigating course Kantarcioglu, E. and S. Papageorgiou. 2012, The Common European Framework of Reference, In
design practices. Prospect 9(2): 76-89. Coombe et al. (eds.), 82-8.
California Department of Education. 1992. ESL - Model Standards for Adult Education Programs. Katz, A, M., and M. A. Snow 2009. Standards and second language teacher education, In A. Burns
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 8 CBLT, standards, and the CEFR 173
172 Current approaches and methods }

Kennedysanfernandocas.net. - http://kennedysanferhandocas.net/documents/cbe_course_outlines/ Appendix: A competency-based lesson

esl/50-01-92.pdf; accessed January 1, 2013.
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Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Language Teaching, New York: Cambridge
University Press, 161-79.
McKay, P. 2000. On ESL standards for school-age learners. Language Testing 17(2): 185-214.
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www huffingtonpost.com/dr-robert-mendenhall/competency-based-learning-_b_1855374. comme Life-skills reading :
html; accessed January 6, 2013.
Moore, H. 1996. Why has competency-based training become the “solution”? Prospect 11(2): 28-46. renunter C@eyilunrrecoy
Mrowicki, L. 1986. Project Work English Competency-Based Curriculum. Portland, OR: Northwest iste em ee EMR A ce
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Northrup, N. 1977. The Adult Performance Level Study, Austin: University of Texas Press. Medicai record number: 9999999”
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Rubin, J. 1975. What the good language learner can teach us. TESOL Quarierly 9: 41~51.
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laboration between native and non-native professionals, In L, Kamhi-Stein (ed.), Learning and
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Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 307~23.
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TESOL. 2002. Standards for P-12 ESL Teacher Education Programs. Alexandria, VA: TESOL
International Association. “2 What 1 the appointment for? 4. What do you dota re
TESOL. 2006, The PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards Framework. Alexandria, VA: can ‘ F I. D-Avona
7 @® call
TESOL International Association. * @ eves: © es 2 st) call (978) 855-5645
Tollefson, J. 1986. Functional competencies in the US refugee program: theoretical and practical oS Gy none 2 PAT en” {Gy ell (O78) BBB-B2L0 >
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‘3. What’ information is on your appol
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 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 175
9 Task-Based Language Teaching
While in practice, some proponents of TBLT may implement the approach only
partially and combine it with more traditional classroom activities, advocates of TBLT often
seek to contrast it with the Present-Practice-Production (PPP) strategy found in the situ-
ational approach (see Chapter 3), as seen in the following comparison:

e Unlike a PPP approach, the students are free of language control. In all three
stages they must use all their language resources rather than just practicing one
pre-selected item.
Introduction A natural context Is developed frorn the students’ experiences with the language
that is personalized and relevant to them. With PPP it is necessary to create con-
Task- Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of planning
texts in which to present the language, and sometimes they can be very unnatural.
and instruction in language teaching, It has been defined as “an approach to language edu-
e The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBL [task-
cation in which students are given functional tasks that invite them to focus primarily on
based fearning]. They wili be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, colloca-
meaning exchange and to use language for real-world, non-linguistic purposes” (Van den
tions and patterns as well as language forms.
Branden 2006). Some of its proponents (e.g., Willis 1996; Willis and Willis 2007) present it
The language explored arises from the students’ needs. This need dictates what
as a logical development of Communicative Language Teaching (Chapter 5) since it draws
will be covered in the lesson rather than a decision made by the teacher or the
on several principles that formed part of the CLT movement from the 1980s. For example:
coursebook,
e Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning. lt is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time com-
¢ Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning. municating. PPP lessons seem very teacher-centered by comparison. Just watch
e Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. how much time the students spend communicating during a task-based lesson.
TBLT is usually characterized as an approach, rather than a method. According to Leaver It is enjoyable and motivating.
and Willis (2004: 3), “TBI [task-based instruction] is not monolithic; it does not consti- (Frost 2004}
tute one single methodology. It is a multifaced approach, which can be used creatively
with different syllabus types and for different purposes.’ Thus, it can be linked with other Two early applications of a task-based approach within a communicative framework
approaches and methods, such as content-based and text-based teaching (Leaver and Willis for language teaching were the Malaysian Communicational Syllabus (1975) (see Chapter 5)
2004). Proponents of TBLT contrast it with earlier grammar-focused approaches to teach- and the Bangalore Project (Beretta and Davies 1985; Prabhu 1987; Beretta 1990), both of
ing, such as Audiolingualism, that they characterize as “teacher-dominated, form-oriented which were relatively short-lived. The focus on tasks as units of teaching and learning
classroom practice” (Van den Branden 2006). derives from the field of second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Long and Crookes 1993;
Ellis 2003; Van den Branden, Bygate, and Norris 2009). An interest in tasks as potential
A key distinction can be made between curricula/syllabuses that formulate lower- building blocks of second language instruction emerged when researchers turned to tasks
level goals in terms of linguistic content (i.e. elements of the linguistic system to in the mid-1980s as a research tool to explore SLA. “In SLA research, tasks have been widely
be acquired) and curricula/syllabuses that formulate lower-level goals in terms of used as vehicles to elicit language production, interaction, negotiation of meaning, process-
language use (i.e. the specific kinds of things that people will be able to do with the ing of input and focus on form, all of which are believed to foster second language acquisi-
target language). Task-based curricula/syllabuses belong to the second category: they tion” (Van den Branden 2006: 3). SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive
formulate operational language learning goals not so much in terms of which particular processes employed by second language learners. This research suggested a reassessment
words or grammar rules the learners will need to acquire, but rather in terms of the of the role of formal grammar instruction in language teaching. There is no evidence, it
purposes for which people are learning a language, i.e. the tasks that earners will need is argued, that the types of grammar-focused teaching activities used in many language
to be able to perform. classrooms reflect the cognitive learning processes employed in naturalistic language
learning situations outside the classroom. Engaging learners in task work provides a better
(Van den Branden 2006: 3)
context for the activation of learning processes than form-focused activities, and hence
ultimately provides better opportunities for language learning to take place. Language
learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in comprehensible

174
176 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 177

input but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and Richards then cites another study (Leaver and Kaplan, 2004: 61) in which the benefits of
meaningful communication. As with other innovations in language teaching, advocates of TBLT were reported after US State Department programs shifted to a task-based approach:
TBLT assume on faith that it will be more effective than the methods it replaces. In their
Greater motivation
book of case studies of TBLT, Edwards and Willis (2005: 5) compare it with the PPP meth-
Opportunity for repetition without boredom
odology and comment:
Greater curricular flexibility
And although PPP lessons are often supplemented with skills tessons, most students Promotion of learning how to learn
taught mainly through conventional approaches such as PPP leave school unable to An opportunity for natural error correction
communicate effectively in English. This situation has prompted many ELT profession- Promotion of risk taking
als to take note of the findings from second language acquisition (SLA) research stud- Higher proficiency results
ies [see Chapter 1] and to turn towards holistic approaches where meaning is centra! Increased student satisfaction, and better progam evaluation results.
and where opportunities for language use abound. Task-based learning is one such Perhaps TBLT is the long-awaited elixir of language teaching! However, Leaver reports
approach and many of the writers in this book have moved from PPP to TBL. that it is not clear whether the positive results were entirely attributable to TBLT since the
programs also used a content-based approach.
The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez (1998: 17) as
TBLT proposes the notion of “task” as a central unit of planning and teaching; hence,
follows:
the concept of task needs to be clearly articulated in order to understand the nature of
e The focus is on process rather than product. TBLT, Although definitions of task vary in TBLT, there is a commonsense understanding
e Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication that a task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution
and meaning. to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter,
e Learners tearn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy. Nunan (1989: 10) offers this definition:
engaged in the activities and tasks.
e Activities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real The communicative task [is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in
life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom. comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while
e Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty. their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also
e The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experi- have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in
ence of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake its own right.
the task, and the degree of support availabie.
Van den Branden offers a simpler definition (2006: 4):
Richards (forthcoming) also explains the interest in TBLT:
A task is an activity in which a person engages in order to attain an objective, and
Because of Its links to Communicative Language Teaching methodology and support which necessitates the use of language.
from some prominent. SLA theorists, TBLT has gained considerable attention within
applied linguistics. In recent years it has moved beyond research and small-scale Edwards and Willis (2005: 3) offer a much fuller explanation of tasks:
settings and seen a number of applications in mainstream education, particularly in
e Incarrying out a task the learners’ principal focus is on exchanging and understand-
the Benelux countries (Van den Branden 2006). It has also been recommended as a
ing meanings, rather than on practice of form or prespecified forms or patterns.
component of the reform of language teaching in China (Wang and Lam 2009). Its
e There is some kind of purpose or goa! set for the task, so that learners know what
success js cited in many different contexts. For example Shehadeh (2005: 14) reports:
they are expected to achieve by the end of the task, for example, to write a list of
“American Government Language Institutions found that with task-based instruction
differences, to complete a route map or a picture, to report a solution to a problem,
and authentic materials, learners made far more rapid progress and were able to use
to vote on the best decorated student room or the most interesting/memorable
their new foreign language in real-world circumstances with a reasonable level of
personal anecdote.
efficiency after quite short courses. They were able to operate an effective meaning
® The outcome of the completed task can be shared in some way with others.
system, I.e. to express what they wanted to say, even though their grammar and lexis
e Tasks can involve any or ail four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
were often far from perfect.”
 178 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 179

e The use of tasks does not preclude language-focused study at some points in a 3. The cognitive operations required and the resources available
TBL [task-based learning] lesson, though a focus on specific grammar rules or pat- 4. The accountability system involved.
terns will not generally come before the task itself, as this could well detract from
‘These early definitions of tasks and the questions (and proposed answers) relating to their
the real communicative purpose of the subsequent interaction.
successful classroom implementation as well as the training required to facilitate such
Yet despite these several attempts to pin down a definition of language learning tasks, Cook implementation mirror similar discussions still taking place today in relation to TBLT. In
(2003) feels it necessary to observe: “the way Task has been defined in the last 20 years has this chapter, we will outline the principles underlying TBLT and provide examples of the
been a journey of contradictions in spelling out what Task is NOT, so that the resultant defi- practices that derive from them.
nition is that Task has become what it has replaced, which are exercises.”
Although tasks are central to TBLT, the use of tasks as a unit in curriculum plan-
ning has a much older history in education. Tasks first appeared in the vocational training Approach
practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of the Theory of language
military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather than a theory of language.
Task analysis initially focused on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication However, several assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current
or collaboration was involved. In task analysis, on-the-job, largely manual tasks were trans- approaches to TBLT. These are:
lated into training tasks. The process is outlined by Smith (1971: 584):
© Language is primarily a means of making meaning. TBLT emphasizes the central role
The operational system is analyzed from the human factors point of view, and a mission of meaning in language use. Skehan notes that in task-based instruction, “meaning is
profile or flow chart is prepared to provide a basis for developing the task inventory. primary ... the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome” and that task-based
The task inventory (an outline of the major duties in the job and the more specific job instruction is not “concerned with language display” (1998: 98).
tasks associated with each duty) is prepared, using appropriate methods of job analy- e Language is a means of achieving real-world goals. TBLT emphasizes that developing
sis. Decisions are made regarding tasks to be taught and the level of proficiency to be language proficiency is not an end in itself but a means to an end, and that language
attained by the students. A detailed task description is prepared for those tasks to be teaching courses must center on the learners’ communicative needs and prepare them
taught. Each task is broken down into the specific acts required for its performance. for relevant domains and situations of language use (Van Avermaet and Gysen 2006).
The specific acts, or task elements, are reviewed to identify the knowledge and skill ¢ Lexical units are central in language used and language learning. In recent years, vocabu-
components involved in task performance. Finally, a hierarchy of objectives is organized. lary has been considered to play a more central role in second language learning than
was traditionally assumed. Vocabulary is here used to include the consideration of lexi-
A similar process is at the heart of the curriculum approach known as Competency-Based cal phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated routines, and collocations, and not only words
Language Teaching (see Chapter 8). CBLT training identified several key areas of concern. as significant units of linguistic lexical analysis and language pedagogy. ‘Io carry out
Analysis of real-world task-use situations communicative tasks, a large vocabulary may be needed; therefore, TBLT and strategies
Nor

. The translation of these into teaching tasks descriptions for learning vocabulary are often seen as complementary, and many task-based propos-
‘The detailed design of instructional tasks als incorporate this perspective. Skehan, for example (1996b: 21-22), comments:
BY

. The sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching.

Although much of language teaching has operated under the assumption that lan-
These same issues remain central in current discussions of TBLT. Although studies of the guage is essentially structural, with vocabulary elements slotting in to fill structural
kind above have focused on the nature of occupational tasks, academic tasks have also patterns, many linguists and psycholinguists have argued that native language speech
been the focus of considerable attention in general education since the early 1970s. Doyle processing is very frequently lexical in nature. This means that speech process-
noted that in elementary education, “the academic task is the mechanism through which ing is based on the production and reception of whole phrase units larger than the
the curriculum is enacted for students” (1983: 161). Academic tasks are defined as having word (although analyzable by linguists into words) which do not require any internal
four important dimensions: processing when they are “reeled off” ... Fluency concerns the learner's capacity to

1. The products students are asked to produce produce language in real time without undue pausing for hesitation. It is likely to rely

2. The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products upon more lexicalized modes of communication, as the pressures of real-time speech
production are met only by avoiding excessive rule-based computation.
180 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 181

Thus Ellis (2003) recommends that TBLT courses start with a heavy vocabulary input. As activities that involve “noticing” or “consciousness-raising” while maintaining emphasis
summarized by Leaver and Willis (2004): on meaning. Such activities draw learners’ attention to forms they might otherwise not
have noticed in the input or their output.
Ellis (2003) argues strongly that syllabuses should begin with a communicative Negotiation of meaning provides learners with opportunities for provision of compre-
task-based module with an emphasis on rapid vocabulary gain, and then later, at an hensible input and modified output. This draws on an interactional view of learning
intermediate level, incorporate a code-based module. By this time learners will already (see Chapter 2) that sees language development as resulting from attempts to create
have acquired a rich vocabulary along with many basic structures and patterns. meaning through dialogic interaction. In the process the learner receives different
forms of feedback such as confirmation checks, comprehension checks, clarifica-
© Spoken interaction is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisi-
tion requests, repetition requests, and repetition that support learning and language
tion. Speaking and trying to communicate with others through the spoken language
development. As learners engage in communication, their output is “stretched” and
drawing on the learner’s available linguistic and communicative resources is considered
they acquire new linguistic resources. Comprehensible input as well as output are
the basis for second language acquisition in TBLT; hence, many of the tasks that are pro-
needed for learning.
posed within TBLT involve conversation or dialogic interaction based on a text or task.
Tasks provide opportunities for learners to “notice the gap.’ TBLT also draws on two
« Language use involves integration of skills. TBLT assumes a holistic view of language ~
principles that have had an important impact on SLA theories — the “noticing hypoth-
one where language use draws on different skills being used together. Tasks in TBLT
esis” and “noticing the gap.” Schmidt (1990) proposed that for learners to acquire new
hence typically require students to use two or more skills at the same time, thus better
forms from input (language they hear), it is necessary for them to notice such forms in
reflecting real-world uses of language.
the input (the noticing hypothesis). Consciousness of features of the input can serve as
a trigger which activates the first stage in the process of incorporating new linguistic
Theory of learning features into the learner’s language competence. In his own study of his acquisition of
TBLT shares the general assumptions about the nature of language learning underlying Portuguese (Schmidt and Frota 1986), Schmidt found that there was a close connection
Communicative Language Teaching; however, it draws more centrally on SLA theory, and between noticing features of the input and their later emergence in his own speech.
many of its proponents describe it from a cognitive perspective (see Chapter 2): Swain suggested (2000) that when learners have to make efforts to ensure that their
° Language learning is determined by learner internal, rather than external, factors. messages are communicated (pushed output), this puts them in a better position to
notice the gap between their productions and those of proficient speakers, thus foster-
Learning is promoted by activating internal acquisition processes. Learning is not the mir-
ror image of teaching but is determined by internal mental processes. Hence, meaning
ing second language development. This is the “notice the gap” hypothesis. Carefully
needs to be constructed by the learner, and the creative-construction theory of learning structured and managed output is essential if learners are to acquire new language.
(Chapter 2) may be said to apply. Skehan (1996a: 18) comments:
Managed output here refers to tasks and activities that require the use of certain target-
language forms, that is, which “stretch” the learner’s language knowledge and that con-
The contemporary view of language development is that learning is constrained by sequently require a “restructuring” of that knowledge. Van Gorp and Bogaert (2006:
internal processes. Learners do not simply acquire the language to which they are 89} comment:
exposed, however carefully that the exposure may be orchestrated by the teacher. it
In task-based language education ... learners learn by confronting the gaps in
is not simply a matter of converting input into output.
their linguistic repertoire while performing tasks and being interactionally sup-
The goal of teaching is to activate these processes, ported ... In fact, for each individual pupil who is performing a task, the actual
“gap” will probably be different. This implies that each learner will run into dif-
e Language learning is an organic process. Language learning develops gradually and learn-
ferent difficulties when dealing with the same task and, consequently, may learn
ers pass through several stages as they restructure their language system over time. This
different things.
principle reflects SLA research and the notion of a learner's developing “interlanguage”:
a language system in its own right and not simply a malformed version of the native Interaction and communication through tasks provides opportunities for scaffolded learn-
speaker's linguistic system. ing. This refers to the sociocultural perspective on learning (see Chapter 2). The social
e A focus on form can facilitate language learning. TBLT does not preclude drawing learn- activities in which the learner participates support learning through a process in which
ers attention to form; however, grarmmar is not taught as an isolated feature of language a knower guides and supports the learning of the other, providing a kind of scaffold.
but as it arises from, its role in meaningful communication, This can be done through
182 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 183

In order for the experienced knower to communicate with the learner, a process of (quoted in Willis 1996: 61-62). (Doubtless enthusiasts for other teaching methods could
mediation occurs. Learning is a process of participation mediated through the guid- cite similar “evidence” for their effectiveness.)
ance of a more knowledgeable other. Through repeated participation in a variety of
Van Gorp and Bogaert (2006: 82) similarly emphasize the importance of motivation in
joint activities, the novice gradually develops new knowledge and skills. The process of
selecting tasks:
mediation involved is often referred to as scaffolding (see Chapter 2 for more detail),
Initially, learners depend on others with more experience than themselves and gradually Tasks will work best to the extent that they inspire the learner to work i.e. to invest
take on more responsibility over time for their own learning in joint activity (Lave and mental energy in task performance and to persist, even if the task is complex or dif-
Wenger 1993; Lee 2008). ficult. The learner has to keep task performance going. The motivation to perform a
In the classroom, scaffolding is the process of interaction between two or more people task should therefore preferably be learner-intrinsic, rather than the kind of “surrogate
as they carry out a classroom task and where one person (e.g., the teacher or another motivation” provided by gimmicks, grades and superficial devices.
learner) has more advanced knowledge than the other (the learner). During the process,
e Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes.
discourse is jointly created through the process of assisted or mediated performance and
interaction proceeds as a kind of joint problem-solving between teacher and student. Another claim for tasks is that specific tasks can be designed to facilitate the use and
For example, in a classroom setting the teacher assists the learners in completing learn- learning of particular aspects of language. Long and Crookes (1993: 43) claim that
ing activities by observing what they are capable of, and providing a series of guided tasks provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target-language samples to
learners - input which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cogni-
stages through the task. Wells (1999: 221) identifies three qualities for a learning event to
qualify as an example of scaffolding: tive processing capacities - and for the delivery of comprehension and production
opportunities of negotiable difficulty.
e Learners should be enabled to do something they could not do before the
event;
In more detailed support of this claim, Skehan suggests that in selecting or designing
e Learners should be brought to a state of competence which enables them to
tasks there is a trade-off between cognitive processing and focus on form. More difficult,
complete the task on their own;
cognitively demanding tasks reduce the amount of attention the learner can give to the
formal features of messages, such as their grammatical form or choice of vocabulary
e Be followed by evidence of learners having achieved a greater level of independent
competence as a result of the scaffolding experience.
according to a specific register, and attention to these formal features is thought to be
necessary for accuracy and grammatical development. In other words if the task is too
Van Gorp and Bogaert (2006: 101-2) describe how this principle applies in TBLT: difficult, fluency may develop at the expense of accuracy. He suggests that tasks can be
designed along a cline of difficulty so that learners can work on tasks that enable them
The cognitive and interactional activity that the students develop at this stage is cru- to develop both fluency and an awareness of language form (Skehan 1998: 97). He also
cial in terms of intended learning outcomes. After all, task-based language learning is proposes that tasks can be used to “channel” learners toward particular aspects of lan-
highly dependent on the basic premises of social-constructivism, stating that learners guage: “Such channelled use might be toward some aspect of the discourse, or accuracy,
acquire complex skills by actively tackling holistic tasks, calling for an integrated use complexity, fluency in general, or even occasionally, the use of particular sets of struc-
of the target skills, and by collaborating with peers and more knowledgeable partners tures in the language” (1998: 97-8).
while doing so.

Task activity and achievement are motivational. Tasks are also said to improve learner
Design
motivation and therefore promote learning. ‘This is because they require the learners
to use authentic language, they have well-defined dimensions and closure, they are Objectives
varied in format and operation, they typically include physical activity, they involve Advocates of TBLT propose that it is suitable for designing courses at all levels from young
partnership and collaboration, they may call on the learner’s past experience, and they learners to adults, and published accounts of course designs for learners of different ages
tolerate and encourage a variety of communication styles. One teacher trainee, com- are given in Van den Branden (2006). The objectives of courses for young learners, however,
menting on an experience involving listening tasks, noted that such tasks are “genuinely may be very different from those for older learners. For older learners TBLT advocates the
authentic, easy to understand because of natural repetition; students are motivated to use of needs analysis, such as questionnaries or interviews, to determine learner needs as
listen because they have just done the same task and want to compare how they did it” well as the domains and situations of language use a course should focus on. The course
184 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 185

objectives will reflect these needs, whether they are related to academic needs, occupational Using the telephone would be an example of the former, and an information gap activity,
needs, or social needs. where speakers must communicate to share information that only one of the participants
Selection of tasks, according to Long and Crookes (1993), should be based on a careful has, would be an example of the latter. The nature of pedagogical tasks is explained in more
analysis of the real-world needs of learners. ‘This will be discussed further below in relation detail below.
to a task-based syllabus. However, in the case of young learners identifiable needs may not Beglar and Hunt (2002) describe the process involved in developing classroom tasks
be present. As Cameron (2001: 30) observes: from a needs analysis of real-world tasks. The terms target task and task type, as used here,
refer to what Astika (below) has termed task type and subtask. More information on the
Many children do not use the foreign language much outside the classroom, except range of task types used in TBLT is given later in this chapter. The procedures involved are
perhaps on holiday, with tourists to their country, and when using computers. Beyond as follows:
these limited domains, their outside lives do not readily provide a needs-related syl-
labus for foreign language learning. Furthermore, their adult lives and possible needs
1. Conduct a needs analysis to obtain an inventory of target tasks.
for the language are still too far away to give content to lessons ... The best we can 2. Classify the target tasks into task types.
do is aim for dynamic congruence: choosing activities and content that are appropri-
3. From the task types, derive pedagogical tasks.
ate for the children’s age and socio-cultural experience, and language that will grow
4. Select and sequence thé pedagogical tasks to form a task syllabus.
with the children. An example of this approach is Astika (2004: 8), which describes the use of a task-based
approach in developing a course for tour guides. Needs analysis made use of observation of
In this case the objectives will relate to a more general communicative competence. Tasks tour guides at work, interviews with guides, and interviews with experts and teachers of tour
that inform a TBLT syllabus are chosen on the basis of the extent to which they provide for guides. Two major tasks as well as related subtasks were identified from the needs analysis:
meaningful negotiation and interaction around content and activities that are motivating
and meaningful to young learners, such as information gap tasks, problem-solving tasks,
and games, In other words it will consist of “pedagogic tasks” rather than “real-world tasks” Tasks Subtasks
(see below). Taking tourists to the hotel for | 1. Meeting tourists at the airport
check in 2. Giving information on the way to the hotel
The syllabus . Helping tourists with registration

w
The syllabus in TBLT takes a very different form from a conventional language syllabus, Taking tourists on a day tour 1. Meeting tourists at the hotel lobby
which typically specifies such things as language structures, functions, topics, themes, 2. Beginning the tour
macro-skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). A TBIT syllabus, by comparison, 3. Describing the itinerary
specifies the tasks that should be carried out by learners within a program. However, as 4. Describing objects on the way to the destination
mentioned earlier, when TBLT is linked to other syllabus frameworks, such as content- 5. Describing religious objects
based (Chapter 6) or text-based (Chapter 10), a syllabus that links tasks to other types of 6. Describing processes
syllabuses is also used (see Leaver and Willis 2004). For example, in a content-based syl- 7. Taking tourists to restaurants
8 . Describing sites
labus, a task-based approach may be used to deliver the content and impacts the type of
classroom activities selected.
Niinan (1989) suggests that a task-based syllabus can be developed with two types of Functions and language needed to develop pedagogical tasks (i.e., classroom activities, such
tasks: as information gap activities or problem-solving tasks, that develop the skills needed to
1, Real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found perform the subtasks) were then identified and used as the basis for the design of materials
to be important in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real and classroom activities.
world. This would be the case with courses for learners who have clearly identifiable
needs, as noted above.
Types of learning and teaching activities
. Pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but
v

do not necessarily reflect real-world tasks, This would be the case for learners who do Classroom activities in TBLT seek to provide opportunities to learn language through
not have clearly identifiable needs, such as with young learners as noted above. the process of engaging in task work.Van den Branden (2012: 133) describes how this is
186 Current approaches and methods
rT. a 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 187

accomplished in a course that is developed from the processes described by Beglar and 2. Convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several dif-
Hunt and Astika above, that is, one which is derived from real-world tasks: ferent goals.
3. Collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or
In a task-based approach, students are confronted with approximations and simula- compete with each other on a task.
tions of the kinds of tasks that they are supposed to be able to perform outside the 4, Single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different pos-
classroom and learn about relevant forms of language while trying to understand sible outcomes.
and produce the language that these communicative tasks involve. If students, for 5. Concrete or abstract Janguage: whether the task involves the use of concrete language
instance, need to be able to comprehend official documents issued by the municipal or abstract language.
board, they will be invited to work with these kinds of documents in the language 6. Simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex
course; if students need to develop the ability to write short reports of observations cognitive processing.
they have made, they will be confronted with this kind of task in the classroom. In 7. Simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively
other words, task-based syllabuses do not chop up language into small pieces, but simple or complex.
take holistic, functional tasks as the basic unit for the design of educational activity. 8. Reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a
pedagogical activity not found in the real world.
Thus, the documents students work with may be identical to those used in a class where
the approach is Competency-Based Language Teaching, but in the case of a task-based
approach, specific skills or language needed to understand the document would be focused Learner roles
on only in the context of the task, as opposed to being treated separately using a skill-based A number of specific roles for learners are assumed in current proposals for TBLT. Some
theory of language learning. In cases where learners do not have clearly identifiable needs of these overlap with the general roles assumed for learners in Communicative Language
outside of the classroom, pedagogical tasks may be used as the basis for teaching. A number Teaching, while others are created by the focus on task completion as a central focusing
of classifications of pedagogical tasks have been developed. activity. Primary roles that are implied by task work are:
Willis (1996) proposes six task types: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, © Group participant. Many tasks will be done in pairs or small groups. For students more
problem-solving, sharing personal experiences, creative tasks. Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun
accustomed to whole-class and/or individual work, this may require some adaptation.
(1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplish-
e Monitor. In TBLT, tasks are not employed for their own sake but as a means of facilitat-
ment and give the following classification. Willis’s proposed task types as well as this list
ing learning or as a rehearsal for real-world tasks, Class activities have to be designed so
by Pica et al. are attempts to provide inventories of pedagogical! tasks:
that students have the opportunity to notice how language is used in communication.
1. Jigsaw tasks, These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form Learners themselves need to “attend” not only to the message in task work, but also to
a whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and the form in which such messages typically come packed. Therefore, a learner acts as a
have to piece the story together). “monitor,” paying attention to form during the activity.
2. Information gap tasks. One student or group of students has one set of information and © Risk-taker. Many tasks will require learners to create and interpret messages for which
another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience. In fact, this is said to be the point
and find out what the other party’s information is in order to complete an activity. of such tasks. Practice in restating, paraphrasing, using paralinguistic signals, such as
3. Problem-solving iasks. Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must pitch, volume, or intonation (where appropriate), and so on, will often be needed. The
arrive at a solution to the problem, ‘There is generally a single resolution of the problem. skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and con-
4. Decision-making tasks. Students are given a problem for which there are a number of sulting with other learners may also need to be developed.
possible outcomes, and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
5. Opinion exchange tasks. Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do Teacher roles
not need to reach agreement.
Van den Branden (2006) suggests the following roles for teachers in TBLT.
Other characteristics of tasks, which apply to both real-life and pedagogical tasks, have also e Motivate the students to invest mental energy in task performance, and to support their
been described, such as the following:
level of motivation through the various phases of a task-based activity.
1. One-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or e Efficiently organize the task-based activity, for instance by giving clear instructions and
a two-way exchange. preparing the students for task performance, guiding the formation of groups (for group
 188 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 189

work), making sure that students have all the material necessary for task completion or who employ collaborative or Cooperative Language Learning (Chapter 3), Communicative
are informed about the ways they can obtain these materials. Language Teaching, or small-group activities. Thus, many task-based materials may, in
more
* Interactionally support the students while they are performing the task, and differentiate fact, draw on the approach only occasionally, as opposed to adhering to the pure or
between students (or students groups) while doing so. comprehensi ve form of TBLT described in this chapter.
Additional roles are also assumed for teachers in TBLT, including: Realia
s wher-
© Selector and sequence of tasks. A central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting, and/ TBLT proponents favor the use of authentic tasks supported by authentic material
For
or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence ever possible. Popular media obviously provide rich resources for such materials.
in keeping with learner needs, interests, and language skill level. example:
Preparing learners for tasks. Most TBLT proponents suggest that learners should not go
NEWSPAPERS
into new tasks “cold” and that some sort of pre-task preparation or cuing is important.
Such activities might include topic introduction, clarifying task instructions, helping e Students examine a newspaper, determine its sections, and suggest three new sections
students learn or recall useful words and phrases to facilitate task accomplishment, and that might go in the newspaper.
providing partial demonstration of task procedures. Such cuing may be inductive and e Students prepare a job-wanted ad using examples from the classifiedsection.
implicit or deductive and explicit. ¢ Students prepare their weekend entertainment plan using the entertainment section.
Consciousness-raising. In TBLT if learners are to acquire language through participating
in tasks, they need to attend to or notice critical features of the language they use and TELEVISION
symbols
hear, This is referred to as “Focus on Form? TBLT proponents stress that this does not e Students take notes during the weather report and prepare a map with weather
mean doing a grammar lesson before students take on a task. It does mean employing showing likely weather for the predicted period. .
a variety of form-focusing techniques, including attention-focusing pre-task activities, In watching an infomercial, students identify and list “hype” words and then try to con-
text exploration, guided exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted material. struct a parallel ad following the sequence of the hype words. th
© Monitor. The teacher's role is not merely to give learners tasks to carry out but to observe (wit
* After watching an episode of an unknown soap opera, students list the characters
and monitor their performance on tasks and make decisions as to whether intervention or made-up names) and their possible relationshi p to other characters in the
known
is needed during or after a task according to task performance. Van den Branden (2012: episode.
136) comments:
INTERNET
For instance, through recasting, the teacher can offer the students richer versions
of what they were trying to say, but are not able to put into (adequate or accurate) e Given a book title to be acquired, students conduct a comparative shopping analysis
and
words. Likewise through negotiation of meaning, teachers can heip their learners of three internet booksellers, listing prices, mailing times, and shipping charges,
to unravel the meaning of new words and expressions. By asking clarification and , justifying their choice.
confirmation questions, or giving feedback, the teacher can “push” the students into e soeestaind ms pase hotel in Tokyo, students search with three different search
the first ten
producing more complex output. engines (e.g., Yahoo, Netscape, Snap), comparing search times and analyzing
hits to determine the most useful search engine for their purpose.
© Students initiate a “chat” in a chat room, indicating a current interest in their life and
The role of instructional materials developing an answer to the first three people to respond. ‘They then start a diary with
Pedagogic materials these text-sets, ranking the responses.
Instructional materials play an important role in TBLT because it is dependent on a suffi-
cient supply of appropriate classroom tasks, some of which may require considerable time, Technology
ingenuity, and resources to develop. Materials that can be exploited for instruction in TBLT TBLT takes a broad, or holistic, view of language development, with different skills
are limited only by the imagination of the task designer. Many contemporary language being integrated and needed for the completion of different learning activities. Computer-
is
teaching texts cite a “task focus” or “task-based activities” among their credentials, though assisted language learning (CALL) shares this integration of skills, and technology
most of the tasks that appear in such books are familiar classroom activities for teachers now increasingly being used for the creation and delivery of task-based teaching
learning
(Thomas and Reinders 2010). Leaver and Willis (2004) describe its use in online
 190 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 191

communities that participate in different types of tasks and in the joint development of
web-based projects.
_ Students can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task.
Procedure : Oe can hear aa recording of a parallel task being done (So. fong-as this does not
Since tasks may take very different forms, a variety of different lesson formats are found
in TBLT. Edwards and Willis (200s) provide examples of teachers using tasks in many dif-
ferent ways. These include young learners in Hungary doing a “spot the difference” task;
learners in Korea listening to directions and drawing a route on a map; teenagers in Greece
designing a personality quiz to find out how brave people are; Japanese students in the UK The task done by students (in pairs or groups) id gives students a chance.to use
preparing for an oral examination and doing a problem-solving task; business students in whatever language they ‘already have to express themselves and say whatever they.
Switzerland doing a web-based project; advanced learners in Italy sharing stories about want to Say. This:may be in response to reading a text or hearing a recording..:
storms; adult learners in Japan finding out about people's families and friendships; a class Teacher walks round. and’ monitors, encouraging i
of university students describing embarrassing incidents. attempts | at communication in the target languag
Van Gorp and Bogaert (2006) describe the following sequence of activities in task-
based lessons:
1. Introducing the task. This phase of the lesson has three functions:
a) motivating learners to perform the task;
b) preparing the learners to perform the task by discussing pre-supposed or useful-
knowledge of the world;
¢) organizing the performance phase by providing clear instructions on what the pur-
pose of the task is, and how it should or can be performed.
2. Supporting task performance. This involves:
a) interactional support in which the teacher mediates between task demands and the
learner’s current abilities;
b) supportive interventions focusing on clarifying meaning or guiding the choice of
language;
c) combining focus on meaning with focus on form.
3. The post-task phase. This can involve: presentation:
a) reflection on the task and how it was accomplished; Individual ene ata ee ne ‘chance to ask user about ae language
b) focus on form. i items.
Re, ort °
Willis (ag96: 56~7) describes a more detailed sequence of pre-task, while-task, and post-task
Beet asks some pairs toreport briefly Ee the whaleclass So everyone can com-
activities and divides this sequence into a pre-task focus, a focus on the task cycle, and a
pare findings, or begin a survey. (NB: There must pea purpose for others to listen)
language focus.
Sometimes only one or two groups report’ in full; othérs comment and add extra
points. The class may take. notes.
Pre-task Teacher chairs, comments on the content of their reports, rephrases. perhaps, but
Introduction to topic and task :° ao gives no
| overt public correction
» Teacher helps students to understand the theme ‘and objectives of the task, for
Post-task listening
example, brainstorming ideas with the. cl pictur
Students listen-to e task and compare
experience 1 to introduce the topic.
the ways in which they did theSee TgtaskSS themselve:
e%

tudents may doa | pre-task, for ‘example, topic- -based odd Alege BEB aE:
192 Current approaches and methods ] 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 193

The language focus » help to free up attention for focus on form,. thus jeading to greater accu cy, and com-
Analysis = i plexity | in performance a e
| @ .. The teacher ‘oete some language-focused tasks, based onthe texts students ‘have . Students read texts dieiwn from an academic ‘textbook on Management, covering
read or on the transer ts of ‘the Fecordings they have heard Examples: Include the
some. elements of the history of production. This initial input includes work on lexis
and a cloze exercise ‘concerning the use of the. present perfect and ‘simple past,
_ Students “watch the Video. on the history of. production, taking ‘notes on the various
Read the transcript; find words ending in s or ’s, and say ‘what thes means. oft mass production They are also free to use
‘stages and dates: in ‘th sneecbprnei
Find all’ the verbs in the simple ast form. Say whi hrefer to past time and which

«: Students work in pairs to produce a list of bullet points covering what they each:
-,- Gonsider-to be key developments in the history of manufacturing. Once they: have
this fist, they then. work together on: identifying a’ range of. linking words to produce
coherent and cohesive text. In-addition, they are asked to consider which tenses are
propriate to cover the various stages they %are going to explain
* Studerits then rehearse the task with their current partner, focusing on-form. After:this,
for the final version | get them to focus more on communication. |.try to show them
° * The teacher conducts practice activities as needed, based on the: language ee if E that creating interest and making sure fame interlocutor: is istening Bevery is lust as
~ work already’ onnthe board; or ao ‘examples from the text or transcript. oe, important as correct language... .
» Students give their talk to anotherpertner' with fact on meaning andaffective com-
2y-munication. Since they are allowed ‘to weave in their own knowledge, theit talks will
s be different, so they: listen to compare versions, arid they feed back to each other on
coe various aspects of their talks.
e Students write-a summary of the History of Production; which {use for sjagnastc
: (jumbled) with the ‘subject or. objects they had in the text; 7 eS) 2 purposes to fine-tune further activities and give individual coaching where necessary.
Kim's game fa memory game} {in red with new words and phrases dictonary . The focus here shifts back to language and form, with students producing apolished
4 reference words from text. or transcript © a |4 "= and condensed version of the History, incorporating new lexis, ensuring they have the:
: tight tenses and that they use a range ‘ofiinking words. appropriately. These versions
re also read, for purposes ‘of compa ison, by ot ud: who seem to like the
Stark (2005: 42-3) gives an example of a task-based activity used with business stu- -facus on language at this point. ,
dents in Switzerland, which focuses on the history of production:

An example of a task-based lesson plan is given in the appendix to this chapter.

A task undertaken during the first semester involves verbally summarizing the history of
‘production. ‘The task draws:on:a video about Henry Ford’s early mass production of cars.
One: specific alm Is to draw learners’ attention to. form and the relationship between form
Conclusion
and function, encouraging them to try out new ways of expressing their meanings and to
notice the gap between their own interlanguiage and the target. language .: vIn addition to Few would question the pedagogical value of employing tasks as a vehicle for promoting
introducing and reinforcing a limited amount of theme related vocabulary, the task draws communication and authentic language use in second language classrooms, and depend-
together: students’ earlier work-on summarizing, textual coherence and cohesion and ing on one’s definition of a task, tasks have long been part of the mainstream repertoire of
grammar {present perfect, and simple past). The similarity between the first and second language teaching techniques for teachers of many different methodological persuasions.
tasks is deliberate: task repetition, provided itis carefully designed and managed, can ‘Task-Based Language Teaching, however, in its pure form, offers a different rationale for
ote
the use of tasks as well as different criteria for the design and use of tasks. It is the depen-
dence on tasks as the primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and the absence
194 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 195

of a systematic grammatical or other type of syllabus that characterize current versions 5. Many tasks require the learners’ main focus to be on meaning. However, TBLT does
of TBLT, and that distinguish it from the use of tasks in Competency-Based Language see an important role for a focus on form. Read the quote by Van Gorp and Bogaert on
Teaching, another task-based approach but one that is not wedded to the theoretical page 181. What strategies would you use as a teacher to encourage learners to “notice
framework and assumptions of TBLT. And despite extensive studies of various aspects the gap” between themselves and more proficient speakers while performing tasks?
of task definition and design, one prominent researcher comments: “We are really little
6. Skehan recommends using “channelling” of learners’ attention to particular aspects of
further forward in answering the question, ‘What kind of tasks are needed to promote
the language to make tasks easier or harder. In addition to a focus on form, what other
language acquisition?” (Ellis 2003: 101).
aspects of language might a teacher channel a learner's attention to?
TBLT is often described as making considerable demands on both teachers and learn-
ers, since TBLT courses have to be developed “bottom up” based on the teaching/learning 7 This chapter makes a distinction between pedagogical and real-world tasks. Give two
context. In TBLT learners too may also need orientation to new modes of learning. Teachers examples of each.
have to adopt new roles in the classroom, and this may require special training and ongoing Pedagogical Real-world
support. This means it is likely to appeal to teachers who have considerable experience and 1 1

professional training, as well as a high-level competence in English or the language they 2 2

teach. Since TBLT is teacher-led and situation-specific, it does not provide the basis for 8. Read the description of the tasks and subtasks on page 185 for the tour guides course.
commercial textbooks, which means teachers also have to take on the additional roles of Then choose another profession. What do you think are the main tasks and subtasks
course designer and materials developer. The flexible way in which TBLT can be applied - required? Create a chart similar to the one on page 185.
either as the sole basis for a course or in conjunction with other approaches — means that
g. Using a current textbook or your own teaching materials, give an example of each of
its long-term impact may be hard to quantify. While it is unlikely to provide the basis for
the five task types mentioned on page 186 of the chapter.
national teaching programs or for use in contexts where teaching is linked to national or
international tests, it is likely to appeal to individual teachers who see it supported by SLA 10. Supporting task performance (p. 187) is an important part of the classroom procedures
theory and who see it as a way of creating learning that is driven by task-based interaction a teacher uses in TBLT. Refer to activities in a textbook or ones you use in class, and
rather than through the use of a language-based syllabus. In modified forms, TBLT may give an example of how teachers could do each of the following:
appeal as a partial approach to those teachers who simultaneously use a more conventional
a) Provide interactional support in which the teacher mediates between task demands
Janguage-based syllabus.
and the learner’s current abilities.
Discussion questions b) Offer supportive interventions focusing on clarifying meaning or guiding the
1, Take three activities that you have used in class or observed in a language class recently. choice of language.
Now read the claims for tasks described on pages 181-2. To what extent do your tasks c) Combine focus on meaning with focus on form.
reflect these features?
a1. TBLT, when not combined with more traditional approaches, places considerable
. Explain the concepts of “pushed output” and “negotiation of meaning” to a colleague demands on teachers and, as mentioned in the conclusion, “is likely to appeal to teach-
and give an example of how tasks can encourage these. ers who have considerable experience and professional training, as well as a high-level
. You are planning a professional development workshop for colleagues in your depart- competence in English or the language they teach.” What might be some of the draw-
ment on using TBLT. As you have read in this chapter, “for each individual pupil who backs of using TBLT with less experienced teachers or those less proficient in the target
is performing a task, the actual ‘gap’ will probably be different. This implies that each language?
learner will run into different difficulties when dealing with the same task and, con- 12. On page 183, you read about task complexity and Skehan’s suggestions for varying this.
sequently, may learn different things” (p. 181). How will you address this issue in your Work with a colleague who has experience in teaching students at the same level as you.
workshop, in particular in terms of language lesson planning and assessment? Select two tasks from a coursebook you both know and each grade the tasks in terms
. Ask a colleague to observe your class, or observe theirs. Using the three qualities pro- of their complexity for your target students. Were your answers similar? How can you
vided by Wells on page 182, determine if scaffolding takes place during the class. How determine task complexity?
long did each of the three steps take? Do you think there could have been a more efficient
way to teach the syllabus point? Would it also have been more effective?
196 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching 197

33. Read the following description of a task for intermediate level learners. Next, select English Language Syllabus in Malaysian Schools, Tingkatan 4-5, 1975. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
(where possible) which of the characteristics below (described on pp. 186-7) best Dan Pustaka.
describe this task. Feez, S. 1998. Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: National Centre for English Teaching and
Research.
You are members of a medical team working with organ transplants. You have one Frost, R. 2004. (26 April) A Task-Based Approach. Available at: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/
heart available but three patients who need one. A decision needs to be made right articles/a-task-based-approach; accessed May 9, 2013.
now. Which of the following patients would you give the heart to? Discuss this with Lave, J, and E, Wenger. 1991. Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge:
the team. You must come to a unanimous agreement. Cambridge University Press. :
Leaver, B. L., and J. R. Willis (eds,). 2004. Task-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education.
1. Male, 38 years old, married, father of three children. Heavy smoker. Despite Washington, DC: Georgeotwn University Press.
warnings in the past has not quit. Leaver, B. L., and M. A. Kaplan. 2004, Task-based instruction in US Government Slavic Language
Programs. In Leaver and Willis (eds.), 47-66.
2. Male, 72 years old. Widowed. Healthy for his age. He is forgetful which may cause
Lee, L. 2008, Focus-on-form through collaborative scaffolding in expert-to-novice online interac-
a problem when taking his daily medications after the operation.
tion. Language, Learning. and Technology 12(3): 53-72.
3. Female, 18 years old. Currently in prison for two years for having injured some-
Long, M., and G. Crookes, 1993. Units of analysis in course design ~ the case for task. In G. Crookes
one ina fight. and S. Gass (eds.), Tasks in a Pedagogical Context: Integrating Theory and Practice. Clevedon:
one-way or two-way Multilingual Matters. 9-54.
Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
convergent or divergent
University Press. ‘ :
collaborative or competitive Nunan, D, 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
concrete or abstract language Oliveira, C. P. 2004. Implementing task-based assessment in a TEFL environment. In Leaver and
simple or complex processing Willis (eds.), 253-79.
simple or complex language Pica, T., R. Kanagy, and J. Falodun. 1993. Choosing and using communicative tasks for second lan-
guage instruction, In G. Crookes and S, Gass (eds.), Tasks and Language Learning: Integrating
reality-based or not reality-based
Theory and Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 9-34.
Prabhu, N. S. 1987. Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Richards, J. C. Forthcoming. Key Issues in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University
References and further reading Press.
Astika, G, 2004. A task-based approach to syllabus design. ACELT Journal: 6-19. Schmidt, R., and S. Frota. 1986. Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: a case
Beglar, D., and A. Hunt. 2002. Implementing task-based language teaching. In J. C. Richards and study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In R. Day (ed.), Talking to Learn: Conversation in
W. Renandya (eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 237-326,
New York: Cambridge University Press. 96-106. Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11:
Beretta, A. 1990. Implementation of the Bangalore Project, Applied Linguistics 11(4): 321-37. 129-59.
Beretta, A., and A. Davies, 1985. Evaluation of the Bangalore Project. English Language Teaching Shehadeh, Ali. 2005. Task-based learning and teaching: theories and application. In Edwards and
Journal 30(2): 121-7. Willis (eds.), 13-30.
Burns, A;, and J. C. Richards (eds.). 2012. The Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Language Skehan, P. 1996a. A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics
Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. 171): 38-61.
Cameron, L. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. 1996b. Second language acquisition research and task-based instruction. In J. Willis and
Cook, G. IATEFL. 2003 debate with Martin Bygate in Brighton, 2003. D. Willis (eds.), Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann. 17-30.
Doyle, W. 1983. Adademic work. Review of Educational Research 53(2): 159-99. Skehan, P1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Edwards, C., and J, Willis (eds.). 2005. Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching. Smith, D. 1971. Task training. In AMA Encyclopedia of Supervisory Training. New York: American
Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Management Association. 581-6,
Ellis, R. 1992. Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Stark, P. B. 2005. Integrating task-based learning into a business English program. In Edwards and
Ellis, R. 2003, Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Willis (eds,), 40-9.
198 Current approaches and methods 9 Task-Based Language Teaching ig99

Swain, M. 1985. Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and compre- Appendix: A task-based lesson plan
hensible output in development. In S. Gass and C. Madden (eds.), Input in Second Language
Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 235-56.
Swain, M. 2000. The output hypothesis and beyond: mediating acquisition through collaborative | Review. and Homework
dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (ed.), Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 97-114.
Thomas, M. and Reinders, H. (eds.). 2010. Task-Based Language Teaching and Technology. New York:
Continuum.
Van Avermaet, P, and S. Gysen. 2006. From needs to tasks: language learning needs in a task-based
approach, In Van den Branden (ed.), 17-46.
Van den Branden, K. (ed.). 2006. Task-Based Language Education: From Theory to Practice. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Van den Branden, K. 2012. Task-based language education. In Burns and Richards (eds.), 140-8.
Van den Branden, K., M. Bygate, and J, Norris (eds.) 2009. Task-Based Language Teaching: A Reader.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Van Gorp, K., and N. Bogaert 2006. Developing language tasks for primary and secondary educa-
tion. In Van den Branden (ed.), 76-105.
Wang, W., and A. Lam 2009. The English language curriculum for secondary schools in China: its
evolution from 1949. RELC Journal 40(1): 65-82.
Wells, G. 1999. Dialogic Inquiry: Towards a Sociocultural Practice and Theory of Education. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Willis, D., and J. Wiliis 2007. Doing Task-Based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Willis, J. 1996. A flexible framework for task-based learning. In Willis and Willis (eds.), 235-56.
Willis, J., and D. Willis (eds.), 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann.

ae. Tei { jormation rom learners

15. Teacher. gives. learners strips. ofpaper with parts of an authentic teading. excerpt
 10 Text-Based Instruction 201
10 Text-Based Instruction
it draws on appropriate grammar and vocabulary. Second language learning thus involves
being able to use different kinds of spoken and written texts in the specific contexts in
which they are used. According to this view learners in different contexts have to master
the use of the text-types occurring most frequently in these contexts. These contexts might
include studying in an English-medium university, studying in an English-medium pri-
mary or secondary school, working in a restaurant, working in an office, working in a store,
or socializing with neighbors in a housing complex.
Introduction
Approach
Text-Based Instruction (TBI) is an approach that is based on the following principles:
Theory of language
e Teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and
A number of assumptions about the nature of language inform TBI.
written texts
e Linking spoken and written texts to the social and cultural contexts of their use Texts occur in relation to different genres of discourse
e Designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts As mentioned earlier, the notion of genre also plays an important part in the theory of
e Providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for mean- language underlying TBI. The situations, contexts, purposes, audiences, and relationships
ingful communication through whole texts. that are involved when we use language account for patterns and norms of language use
(Feez 1998: v) and result in different genres of discourse. Examples of genres are scientific writing, fiction,
conversation, news broadcasts, songs, poems, interviews, sports commentaries, letters,
While developed originally in Australia through the work of educationalists and applied
Genre tefers to spoken and written contexts for language use, in which our expectations
linguists working in the area of literacy and drawing on the work of Halliday (1989),
for the kinds of discourse that occur are shaped by our knowledge of the types of conven-
Derewianka (1990), Christie (2002), and others, it has also been influential in developing a
tions in place for that type of discourse, that is, genre conventions (Dean 2008). ‘a
approaches to language teaching at all levels in countries such as New Zealand, Singapore,
given genre, different types of texts may occur. For example, the genre ofconversation may
and Canada, as well as in a number of European countries, such as Sweden. The Common
include such text-types as small talk, anecdotes, jokes, personal recounts (or narratives).
European Framework of Reference (Chapter 8) also specifies outcomes for what students
Members of a culture or “discourse community” have a shared knowledge of the kinds of
can do with texts. TBI shares many assumptions with a genre-based approach to course
texts that occur in different genres and of the features of different text-types. The Common
design, often used in the development of courses in English for Academic Purposes
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) lists the
(Paltridge 2006). Unlike Task-Based Language Teaching (Chapter 9), which is motivated following examples of genres and text-types that learners may need to understand, produce,
by a creative-construction theory of second language learning, TBI, while compatible or participate in:
with theories of learning, derives from a genre theory of the nature of language (see
below) and the role that texts play in social contexts. Communicative competence is seen
to involve the mastery of different types of texts, or genres. Text here is used in a special idise rse =|
sense to refer to structured sequences of language that are used in specific contexts in
Public announcements and Books, fiction and non-fiction
specific ways. For example, in the course of a day a speaker of English may use spoken
instructions Magazines
English in many different ways including the following: Newspapers
Public speeches, lectures,
e Casual conversational exchange with a friend presentations, sermons Instructions (e.g. cookbooks, etc.)
e Conversational exchange with a stranger in an elevator Rituals (ceremonies, formal Textbooks
© Telephone call to arrange an appointment at a hair salon religious services) Comic strips
Entertainment (drama, shows, Brochures, prospectuses
e An account to friends of an unusual experience
readings, songs) Leaflets
e Discussion of a personal problem with a friend to seek advice. | Advertising material
Sports commentaries (football,
Each of these uses of language can be regarded asa text in that it exists as a unified whole cricket, etc.) Public signs and notices
with a beginning, middle, and end, it conforms to norms of organization and content, and (Continued)

200
202 Current approaches and methods 10 Text-Based Instruction 203

Each genre type has its own internal complexity. For example, recounts typically have three
is SS parts:
News broadcasts Supermarket, shop, market stall signs
e The setting or orientation, providing background information concerning who, when
Public debates and discussion Packaging and labelling on goods
Interpersonal dialogues and Tickets, etc. where and why
conversations Forms and questionnaires e Events described in a chronological order
Telephone conversations Dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual), thesauri « Concluding comments, usually expressing a personal opinion regarding the events
Job interviews Business and professional letters, faxes described.
Personal letters
Essays and exercises
Linguistic features include past tense, verbs, and adverbs. Personal recounts are common
Memoranda, reports, and papers in casual conversation and in email communication, blogs, etc. Narratives are similar to
Notes and messages, etc. recounts and share many of the linguistic features of recounts, except that rather than sim-
Database (news, literature, general information, etc.) ply recounting events, they tell a story. Students will have come across many different forms
of narratives in their reading, and common to many of them is a structure that consists of:
Language is a social process
e orientation (in which the setting is presented and the characters in the story are introduced);
This view was described by Halliday (1978: 1): “Language arises in the life of the individual
e complication (that part in the story in which the character or characters experience some
through an ongoing exchange of meanings with significant others” According to Feez
kind of problem);
(Chapter 2), the implications of this view of language include, on the one hand, the fact that
© resolution where a solution is found to the problem or complication.
texts are shaped by the social context in which they are used and, on the other hand, that
the social context is simultaneously shaped by people using language.
Language use reflects the contexts in which it occurs
Texts have distinctive patterns of organization and distinctive linguistic features Another assumption of TBI is that language is shaped by the situations in which it is used
Texts are constructed of words and sentences, but they function in communication as units. and the nature of the interactions in which it occurs. An important principle that derives
They may consist of a single word, a sentence, or much longer constructions, and they from this assumption is that spoken and written language have different functions and
reflect recognizable and conventional patterns of organization. There have been a number use different grammatical resources. The teaching of spoken and written texts should be
of classifications of text-types. The following text-types were originally proposed for genre- informed by research on authentic language use, drawing on such traditions as discourse
based instruction in schools in Australia by the Sydney Group (Johns 2002): and conversation analysis and corpus research. ‘The availability of corpora presenting large
samples of spoken and written language in different genres enables proponents of TBI to
Recounts: Relate an event that happened in the past.
focus on the unique characteristics of spoken and written texts in ways that would not have
Procedures: Outline a process, system or procedure.
been possible in the past.
Descriptions: Classify, describe, and give characteristics of a group of things.
Reports: Tell a story or report information to entertain or educate.
Theory of learning
Explanations: Present instructions that explain how something should be done.
Several assumptions about the nature of second language learning are used to support TBI.
Expositions: Take a position and argue a case.
Learning is facilitated by explicit knowledge of language
Others have amplified this list. For example, two different kinds of text-types are com-
Explicit learning is conscious learning and results in knowledge that can be described and
monly used in describing past experiences: recounts and narratives (Eggins and Slade 1997;
Thornbury and Slade 2006). explained, as compared with implicit learning which is learning that takes place without
conscious awareness and results in knowledge that the learner may not be able to verbalize or
The purpose of a recount is to list and describe past personal experiences by
explain. In teaching from the perspective of texts, students study the discourse and linguis-
retelling events in the order they happened. They have the purpose of either informing
tic features of texts and how texts reflect the contexts of their use. This information is pre-
the listener or entertaining him or her or both. ‘There are two main types of recounts
(Thornbury and Slade 2006): sented directly, and students are expected to understand and learn organizational features
underlying the organization of different text-types. This view of learning contrasts with
e Personal recounts usually retell an event the speaker was personally involved in (e.g., a implicit models of learning found in the Natural Approach (Chapter 14) and Community
traffic accident). Language Learning (Chapter 17).
© Factual recounts describe an incident the speaker is familiar with (e.g., a school fair).
204 Current approaches and methods 10 Text-Based Instruction 205

Learning is facilitated by the study of authentic models and examples @ . recognize ‘and Use conversational chunks.such as comments, descriptions, orrecounts
Students are presented with authentic examples of different text-types, and these are used @ take turns appropriately within Sime) aoe ie ee Statement/
to display and model the features of different kinds of texts. : i
- agreement, statement/disagreement ©
Learning depends upon the scaffolded support of the teacher ~use language appropriate to casual conversation, including politeness sitetesles:
The notion of scaffolded learning, an essential component of the sociocultural model of informal. language, Idiom iy.
learning (see Chapter 2), is central to TBI, and learning is viewed as “the outcome of a joint . build pronunciation. and paralinguistic:‘skills and Si
collaboration between teacher and learner” (Feez 1998: 12). In learning how to create texts, intonation and gesture ©
the teacher first presents an example of the text-type, leads students through an analysis of
the text to identify its distinguishing features, and then works with the students to jointly The syllabus
create a similar text or texts before the students create their own texts. (See below under
Feez suggests that the syllabus in a text-based approach can be initiated from a number of
procedure.) Burns (2012: 145-6) comments:
different perspectives and that one unit might be designed around a topic, while the next
This approach views the teacher as the “expert” who has the skills to monitor and diag- is designed around a particular text-type. In other words, any of the units of organization
nose learner progress and to guide learners toward the aspects of language they need to below could be used;
practice at various points as their skills develop ... Thus, scaffolding involves temporary, » Topics and related contexts of use
and gradually withdrawn support, where learning is assisted in two ways (Hammond and e Text-types and related language features (discourse features at the level of the whole text,
Gibbons 2002); designed-in scaffolding (the content, strategies and learning experiences grammatical and lexical features at the level of the clause)
the teacher plans to bulld into the syllabus) and contingent scaffolding (the moment-by- e Skills and strategies
moment classroom interactions that support learners at the point of need). e Activities.
Burns comments (2012: 145):
Design
Objectives Based on the concepts of scaffolding and support built up over time, it follows that
texts and tasks presented to learners need to be logically sequenced with both
‘The objectives of a text-based course are linked to the contexts in which the learner will use
short-term and long-term learning goals in mind. Teachers witl have in mind the
English and the type of texts he or she will encounter in those contexts. Hence, the starting
“macro-framework” of what they want learners to achieve by the end of the course,
point in developing course objectives is an analysis of learner needs and of the learning
as well as the “micro-framework” of how a specific lesson focussing on a specific text
context in order to identify the genres of discourse and the associated text-types the course
contributes to the larger plan. They can also consider what kind of spoken and written
will focus on. Thus Feez (1998: 23) comments: “The objectives of a course based on a text-
texts logically relate and connect in authentic communicative situations.
based syllabus are always related to the use of whole texts in context.”
Feez (1998: 23) gives the following examples of course objectives for a unit of work in The following text-types are included in the Certificates in Spoken and Written English,
a text-based course on “casual conversation.” which are widely taught language qualifications in Australia.

Exchanges Simple exchanges relating to information and goods and services

Complex or problematic exchanges
Casual conversation
Forms Simple formatted texts
Complex formatted texts
e.. understand the plirpose of casual conversation in Australian ‘workplace culture. Procedures Instructions
* know which conversation topics are appropriate in Australian workplaces © : Procedures
: -recognize and use the élements of a casual conversation, i.e., greetings and eetures Protocols
feedback, topic ‘shifts & Information texts Descriptions
Explanations
 206 Current approaches and methods 10 Text-Based Instruction 207

Reports Learner roles

Directives
Learners learn in TBI both through the support and guidance of the teacher and through
‘Texts which combine one or more of these text-types
the use of rules and patterns to creating texts related to their needs. They use teacher-
Story texts Recounts
provided models to create texts of their own. They learn through a process of collaboration
Narratives
and guidance until they reach a level where they can function independently without the
Persuasive texts Opinion texts
teacher’s support. Learners are also expected to develop skills that enable them to moni-
Expositions
tor their own learning and to compare their own performance and those of others against
Discussions
models.
A text-based approach formed a key component of the 2001 syllabus for primary and
secondany schools in Singapore, where the text-types that are identified can be understood Teacher roles
as forming the communicative building blocks Singapore children need in order to per- ‘The teacher has a somewhat demanding role in TBI, since a text-based course is typically
form in an English-medium school setting (Singapore Ministry of Education 2001). The not a pre-packed course but one developed by a teacher or group of teachers for a specific
text-types are as follows: group of learners. This will often involve:
Explanations, e.g., reference books, dictionaries developing a syllabus based on learners’ needs;
Expositions, e.g., discussions, assembly talks selecting suitable texts as the basis for the course;
Factual recount, e.g., news stories, eye-witness accounts sequencing elements of the course;
Information reports, e.g., brochures, advertisements, documentaries modeling processes of deconstructing and constructing appropriate texts;
Procedures, e.g., how to do kits assessing students’ progress in understanding and mastering different text-types.
Conversations and short functional texts, e.g., making arrangements, thank-you notes
In addition the teacher is expected to have a sound knowledge of the nature of different
Narratives and personal recounts, e.g., oral anecdotes, diary entries. kinds of texts, and the ability to analyze texts and guide students’ awareness and mastery of
The Singapore syllabus also identifies the grammatical items that are needed in order to text conventions. The ability to scaffold learning is a key part of the teacher's role.
master different text-types. For example, the following items are identified in relation to the
text-types of narratives and personal recounts at Secondary 2 level: The role of instructional materials

Adjectives, adjectival phrases, and clauses Materials play an important role in TBI since examples of authentic spoken and written
texts provide the basis for teaching and Jearning. Texts can be obtained from a variety
Adverbs and adverbials
Connectors to do with time and sequence of sources: from the real world (i.e. texts from everyday life such as forms, documents,
Direct and indirect speech reports), from the Internet, from the media (e.g., YouTube), or from students themselves,
Nouns, noun phrases, and clauses that is, from their work, study, and other non-pedagogical contexts. However, teachers may
Prepositions and prepositional phrases
also prepare model texts (adapted from authentic texts) to highlight the discourse and lan-
Pronouns guage features of particular text-types. Student-generated texts (either spoken or written)
Tenses to express past time
are also used as a basis for assessing student learning. A text-based approach can also be
Verbs and verb phrases. used as the basis for designing textbooks (see appendix to this chapter).

Types of learning and teaching activities Procedure

Activities used in TBI are varied and relate to the different stages of a text-based unit of work Feez (1998: 28-31) gives the following description of procedures used in a text-based les-
as well as the type of text in focus, which could be either a spoken or a written text. Activities son or series of lessons. Recall that texts may be spoken or written and differ according
typically focus on building the context for a text, modeling and deconstructing the text, joint to the discourse context in which they are used. Hence, these phases given by Feez would
construction of a text, and independent construction of a text. Teacher-led activities as well as be modified accordingly, depending on the type of text being presented. While TBI may
pair and group-based activities will all be used, but central to all of them is a focus on the nature advocate going through all of these phases systematically in any one lesson, it is possible to
of an authentic text, what its purpose and features are, and how it reflects the context of its use. combine aspects of this procedure with other approaches.
208 Current approaches and methods ! 10 Text-Based Instruction 209

Phase 1 Building the context. Joint construction activities include:

“Teacher questioning, Seer: and editing whole class constru tion then seribing,
tn thisstage student
“— anto-board or OHT
_ Are-introduced ‘to ‘social mee of an authentic model of the: text-type being e. Skeleton texts 5 :
. “Jigsaw and information gap activities ©
‘e. Small-group. construction of tests
social purposes: the text--type. achieves.
&Dictogloss °
F Explore the immediate context of situation: by investigating th register of a model oe
Which has been selected on the basis of the course geet) and learner needs -
Phase a Independent constriction of the text
An exploration f register involves: ; d .
e Building knowledge of the topic of the model text oe d knowledge of the social activity 4 In.this stage: e “ i.
“e in-whieh the text is used, 6. g. fob seeking. a v
.. "Students work independently with the text 4 a4 =
° Understanding the roles and relationships of the people.using the text:and how these e: “Learner performances are used for, achievemertt assessmen
are established and emis by the:ae between a job seeker and a
independent construction activities include:
"prospective employer : : Se
o Listening tasks, e.g. cemprehension activities in response to live. or recorded material,’ |
° “Understanding requirements of the channel of communication being used, 8. g. us g
such-as performing a task, sequencing panies, numbering, Hexing 6or pesertning
the telephone, speaking face-to-face with members ofan Interview henel ee
"material ona. worksheet, answering questions.
Context-building activities include e Listening and speaking tasks, é.g. role plays, sinineed or + authentic dialogues.
| Presenting the context through p i) audiovisual’ terials, ealia, excursions, o Speaking tasks; e.g. spoken presentation to class, community. organization, Berea :
; ield-trips, guest ‘speakers, etc. ; 7 Reading tasks, 6g. ‘comprehension activities in response to written material such as
o” Establishing the social purpose t! rough discussions or surveys ote | ‘ performing atask, sequencing pictures, raltibesngy ticking or
¢ underlining material on
oF Cross-cuttural Bctvities such as ore differences in u use of the text in two 4 a worksheet, answering ‘questions - Fag po SAE Bg
| cultures” @ < Writing tasks which demand that students drat and preset whole texts ea ee:
e Comparing the. inode text with eens texts ‘of Dy same or Gortienng) type, a. a com-
Phase 5 Linking torelated texts -
“2 paring: a‘Job interview with -a complex. spoken exchange involving close friends, a
cs work colleague, ora Sanger inin: a sal encounte! In thisstage students investigate how ree they have fearneel ttin‘thisi iaching/earhing
cycle. can be related tor:
°: “Other texts in the same or similar context
° "Future or past cycles of teaching: and learning
~ Investigate the structural oe aril language features of the model
Activities which link. the text-type to,related texts. include: a
e+ Compare iheemedey with other Samples of the same text-type.- « Comparing the use-of the text-type across different fields
o Researching other text-types used in the same field” ;
© Role playing what ae if the same text-typei is used iby people with different roles
and relationships —
Comparing spoken and written modes of the same text-type |
° Researching how a el language fpehue used in hs et isu in other
_text-types oo

i* Fez tae a Sars thet raentaie and Racananictenlareefandensten at both the whole
: text; clause and expression levels. Itis at.this stage that many traditional ESL language teachin Conclusion
: activities come into their own.” 2 54 As can be seen from the above summary, a text-based approach focuses especially on the
products of learning rather than the processes involved. Advocates of the approach argue
 210 Current approaches and methods 10 Text-Based Instruction 211

that it “provides for the basis for coherent syllabus design drawing on tasks that are based 6. Which of the following are “texts”? For the ones that aren't, why don’t they work as
on understandings of how people actually communicate in a wide range of social situations. texts?
It is an approach where teachers can incorporate many of the resources and activities they
already use within the broader framework of assisting learners to gain greater knowledge A This box contains, on average, 100 large paper clips. Did you watch the news?
of relevant texts” (Burns 2012: 146). Critics have pointed out that, when a TBI model is used Yes, please. ;
exclusively, an emphasis on individual creativity and personal expression is sometimes B Playback. Raymond Chandler. Penguin Books in association with Hamish
missing from the TBI model, which is heavily wedded to a methodology based on the study Hamilton, To Jean and Helga, without whom this book could not have been
of model texts and the creation of texts based on models. Likewise, critics point out that written. One. The voice on the phone sounded sharp and ...
there is a danger that the approach becomes repetitive over time since the five-phase cycle Cc Which one of you is the fish?
described above is applied to the teaching of all four skills. That’s me.
D Phone.
Discussion questions I'm in the shower.
1, Explain to a colleague how the term text is used in TBI. OK.
2. How are the terms text and genre related? 7. Match the following text-types with the descriptions of their purposes below:
3. Which academic discourse communities are you a member of? Consider the types of
1, Narratives
discourse used in both speech and writing in your given profession.
2. Recounts
4. Look at the following isolated sentences. For each one: 3. Procedures
4. Expositions
decide if it is probably spoken or written English;
5. Information reports
think about what language would come before and after it;
6, Explanations
give further relevant details of the context;
state the communicative function; e Classify, describe, and give characteristics of a group of things.
analyze the form. e Outline a process, system, or procedure.
e Tella story or report information to entertain or educate.
. She’s been here for years.
e Relate an event that happened in the past.
NE

. He must have forgotten about it.

e Take a position and argue a case.
. Having a great time here in Bali.
e Present instructions that explain how something should be done.
AY

. Tl get you another one.

8. Select a language teaching textbook.
. Look at the following pairs of sentences. For each pair:
yw

a) Find examples of each of the text-types in the list below from the book, Are other
discuss the likely text-type each utterance is taken from; ;
text-types included?
e discuss the possible context of each;
b) What is the approximate distribution of the text-types (which ones are more
© compare and contrast them in terms of function and form.
frequent)? (You do not need to count all instances in the book — a general impression
. You must see the latest Tom Cruise movie. is sufficient.)
Are any not covered? Should they be?
pepe

. You must have a visa to enter Australia. c)

. I wish I had a car.
I wish I had known.
e Explanations, e.g., grammar paradigms, dictionary entries
e Expositions, e.g., discussions, public meetings
. Tm having a good time in the States.
e Factual recount, e.g., news stories, eye-witness accounts
. Tm working tonight.
SAY

® Information reports, e.g., brochures, advertisements, documentaries

PS, We're out of milk.
e Procedures, e.g., “how to do” kits
 212 Current approaches and methods 10 Text-Based Instruction 213

¢ Conversations and short functional texts, e.g., making arrangements, thank-you notes Appendix: Text-based activities
e Narratives and personal recounts, e.g, oral anecdotes, diary entries

References and further reading

Burns, A. 2005, Teaching speaking: a text-based syllabus approach. In E, Uso-Juan and A. Martinez-
Flor (eds.), Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four Language Skills ‘The Information Report Text type”
Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter. 235-58. Features of af Information Report” Mi
Burns, A. 2012. Text-based teaching. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds,), The Cambridge Guide to
* an informanon report presents facts about atopic These facts rs
Pedagogy and Practice in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. 132-9. are organised in different paragraphs: An information feport S
Carter, R, A. Goddard, D. Reah, K. Sanger, N. Swift, and A. Beard, 2008, Working with Texts. has four man parts, Title, Intraduction, Paragraphs about
3rd edn, London: Routledge. the Topic and Conclusion. Examples of information. reports
Christie, F 2002. Classroom Discourse Analysis: A Functional Perspective. London: Continuum. include News, reports, sclerice Teports and weather ek
Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dean, S. T. 2008. Discourse and Practice: New Tools for Critical Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Derewianka, B. 1990. Exploring How Texts Work. Sydney: Primary English Teachers’ Association.
introduction - Parallel ics) are the Cujo Gomes forthe
Eggins, S., and D, Slade, 1997, Analysing Casual Conversation. London: Cassell. Ageneral hae ne Lowes
the Olympics in the same host.
Fez, S. 1998. Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching sponte tne L country every ur years.
and Research. ; ee a Origins of the Paralympics .
Gibbons, P. 2006. Bridging Discourses in the ESL Classroom. London: Continuum. L idwig Guttman va Relative.
2s | Paralympics, In 1988. he ‘organised sports compatitions Tor his pronouns
Halliday, M. A. K. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and disabled patients He believed in Pa ha to a them, . ee
a
Meaning, London: Edward Arnold.
& : The Paralympics Today eae ‘ -
Halliday, M. A. K. 1989. Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sones SN bility, ‘fother then. phy 8
Dogs
Hammond, J., and B. Derewianka. 2001. Genre. In R. Carter and D, Nunan (eds.), The Cambridge ace “The participants like able-bodied athletes even
:comaetis
Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. New York; Cambridge. 194-200. Poragraphs though the tow an artical leg or atm, on are wheelchawr users
tha. | The wsually impaired athletes team’ . .
Hammond, J., and Gibbons, P. 2001. What is scaffolding? In J. Hammond (ed.), Scaffolding Teaching
. Topic , seme Outstanding a ParalyympHOO ; wetBu.
and Learning in Language and Literacy Education. Sydney: Primary English Teachers’
* Main ideas - | “t
Association, 1-14.
“eDetalis. | > Anoutstanding athlete is. Yip Pin %u from Singapore. She has
Johns. A. (ed.). 2002. Genres in the Classroom. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Prsealay datrphy ened pret her from wakna
McCarthy, M., and R. Carter. 1994. Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teaching.
London; Longman.
Macken-Horarik, M. 2002. “Something to short for”: a systemic functional approach to teaching
genre in secondary school science. In A. Johns (ed.), Genres in the Classroom. Mahwah, NJ: o made cha ges to theireu aaldingn They! 7
Lawrence Erlbaum. 17-42. L = 30Sy the discbled cocan move round easily
Maybin, J.; N. Mercer, and B. Stierer. 1992. “Scaffolding” learning in the classroom. In K. Norman seh i F people around theworld we
_(ed.), Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton “ Conchnten wotled Ee gained ppl of ie and a ity
oy Key Fue [3Ith
themselves. :
for the National Curriculum Council. 186-95,
O'Keefe, A., M. McCarthy, and R. Carter. 2007. From Corpus to Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Paltridge, B. 2006. Discourse Analysis. London: Continuum. _ Celebrating
the Olympic Spirit
Singapore Ministry of Education 2001. English Language Syllabus 2001 for Primary and Secondary
Schools, Singapore: Ministry of Education,
Thornbury, S., and D, Slade, 2006. Conversation: From Description to Pedagogy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press,
214 Current approaches and methods
11 The Lexical Approach

Mey Tsk 1 Write a paragraph on the topic. Popular Sports in My Country, ny

Write o main idea at the beginning of the paragraph. The main idea © :
» should sum-up wheit the paragraph is about.Provide details in: the rest of:
the paragraph. pe ee ac me r
* Write an information report on the topic: Popular Sports in My Country.
- Write a suitable-intreduction, paragraphs about the topic Bas 2a o
For every paragraph, include a sub-heading, a.main-idea and supporting: = Introduction
“<< details. Add pictures and:captions to your report. 2 See We have seen throughout this book that central to an approach or method in language
teaching is a view of the nature of language, and this shapes teaching goals, the type of sylla-
bus that is adopted, and the emphasis given in classroom teaching. The syllabuses that were
Introduction -
“ Ageneral . . . reflected in language courses in the first ‘half of the twentieth century viewed vocabulary
. Statement (particularly single-word lexical items) and grammar as the building blocks of language.
about the topic Changed views of language that emerged with the concept of communicative competence
prompted a search for alternative syllabus conceptions (see Chapter 5). One type of syl-
Poragraphs. labus and teaching proposal that appeared in the 1990s and that has been refined and
aboutthe 0 = developed since that time was termed the Lexical Approach (Lewis 1993, 1997, 2000a; Boers
Topic oe
and Lindstromberg 2009). A lexical approach in language teaching refers to one derived
* Sub-headings
+ Main ideas. from the belief that the building blocks of language learning and communication are not
2 Details oo8, grammar, functions, notions, or some other unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that is,
words and particularly multi-word combinations. The Lexical Approach reflects a belief in
the centrality of the lexicon to language structure, second language learning, and language
use, and in particular to multi-word lexical units or “chunks” that are learned and used as
single items. While early discussions of the Lexical Approach (e.g., Lewis 1993) emphasized
the important role of vocabulary in general in language learning, subsequent discussion of
this approach has focused mainly on the role of multi-word units, or “chunks, which is the
focus taken in this chapter. The role of vocabulary in language teaching per se is not central
to current formulations of the Lexical Approach but is dealt with extensively in the litera-
* Conclusion; ture (e.g., Bogaards and Laufer-Dvorkin 2004; Schmitt 2008; Meara 2009; Nation 2013).
. Key points oe
Schmitt (n.d.) comments, clarifying that chunks may consist of either collocations, a
-- Lhave used: — a term that refers to the regular occurrence together of words, or fixed phrases:
_ Simple present tense”
Relative pronouns The Lexical Approach can be summarized in a few words: language consists not of
—O Present perfect tense
traditional grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-word prefabricated chunks. The
+ Celebrating the Olympic Spit- ie lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that
it Is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are words
and chunks formed by collocations and fixed phrases.

An interest in the role of chunks in language learning goes back at least to Palmer (1925),
but their status in language theory has undergone reassessment, beginning with a classic
paper by Pawley and Syder (1983), by the development of corpus-based studies of language

215
216 Current approaches and methods 11 The Lexical Approach 217

use (drawing on large-scale computer databases of authentic language use, e.g., O'Keefe, Multi-word lexical units such as these are thought by some to play a central role in learn-
McCarthy, and Carter 2007), as well as by research in psycholinguistics (e.g, Wray 2002). ing and in communication. Studies based on extensive language corpora have examined
Boers and Lindstromberg (2009; 23) observe: patterns of phrase and clause sequences as they appear in samples of various kinds of texts,
including both written and spoken samples. For example, the Cambridge English Corpus
The relevance of chunks for second and foreign language learners has meanwhile (formerly the Cambridge International Corpus; http://cambridge.org/corpus) is a corpus of
stimulated dictionary makers to include more information about collocation in learners several billion words based on samples of written and spoken English from many different
dictionaries generally and to produce dictionaries of collocations in particular. Concrete sources. This and other corpora are important sources of information about collocations
proposals for instructional methods targeting chunks have also been launched and and other multi-word units in English.
resource books for teachers are becoming available. The Lexical Approach holds that chunks are a central feature of naturalistic language
use, From the perspective of language production, there are advantages in constructing
A lexical approach in language teaching thus seeks to develop proposals for syllabus design
utterances from ready-made chunks rather than from single lexical items; the ability to call
and language teaching founded on a view of language in which multi-word units, or
on chunks is an important factor that contributes to fluent speech. O’Keefe et al. (2007: 63)
chunks, play the central role.
comment: “an over-emphasis in language teaching on single words out of context may leave
second language learners ill-prepared in both the processing of heavily chunked input such
Approach as casual conversation, and of their own productive fluency.’ However, this does not down-
play the importance of grammar in language use or in language teaching. Rather, the point
Theory of language
is that language ability requires not only the ability to produce language through syntactic
The Lexical Approach reflects what we have termed a structural view of language (Chapter 2). generation (via grammatical competence) but also the ability to use lexical chunks in appro-
This views language as a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. priate situations. This is especially true if learners hope to gain the pragmatic fluency that
Traditionally, the elements of the system included lexical items as well as grammati- comes from knowing the right lexical phrase for the right functional situation. Ultimately,
cal units. The Lexical Approach adds another level of “structure, namely multi-word units. language learners need mastery of both abilities to use language well.
Whereas Chomsky’s influential theory of language emphasized the capacity of speakers to cre- Drawing on research on first language learning, chunks are also believed to play a role
ate and interpret sentences that are unique and have never been produced or heard previously, in language acquisition. They constitute a significant proportion of the data which learners
in contrast, the lexical view holds that only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel use to develop their grammatical competence. As Lewis put it, language should be recog-
creations and that multi-word units functioning as “chunks” or memorized patterns form a nized as grammaticalized lexis instead of lexicalized grammar (1993: iv). Chunks are hence
high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation (Pawley and understood not only to be an important feature of language structure and language use but
Syder 1983; O'Keefe et al. 2007), The role of collocation is also important in lexically based also to play a key role in second language learning. Nattinger (1980: 341) commented:
theories of language. For example, compare the following collocations of verbs with nouns:
Perhaps we should base our teaching on the assumption that, for a great deal of the
do my hair / the cooking / the laundry/ my work
time anyway, language production consists of piecing together the ready-made units
make my bed / a promise / coffee / a meal
appropriate for a particular situation and that comprehension relies on knowing which
Many other multi-word units also occur frequently in language. For example: of these patterns to predict in these situations. Our teaching, therefore, would center

binomials clean and tidy, back to front on these patterns and the ways they can be pieced together, along with the ways they

trinomials cool, calm, and collected vary and the situations in which they occur.

idioms dead drunk, to run up a bill Theory of learning

similes as old as the hills
Lewis (2000a: 184) proposed the following account of the learning theory assumed in his
connectives finally, to conclude
initial proposal for a lexical approach:
social-routine formulae Nice to meet you.
discourse markers on the other hand e Encountering new learning items on several occasions is a necessary but sufficient con-
compounds fast forward dition for learning to occur.
proverbs Too many cooks spoil the broth. * Noticing lexical chunks or collocations is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
exclamations You must be kidding! “input” to become “intake.”
218 Current approaches and methods 11 The Lexical Approach 219

e Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions, and examples contributes to turning input level and above, and one that can be used in conjunction with other approaches and methods.
into intake, although formal description of rules probably does not help. Stengers et al. (2010: 101) comment:
e Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules but on an accumulation of
Given its reliance on incidental acquisition through independent reading and listening,
examples from which learners make provisional generalizations. Language production
we take it that the Lexical Approach is intended for learners above lower-intermediate
is the product of previously met examples, not formal rules. No linear syllabus can
level. The level of proficiency of the students who participated in our experiments was
adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of acquisition.
generally estimated by their teachers to be around B2 according to the descriptors of
Learning of chunks is assumed to take place both through incidental learning and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).
through direct instruction. Incidental learning is dependent upon the frequency with
which chunks are encountered and noticed in normal language use. Procedures for The goal of the Lexical Approach is to develop learners’ awareness and use of lexical
direct instruction will be discussed later in this chapter. Boers and Lindstromberg (2009) chunks as an important feature of naturalistic language use. A related goal is for learners
elaborate an account of chunk-based learning from the perspective of cognitive theory, to develop strategies for identifying and learning the chunks that they encounter in spoken
which we have referred to as cognitive-code theory in Chapter 2. The goal of learning is and written texts. Stengers et al. (2010: 101) continue:
that “chunks that are met, noticed and learned must then be adequately entrenched in
The advice given by Lewis and his colleagues is therefore to help students develop
the learners’ long-term memory” (2009: 10). The learning of chunks is facilitated in a
strategies for the recognition and the recording of chunks they encounter not just in,
number of ways:
but outside the classroom too: What is essential is that the teacher equips the stu-
e ‘Through noticing: targeted chunks must first be noticed in the input learners receive. denis with search skills which will enable them to discover significant collocations for
© Through cognitive processing: chunks must be processed through different forms of elabo- themselves, in both the language they meet in the classroom and, more importantly,
ration, which will increase the level of cognitive involvement needed to foster retention in the language they meet outside the classroom. In other words, Lexical Approach
(Boers and Lindstromberg 2009). advocates are hopeful that students will transfer their heightened awareness of the
¢ Through exposure: repeated encounters with chunks are likely to increase the likelihood ubiquity of chunks to their dealings with the L2 samples they encounter outside the
of them being learned. Krashen, in elaborating the Natural Approach (Chapter 14), sug- classroom, and that this will then accelerate the students’ incidental uptake in long-
gested that massive amounts of “language input; especially through reading, is the only term memory of lexical phrases.
effective approach to such learning. Others propose making the language class a labora-
tory in which learners can explore, via computer concordance databases, the contexts of The Lexical Approach may, however, be used with lower-level students when the chunks are
lexical use that occur in different kinds of texts and language data. provided, rather than acquired through independent reading and listening.
e Through comparisons with LI: another approach to learning lexical chunks has been a
“contrastive” one (an example of “elaboration” referred to above). Some applied linguists The syllabus
have suggested that for a number of languages there is an appreciable degree of overlap As with lexis in general, proponents of the Lexical Approach recommend, for lower-
within a given language in the form and meaning of lexical collocations, collocations level students, direct teaching of the chunks that occur most frequently in the kinds of
that may not exist in the language being studied. Bahns (1993: 58) suggests that “the texts students engage with in their learning, and that language corpora can be a source
teaching of lexical collocations in EFL should concentrate on items for which there is of information for this strategy. Shin and Nation (2008), for example, provide a list of
no direct translational equivalence between English and the learners’ respective mother the most frequent chunks that occur in spoken English. However, for intermediate and
tongues.” advanced-level learners, similar information is not readily available. Since there are
potentially many thousands of multi-word units that students may encounter in their
exposure to English and that cannot be predicted in advance, some advocates of the
Design
Lexical Approach argue that the goal for learners at higher levels is not to teach a core set
Objectives of lexical units but rather to develop students’ awareness of the nature of lexical units and
Unlike other teaching proposals in this book, the Lexical Approach is not conceptualized as to provide them with strategies for recognizing, learning, structuring, storing, and using
a comprehensive plan for a language program (i.e., one that provides a complete framework chunks which they encounter. The “syliabus” will therefore consist of an organized record
for the design of a language course). Rather, it can be understood as providing one strand of of the chunks learners have encountered in different written and spoken texts - ie., it is
a language course for students, thought by some educators to be appropriate at intermediate a retrospective syllabus.
 220 Current approaches and methods 11 The Lexical Approach 22:

A lexical approach was used in the COBUILD English Course (Willis and Willis 1989), SOME CONTEXTS OF PREDICT
the rationale and design for which was described in The Lexical Syllabus (Willis 1990). This
was the first published coursebook to be built around a lexical rather than a conventional 1 e foo in copper binding. Our findings predict that the results will show .:
grammatical syllabus (albeit a syllabus mainly consisting of single-word lexical items rather 3, © 2, the stratosphere. The present models predict that a warming of the winter nolan
than chunks). Willis notes that the COBUILD computer analyses of texts indicate that “the ae es after an analysis of the DNA, we.are able topredict ihe complete amino.

700 most frequent words of English account for around 70% of all English text” This “fact” this survey data.is then used to predict values on the vertical profile;
led to the decision that “word frequency would determine the contents of our course. Level 1 5 the natural order hypothesis would predict ‘an increase infrequency of use,

would aim to cover the most frequent 700 words together with their common patterns
and uses” (Willis 1990: vi). In one respect, this work resembled the earlier frequency-based SOME CONTEXTS OF FORECAST
analyses of vocabulary by West (1953) and others. The difference in the COBUILD course
was the attention to word patterns derived from the computer analysis. Willis stresses, 1 ..@ second analysis. The center makes forecasts. seven days ahead for all regions a /
however, that “the lexical syllabus not only subsumes a structural syllabus, it also indicates 2 . ction whose success depends ona forecast beirig accurate. Thiey might end...:
how the structures which make up a syllabus should be exemplified” since the computer [3 . the difficulties of attempting to forecast Britain's economic performance
corpus reveals the commonest structural patterns in which words are used (1990: vi). pa a0 labor of its people. This gloomy forecast can be better explained 'i
The Touchstone series (McCarthy, McCarten, and Sandiford 2005) is another example of a PS : But three months ‘earlier the detailed forecast published by the Treasury
coursebook series that incorporates a corpus-based lexical syllabus including both single-
word units and chunks. The lexical syllabus is based on the most common words and Many different kinds of corpora are available and O'Keefe et al. (2007) give detailed
phrases in the North American spoken segment of the Cambridge English Corpus. information on how teachers can create and use their own corpora, such as through the use
Other proposals have been put forward as to how lexical material might be organ- of free online corpus tools that show how language is used in real situations. Another appli-
ized for instruction. Nation (1999) reviews criteria for classifying collocations and chunks cation of corpora that is relevant to the study of chunks is known as data-driven learning,
and suggests approaches to instructional sequencing and treatment for different types of which O’Keefe et al. (2007: 24) describe as directive activities “where learners get hands-on
collocations. Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992: 185) propose using a functional schema for experience of using a corpus through guided tasks or through materials based on corpus
organizing instruction: evidence ... an inductive approach [that] relies on an ability to see patterning in the target
language and to form generalisations about language form and use.” In other words, teach-
Distinguishing lexical phrases as social interactions, necessary topics, and discourse ers may ask students to do online corpus searches of the target item directly, or may provide
devices seems to us the most effective distinction for pedagogical purposes, but that handouts showing the results of a search.
is not to say that a more effective way of grouping might not be found necessary in
the wake of further research. Training in text chunking
Chunking exercises seek to raise awareness of chunks and how they operate. Boers and
Types of learning and teaching activities Lindstromberg (2009: 89) describe an activity as follows:
Activities used with the Lexical Approach include awareness activities, training in text
This involves asking students to highlight or underline word strings in an authentic text
chunking, as well as activities designed to enhance the remembering of chunks. Such
that they consider to be muitiword units (e.g., strong collocations). Their selections are
activities can be included in any course and not necessarily one based on the Lexical
subsequently compared to those of peers or checked against the teacher’s selection.
Approach.
Alternatively, dictionaries or online sources (e.g., concordance tools or search engines
Awareness activities such as Google) can be accessed to in order to verify the chunk status of selected
These are activities that facilitate the noticing of chunks. An example is the use ofcorpora, word strings.
a resource that is particularly useful in revealing collocation restrictions. An example of
Memory-enhancing activities
the kinds of displays that appear in text materials and in the concordancing displays from
One type of memory-enhancing activity is what Boers and Lindstromberg (2009) have
which the printout materials derive is illustrated below. The difference between how the
termed elaboration. They give this account of elaboration (2009: 35).
vocabulary items “predict” and “forecast” are used and how they collocate is not easy to
explain. However, access to these items in context in the computer corpus allows students This is an umbrella term for diverse mental operations, beyond mere noticing, that a
(and their teachers) to see how these words actually behave in authentic texts. learner may perform with regard to the meaning and/or the form of words and phrases.
222 Current approaches and methods 11 The Lexical Approach 223

Elaboration can, for instance, consist in thinking about a term’s spelling, pronuncia- Teaching assistance will be necessary to lead the learner, by example, through the different
tion, grammatical category, meaning, and associations with other words as well as stages of lexical analysis such as observation, classification, and generalization.
thinking which involves the formation of visual and motoric images related to the Learners are also encouraged to monitor their own learning of chunks and to review
meaning of the term. The more of these dimensions that are involved, the more likely chunks they have encountered - for example, through the use of a vocabulary notebook or
it is that the term will be entrenched in long-term memory. electronic journal - as a way of helping remember them.

Retelling The role of instructional materials

After studying a text with a particular focus on the chunks that appear in it, students take Materials and teaching resources to support lexical approaches in language teaching
part in retelling activities, where they summarize or retell what they have read but attempt include (a) coursebooks that include a focus on multi-word units in the syllabus, such as
to use the same chunks that appeared in the text. the Touchstone series; (b) corpus-informed materials such as McCarthy and O’Dell (2004);
(c) corpora that can be accessed by teachers and students in which a corpus of texts can be
Teacher roles
used with concordancing software to explore how words and multi-word units are used. As
Teachers have several roles in the Lexical Approach. The teacher is assumed to be a lan- described by Allan (2008: 23): ,
guage analyst, capable of recognizing multi-word units in texts, able to assess which ones
are important enough to justify sustained attention in class, and able to use texts in such The learner inputs the target word or words into the software and all examples from
a way as to exploit their potential for the learning of chunks. The teacher may be expected the corpus are returned, usually in a keyword in context (KWIC) format, with the target
to be familiar with the use of computer software and corpora and to use data-driven word in the middle of the line. These lines can be sorted in a variety of ways that may
learning activities as the basis for both deductive and inductive learning. Lewis (1993) help to reveal patterns in meaning and usage ... Learners then interact with the con-
supports Krashen’s Natural Approach procedures (Chapter 14) and suggests that teacher cordance and find answers to their questions about the target words by looking for
talk is a major source of learner input in demonstrating how lexical phrases are used for patterns in it, categorizing them and deriving their own hypotheses, rather than relying
different functional purposes. Willis (1990) proposes that teachers need to understand on a teacher’s intuition or research.
and manage a classroom methodology based on stages composed of Task, Planning, and
An example of a useful corpus is the Bank of English, which forms part of the Collins
Report, the task cycle recommended for Task-Based Language Teaching (Chapter 9). In
Corpus - a 650 million word corpus used in the preparation of the COBUILD dictionar-
general terms, Willis views the teacher's role as one of creating an environment in which
learners can operate effectively and then helping learners manage their own learning,
ies. However, despite the pleas from advocates of a lexically based approach for a greater
use of corpus-based lexus in coursebooks, this appeal is influencing the design of certain
particularly in respect to lexicality. This requires that teachers “abandon the idea of the
coursebooks, but not others. Burton (2012: 98) observes:
teacher as ‘knower’ and concentrate instead on the idea of the learner as “discoverer”
(Willis 1990: 131). The reason why many course books do not currently make much reference to corpus
findings is simply that the students who buy the books — or perhaps more likely the
Learner roles
teachers, school administrators and policy makers who instruct students to buy the
Learners assume an active role in chunk-based approaches to learning. As language ana-
books, or buy them on their behalf — do not demand it, and there is, therefore, no
lysts they may be expected to work with computers to analyze text data previously col-
motivation for publishers to innovate in this way. This remains true even though in
lected or made available “free-form” on the Internet. Here the learner assumes the role of
many ways the use of corpus data would perhaps be one of the simplest innovations
data analyst constructing his or her own linguistic generalizations based on examination
that could be envisaged course book production, as many findings do not necessitate
of large corpora of language samples taken from “real life” In such schemes, teachers have fundamentally new pedagogical approaches, but, simply, modified descriptions and
a major responsibility for organizing the technological system and providing scaffolding presentations of language — arguably closer to the “minimally evolutionary” rather than
to help learners build autonomy in use of the system. The most popular computer-based
“revolutionary” noted by Littlejohn (1992: 206). | have also seen little evidence to sug-
applications using corpora are built on the presentation of what are known as concordance
gest that corpus-based or corpus-informed coursebooks will emerge, despite a lack
lines (see p. 221), where the target word, structure, or chunk appears in the middle ofa line
of demand, in the way that corpus-based dictionaries did in the 1980s.
of text, with the remaining text showing the context in which the item has been used. These
lines of text are generated by a computer program, or concordancer, explained in more Some corpus-informed coursebooks (a modified approach, where the raw corpus-based
detail below. However, learners need training in how to use the concordancer effectively. data is simplified to be accessible to students) have emerged, but as the process of doing
224 Current approaches and methods
a) 11 The Lexical Approach 225
ory

extensive corpus searches and analyzing the data can be time consuming, it is unclear to Hill (2000) suggests that classroom procedures involve (a) teaching individual collocations,
what extent the practice will extend beyond coursebooks intended for very large numbers (b) making students aware of collocation, (c) extending what students already know by
of students. adding knowledge of collocation restrictions to known vocabulary, and (d) storing colloca-
tions through encouraging students to keep a lexical notebook.
Little of the classroom practice Lewis (1997) proposes goes beyond variants of match-
Procedure ing and gap-filling exercises, however. Neither does he suggest ways of helping students
Procedural sequences for lexically based language teaching reflect whether the focus is on remember the chunks they have been exposed to, Nonetheless, in recent years extensive
awareness raising or remembering multi-word units for later use, in other words, the clas- research into the learning of vocabulary, mainly focusing on repeated exposure, has helped
sic distinction between reception and production. Boers and Lindstromberg (2009: 19), teachers develop suitable activities for the learning of chunks.
drawing on Lewis (1997), summarize the current status of classroom procedures with the
Lexical Approach: Conclusion
The LA [Lexical Approach] in its present form proposes classroom activities and exer- The status of lexis in language teaching has been considerably enhanced by developments
cises that raise learners’ awareness of the importance of chunks. The central strat- in lexical and linguistic theory, by work in corpus analysis, and by recognition of the role
egy is pedagogical chunking; its essence is the encouragement of learners to notice of multi-word. units in language learning and communication. However, lexis still refers
chunks. That is, students should first of all be alerted to lexical phrases encountered to only one component of communicative competence. Lewis and others have coined the
in authentic texts and then encouraged to make records of these chunks in vocabu- term lexical approach to characterize their proposals for a lexis-based approach to language
lary notebooks adapted to accommodate this kind of lexis. Lewis recognizes that the teaching, and this chapter has examined what is meant by that term. However, such pro-
quantity of lexical phrases that qualify as good targets for learning far exceeds what posals lack the full characterization of an approach or method as described in this book.
can be acquired on a normai, non-intensive language course. His advice is to help Since Lewis’s original proposal for a lexical approach and a lexically based syllabus as an
students develop strategies for the recognition and recording of chunks in samples alternative to more traditional syllabus models, the concept has not been further developed
of L2 they encounter not just in the classroom, but outside it too. In more detail, his to show how linguistic competence could develop only through the grammaticalization of
recommendation is to expose students to substantial quantities of listening and read- lexus, as opposed to presenting a lexical approach as a valid, but single, component of a
ing materials in the classroom, make them conscious of the chunks that occur In broader language syllabus, Nor do activity types and teaching procedures advocated for use
these materials by helping them “chunk” texts “correctly,” that is, notice the authentic with lexus lead further in this direction. Rather than a broadening of the scope of a lexical
chunks they contain. approach since its conception, subsequent years have seen a narrowing of its application,
limiting it largely to techniques for developing an awareness of the nature of chunks. While
With these activities the learner must take on the role of “discourse analyst,’ with the discourse a focus on multi-word units or chunks is doubtless an important dimension of second
being either packaged data (delivered by the teacher for lower-level learners) or data “found” language learning and of communicative performance, little has been done to show how
via one of the text search computer programs (in higher-level classes). Classroom procedures such a focus can be used to develop either linguistic or communicative competence. Hence,
typically involve the use of activities that draw students’ attention to lexical collocations (as it remains to be convincingly demonstrated how a lexically based theory of language and
mentioned, one of the major categories of chunks) and seek to enhance their retention and use language learning can be applied at the levels of design and procedure in language teaching,
of collocations. Woolard (2000) suggests that teachers should reexamine their coursebooks for suggesting that it is still an idea in search of an approach and a methodology. Nevertheless,
collocations, adding exercises that focus explicitly on lexical phrases. They should also develop the Lexical Approach, as described in this chapter, may be merged effectively with other
activities that enable learners to discover coflocations themselves, both in the classroom and in approaches, such as Communicative Language Teaching, and an understanding of how
the language they encounter outside of the classroom. Woolard (2000: 35) comments: chunks are learned has been facilitated by the advent of corpora.
The learning of collocations is one aspect of language development which is ideally
Discussion questions
suited to independent language learning. In a very real sense, we can teach students
to teach themselves. Collocation is mostly a matter of noticing and recording, and
1. When teaching greetings, what would be some examples of “chunks” that would be helpful?
trained students should be able to explore texts for themselves. Not only should they 2, Inthe terminology of this chapter, explain why the following two sentences don't “work”:
notice common collocations in the texts they meet, but more importantly, they should SorryI am late, I had to make my hair.
select those collocations which are crucial to their particular needs. Your room is a mess, go and do your bed.
226 Current approaches and methods 11 The Lexical Approach 227

3. Match the following terms with the examples. (Review other examples of these terms on 4) Now also select one binomial, one simile, and one connective and do the same.
p. 216, as necessary.) 5) How are these words most commonly used in the corpus? Is this different to the
way the words are used in the textbook? If so, can you think of reasons why this
binomials Lovely to see you again. might be?
trinomials tall as a mountain
idioms in summary, g. There is a close connection between lexis and grammar. Take a random unit from a
similes For crying out loud! course you are familiar with and identify three new words introduced in that unit.
connectives Blood is thicker than water. 1) Copy every word in to one of the free corpora available online, mentioned earlier
social-routine formulae a piece of cake (such as the British National Corpus at http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk). How are the
discourse markers fast forward words most commonly used? For example, what prepositions do they take? Are they
compounds ready, willing and able normally used in present or past tense? Plural or singular? Which words commonly
proverbs having said that, precede or follow them?
exclamations cheap and cheerful 2) Having identified the most common usages, can you identify any “chunks” of lan-
4. Using the above as examples, explain to a colleague the role of chunks in language use guage that it would be useful to present to students?
and language acquisition.
5. Learning of chunks involves (a) noticing, (b) cognitive processing, and (c) exposure. References and further reading
Give examples of how teachers can facilitate chunk learning at all these three levels. Allan, R. 2008. Can a graded reader corpus provide “authentic” input? ELT Journal 63(1): 23-32.
Bahns, J. 1993. Lexical collocations: a contrastive view. ELT Journal 7(1): 56-63.
. Do you think the Lexical Approach can be useful when you are designing a syllabus? Boers, F, and §. Lindstromberg. 2005. Finding ways to make phrase-learning feasible: the mnemonic
a

A colleague says she read somewhere that the Lexical Approach is a “retrospective syl- effect of alliteration, System 33: 225-38.
labus” Explain to her what this means. Do you agree? Boers, F, and S. Lindstromberg. 2008a. Structural elaboration by the sound (and feel) of it. In
7. During class you tell students to look up words using a concordancer and identify the F Boers and S. Lindstromberg (eds.), Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary
different ways and contexts in which they can be used. After class a student comes to and Phraseology. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 330-53.
point: it is time-consuming and it would better if you just Boers, F, and S. Lindstromberg. 2008b. From empirical findings to pedagogical Practice. In F, Boers
you and says he doesn't see the
and S. Lindstromberg (eds.), Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary and
explained the vocabulary. How would you respond?
Phraseology. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 375-93.
8. The selection of the language in many textbooks is done based on the authors’ intuition. Boers, F, and S. Lindstromberg. 2008c. How cognitive linguistics can foster effective vocabulary
Corpora can give more accurate information in terms of the frequency and distribution teaching. In F Boers and S. Lindstromberg (eds.), Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching
of specific language, as used by native speakers. Let's investigate the extent to which the Vocabulary and Phraseology. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 1-61.
language in your textbook matches that used by Li speakers. Take one lesson from a Boers, F, and S. Lindstromberg. 2009. Optimizinga Lexical Approach to Instructed Second Language
textbook, preferably at intermediate level. Select a longer text from this lesson. Next you Acquisition. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Boers, F, and S, Lindstromberg, 2012. Experimental and intervention studies on formulaic sequences
will follow steps to analyze this language using several free, online corpus tools:
in a second language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 32: 83-110.
1) Copy and paste the text into the corpus tool, Vocabulary Profilers, part of the website Boers, F, J. Eyckmans, J. Kappel, H. Stengers, and M. Demecheleer. 2006. Formulaic sequences and
for Compleat Lexical Tutor, a search engine developed by the University of Quebec perceived oral proficiency: putting a lexical approach to the test. Language Teaching Research
(http://www.lextutor.ca/vp/eng/) to get insight into the distribution of the vocabu- 10: 245-61.

lary in the text. How many of the words are in the first 1,000, second 1,000 or aca- Bogaards, P,, and B. Laufer-Dvorkin, 2004. Vocabulary in a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition,
demic word lists? Do you think this is reasonable for the target students? and Testing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins,
2) Next, copy the same text into the frequency section of Compleat Lexical Tutor (http:// British National Corpus. 2010. http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk; accessed May 9, 2013.
Burton, G. 2012. Corpora and coursebooks: destined to be strangers forever? Corpora 7(1): 69-90.
wwwiextutor.ca/freq/). What is the distribution of the vocabulary in your text?
Compleat Lexical Tutor. University of Quebec. http://www lextutor.ca/vp/eng/; accessed May 9, 2013.
3) Next, identify three lexical phrases from the text and type these into the British
De Knop, S., FE Boers, and A. De Rycker. 2010. Fostering Language Teaching Efficiency through
National Corpus website, a 100-million-word collection of samples of modern British Cognitive Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
English, at http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk.
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Ellis, N. C., R. Simpson-Vlach, and C, Maynard. 2008. Formulaic language in native and second Shin, D., and P. Nation. 2008, Beyond single words: the most frequent collocations in spoken
language speakers: psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 42: English. ELT Journal 62: 339-48.
375-96. Siyanova, A., and N. Schmitt. 2007. Native and nonnative use of multiword versus one-word verbs.
Hill, J. 2000. Revising priorities: from grammatical failure to collocational success. In Lewis (ed.), International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 45(2): 119-39.
47-69. Stengers, H. 2007. Is English exceptionally idiomatic? Testing the waters for a lexical approach to
Lewis, M. 1993. The Lexical Approach, London: Language Teaching Publications, Spanish. In F. Boers, J. Darquennes, and R. Temmerman (eds.), Multilingualism and Applied
Lewis, M. 1997. Implementing the Lexical Approach. London: Language Teaching Publications. Comparative Linguistics, Vol. 1; Pedagogical Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars
Lewis, M. (ed.). 2000a. Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. London: Publishing. 107-25.
Language Teaching Publications. Stengers H., F. Boers, A, Housen, and J. Eyckman. 2010. Does chunking foster chunk uptake? In
Lewis, M. 2000b. Learning in the lexical approach. In Lewis (ed.), 155-84. De Knop et al. 99-120.
Lewis, M. 2000¢, There is nothing as practical as a good theory. In Lewis (ed.), 10-27. West, M. 1953. A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman.
Lindstromberg, $., and F. Boers, 2008, Teaching Chunks of Language: From Noticing to Remembering. Willis, J. D. 1990. The Lexical Syllabus. London; Collins COBUILD.
Innsbruck: Helbling Languages. Willis, J. D., and D, Willis. 1989. Collins COBUILD English Course. London: Collins.
McCarthy, M. J., and F, O'Dell. 2004. English Phrasal Verbs in Use: Intermediate Level. Cambridge: Wood, M. 1981, A Definition of Idiom. Manchester, UK: Centre for Computational Linguistics,
Cambridge University Press. University of Manchester.
McCarthy, M. J., J. McCarten, and H. Sandiford, H. 2005. Touchstone: Student's Book 1. Cambridge: Woolard, G. 2000, Collocation-encouraging learner independence. In M. Lewis (ed.), Teaching
Cambridge University Press. Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach, London: Language Teaching
Meara, P. 2009. Connected Words: Word Associations and Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Publications. 28-46.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Wray, A. 2002. Formulaic Language and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Milton, J. 2011. Measuring Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Bristol: Channel View Wray, A. 2008. Formulaic Language: Pushing the Boundaries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Publications.
Nation, I. S. P. 1999. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. New York: Cambridge University
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Nation, I. S. P. 2013. Learning Vocabulary in a Second Language. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Nattinger, J. 1980. A lexical phrase grammar for ESL. TESOL Quarterly 14: 337-44.
Nattinger, J., and J. DeCarrico. 1992. Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
O'Keefe, A., M. McCarthy, and R. Carter. 2007. From Corpus to Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Palmer, H. E. [1925] 1999. Conversation. Repr. in R. C. Smith (ed.), The Writings of Harold E. Palmer.
Tokyo: Hon-no-Tomosha. 185-91.
Pawley, A,, and FE, Syder, 1983, Two puzzles for linguistic theory: native-like selection and native-
like fluency. In J. Richards and R. Schmidt (eds.), Language and Communication. London:
Longman. 191~226.
Peters, A. 1983. The Units of Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Phillips, M. 1989. Lexical Structure of Text. Discourse Analysis Monograph No. 12. Birmingham:
University of Birmingham.
Schmitt, N. (ed.). 2004. Formulaic Sequences: Acquisition, Processing and Use, Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
Schmitt, N. 2008. Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research
12(3): 329-63.
Schmitt, N. n.d. Lexical Approach: A Very Brief Overview. Available at: http://www.esoluk.co.uk/
calling/pdf/Lexical_approach.pdf; accessed May 28, 2013.
 12 Multipte Intelligences 231
12 Multiple Intelligences
Gardner (2993) proposed a view of natural human talents that is labeled the “Multiple
Intelligences Model” This model is one of a variety of learning style models that have been
proposed in general education and have subsequently been applied to language teaching
(see, e.g., Christison 1998; Palmberg 2011). (Gardner himself was not convinced that his
theory had any application to language teaching - Gardner 2006.) Gardner claims that
his view of intelligence(s) is culture-free and avoids the conceptual narrowness usually
associated with traditional models of intelligence (e.g., the Intelligent Quotient [IQ] test-
ing model). Gardner originally posited eight native “intelligences,” which are described as
Introduction follows:
A feature of language learning classrooms is the diversity of learners who are often studying 1. Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways, which is something
in the same class. Diversity refers to the many ways in which learners may differ from one lawyers, writers, editors, and interpreters are strong in.
another. They may differ in their motivations for learning English, their beliefs about how 2. Logical/mathematical: the ability to think rationally, often found with doctors, engineers,
best to learn a language, the kinds of strategies they favor, and their preference for differ- programmers, and scientists.
ent kinds of teaching methods and classroom activities. Language teaching has often been 3. Spatial: the ability to form mental models of the world, something architects, decorators,
based on the assumption that “one size fits all and some of the teaching approaches and sculptors, and painters are good at.
methods described in this book reflect this view of learners. The learner's role in learning 4. Musical: having a good ear for music, as is strong in singers and composers.
has been predetermined and planned in advance, and the learner's role is to adapt him- or 5. Bodily/kinesthetic: having a well-coordinated body, something found in athletes and
herself to the method. Such is the case with methods such as the Silent Way (Chapter 16) and
craftspersons.
Suggestopedia (Chapter 18). More recent approaches to language teaching seek to acknowl- 6. Interpersonal: the ability to be able to work well with people, which is strong in salespeo-
edge the differences learners bring to learning. Learners are viewed as possessing indi- ple, politicians, and teachers.
vidual learning styles, preferences, and strategies, and these influence how they approach 7. Intrapersonai: the ability to understand oneself and apply one’s talent successfully, which
classroom learning and the kinds of learning activities they favor or learn most effectively
leads to happy and well-adjusted people in all areas of life.
from. Pedagogy is hence assumed to be more successful when these learner differences are 8. Naturalist: the ability to understand and organize the patterns of nature.
acknowledged, analyzed for particular groups of learners, and accommodated in teaching.
In both general education and language teaching, a focus on individual differences has been He later suggested a ninth intelligence — existential intelligence - “a concern with philosophical
a recurring theme in the last 40 years or so, as seen in such movements or approaches as issues such as the status of mankind in relation to universal existence. In learning situations,
individualized instruction, autonomous learning, learner training, and learner strategies the need to see ‘the big picture’ in order to understand minor learning points and details”
(see Chapter 19). The theory of Multiple Intelligences shares a number of commonalities (Palmberg 2011: 8). Armstrong (1999) introduced the following convenient memory tags for
with these earlier proposals. each intelligence:
Multiple Intelligences (MI) refers to a learner-based philosophy that characterizes Linguistic intelligence: “word smart”
human intelligence as having multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged and devel- Logical/mathematical intelligence: “number/reasoning smart”
oped in education. Traditional intelligence or 1Q (Intelligence Quotient) tests are based on a Visual/spatial intelligence: “picture smart”
test called the Stanford-Binet, founded on the idea that intelligence is a single, unchanged, Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: “body smart”
inborn capacity. However, traditional IQ tests, while still given to most schoolchildren, are Musical intelligence: “music smart”
increasingly being challenged by the MI movement. MI is based on the work of Howard Interpersonal intelligence: “people smart”
Gardner of the Harvard Graduate School of Education (Gardner 1993). Gardner notes Intrapersonal intelligence: “self smart”
that traditional IQ tests measure only logic and language, yet the brain has other equally Naturalist intelligence: “nature smart”
important types of intelligence. Gardner argues that all humans have these intelligences, but Existentialist intelligence: “existence smart”
people differ in the strengths and combinations of intelligences. He believes that all of them
can be enhanced through training and practice. MI thus belongs to a group of instructional All learners are believed to have personal intelligence profiles - so-called “MI profiles” -
perspectives that focus on differences between learners and the need to recognize learner
that consist of combinations of different intelligence types and for some intelligences to
differences in teaching. be more highly developed than others, hence favoring a particular approach to learning.

230
232 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 233

Christison (2005) suggested that most people are believed to have a few intelligences that theory of language as well as an effective design for language learning. Therefore, the theory
are highly developed, most modestly developed, and one or two underdeveloped. Several of learning might be termed holistic, since we learn through all of our senses.
checklists have been developed to enable people to “identify” their personal MI profile, A widely accepted, but divergent, view of intelligence is that intelligence — however
such as McKenzie’s “Multiple Intelligences Survey” (1999), which requires potential test- measured and in whatever circumstance - comprises a single factor, usually called the “g”
takers to tick statements they agree with out of a total of 90 statements which are grouped factor. From this point of view, “Intelligence (g) can be described as the ability to deal with
into nine sections (ten staternents for each section), each representing one of Gardner's cognitive complexity ... The vast majority of intelligence researchers take these findings for
nine intelligence types. Skeptics might question the reliability of such a crude measure of granted” (Gottfredson 1998: 24). One popular explication of this view sees intelligence as a
these complex qualities of human cognition. hierarchy with g at the apex of the hierarchy:
When it was first proposed, the idea of Multiple Intelligences attracted the interest of
More specific aptitudes are arrayed at successively lower levels: the so-called group
many educators as well as the general public. Schools began to use MI theory to encourage
factors, such as verbal ability, mathematical reasoning, spatial visualization and
learning that goes beyond traditional books, pens, and pencils. Teachers and parents were
memory, are just below g, and below these are skills that are more dependent on
encouraged to recognize their learners’/childrer’s particular gifts and talents and to provide
learning activities that build on those inherent gifts. As a result of strengthening such dif- knowledge or experience, such as the principles and practices of a particular job or
ferences, individuals would be free to be intelligent in their own ways. profession. :
(Gottfredson 1998: 3)

Approach The view of Gardner (and some other cognitive scientists) “contrasts markedly with the
Theory of language view that intelligence is based on a unitary
or ‘general’ ability for problem solving” (Teele
2000: 27). In the Gardner view, there exists a cluster of mental abilities that are separate but
MI theory was originally proposed by Gardner (1993) as a contribution to cognitive science.
Fairly early on, it was interpreted by some general educators, such as Armstrong (1994),
equal and that share the pinnacle at the top of the hierarchy called intelligence - thus, the
as a framework for rethinking school education. Some schools in the United States have eight Multiple Intelligences that Gardner has described. One way of looking at the learn-
indeed remade their educational programs around the MI model. Applications of MI in ing theoretical argument is to apply the logic of the single factor (g) model to the Multiple
language teaching have been more recent, so it is not surprising that MI theory lacks some Intelligences model. ‘The single factor model correlates higher intelligence (+g) with greater
of the basic elements that might link it more directly to language education. One issue is speed and efficiency of neural processing; that is, the higher the g factor in the individual,
the greater the speed and efficiency of that individual’s brain in performing cognitive opera-
the lack of a concrete view of how MI theory relates to any existing language and/or lan-
tions (Gottfredson 1998: 3). If there is not just one I (that is, not one “intelligence”) but
guage learning theories, though attempts have been made to establish such links (e.g., Reid
1997; Christison 1998). It certainly is fair to say that MI proposals look at the language of an
several I’s, then one can assume that the speed and efficiency of neural processing will be
individual, including one or more second languages, not as an “added on” and somewhat
greatest when a particular I is most fully exercised; that is, if a language learner has a high
peripheral skill but as central to the whole life of the language learner and user. In this
musical intelligence, that person will learn most quickly (e.g., a new language) when that
sense, language is held to be integrated with music, bodily activity, interpersonal relation- content is embedded in a musical frame.
Palmberg (2011: 17) describes the influence of particular intelligences on language
ships, and so on. Language is not seen as limited to a “linguistics” perspective but encom-
learning - an account that seems to identify differences in intelligences as differences in
passes all aspects of communication.
learning styles (see Chapter 19):
Theory of learning
Depending on their personal MI profiles, people tend to develop their own favorite way
Language learning and use are obviously closely linked to what MI theorists label (or ways) of learning foreign languages. For vocabulary learning, for example, some
“Linguistic Intelligence.” However, MI proponents believe there is more to language than prefer traditional rote learning. Others divide the foreign words into parts or compo-
what is usually subsumed under the rubric linguistics. There are aspects of language such nents and concentrate on memorizing these instead. Some look for similarities between
as rhythm, tone, volume, and pitch that are more closely linked, say, to a theory of music the foreign-language words and grammatical structures and the corresponding words
than to a theory of linguistics. Other intelligences enrich the tapestry of communication and structures in their mother tongue or other languages they may know. Some people
we call “language.” In addition, language has its ties to life through the senses. The senses find mnemonic devices helpful, at least occasionally. Others have adopted accelerated
provide the accompaniment and context for the linguistic message that give it meaning and learning techniques and use them on a more or less permanent basis.
purpose. A multisensory view of language is necessary, it seems, to construct an adequate
234 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 235

Design 4, Resource-based projects. These are designed to provide students with opportunities to
Objectives research a topic using multiple intelligences.
5. Student-choice projects. These are designed by students and draw on particular
There are no goals stated for MI instruction in linguistic terms. MI pedagogy focuses on the intelligences.
language class as the setting for a series of educational support systems aimed at making the
language learner a better designer of his or her own learning experiences. Such a learner is In other, more fully teacher-fronted classrooms, the students move through a cycle
both better empowered and more fulfilled than a learner in traditional classrooms. A more of activities highlighting use of different intelligences in the activities that the teacher has
goal-directed learner and happier person is held to be a likely candidate for being a better chosen and orchestrated.
second language learner and user. Some suggest that the use of MI profiles enables teachers to select activities that match
learners’ profiles. For example (Berman 2002):
The syllabus © Linguistic intelligence: word-building games
Also, there is no syllabus as such, either prescribed or recommended, in respect to MI-based e Logical/mathematical intelligence: logical-sequential presentations
language teaching, although an MI perspective can combine with virtually any approach or e Visual/spatial intelligence: mind maps -
method. However, there is a basic developmental sequence that has been proposed (Lazear e Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: relaxation exercises
1991) as an alternative to what we have elsewhere considered as a type of “syllabus” design. e Musical intelligence: jazz chants
The sequence consists of four stages: e Interpersonal intelligence: brainstorming
e Intrapersonal intelligence: learner diaries
e Stage 1; Awaken the Intelligence. Through multisensory experiences - touching, smell-
© Naturalist intelligence: background music in the form of sounds created in the natural
ing, tasting, seeing, and so on — learners can be sensitized to the many-faceted properties
world
of objects and events in the world that surrounds them.
Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence. Students strengthen and improve the intelligence by Learning activities are often shown or suggested in tables in which a particular intelligence
volunteering objects and events of their own choosing and defining with others the is paired with possible activities useful for working with this intelligence in class. Such a
properties and contexts of experience of these objects and events. table is reproduced in Table 12.1.
Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence. At this stage the intelligence is linked to the
focus of the class, that is, to some aspect of language learning. This is done via work- Table 12,1 Taxonomy of language learning activities for Multiple Intelligences
sheets and small-group projects and discussion. (Christison 1997: 7-8)
Stage 4: Transfer of the Intelligence. Students reflect on the learning experiences of the
previous three stages and relate these to issues and challenges in the out-of-class world. Linguistic Intelligence
lectures student speeches
small- and large-group discussions storytelling
Types of learning and teaching activities
books debates
MI has been applied in many different types of classrooms, In some, there are eight self- worksheets journal keeping
access activity corners, each corner built around one of the eight or nine intelligences. word games memorizing
Students work alone or in pairs on intelligence foci of their own choosing. Nicholson- listening to cassettes or talking books using word processors
publishing (creating class newspapers or
Nelson (1988: 73) describes how MI can be used to individualize learning through project
collections of writing)
work. She lists five types of projects:
Logicai/Mathematical intelligence
1. Multiple intelligence projects, These are based on one or more of the intelligences and are scientific demonstrations creating codes
designed to stimulate particular intelligences. logic problems and puzzles story problems
2. Curriculum-based projects. These are based on curriculum content areas but are catego- science thinking calculations
rized according to the particular intelligences they make use of. logical-sequential presentation of subject matter
3. Thematic-based projects. These are based on a theme from the curriculum or classroom (Continued)
but are divided into different intelligences.
236 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 237

Spatial Intelligence
All sizes fit one. Every individual exercises all intelligences even though some of these
charts, maps, diagrams visualization may be out of awareness or undervalued. Pedagogy that appeals to all the intelligences
videos, slides, movies photography speaks to the “whole person” in ways that more unifaceted approaches do not. An MI
art and other pictures using mind maps approach helps to develop the Whole Person within each learner, which best serves the
imaginative storytelling painting or collage person's language learning requirements as well.
graphic organizers optical illusions e Me and my people. 1Q testing is held to be badly biased in favor of Western views of
telescopes, microscopes student drawings intelligence. Other cultures may value other intelligences more than the one measured
visual awareness activities
in IQ testing. Since language learning involves culture learning as well, it is useful for
Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence the language learner to study language in a context that recognizes and honors a range
creative movement hands on activities of diversely valued intelligences.
Mother-may-I? field trips
cooking and other “mess” activities mime Each of these views has strengths and weaknesses, some of a theoretical, some of a
role plays pedagogical, and some of a practical nature. It seems that potential MI teachers need
to consider each of these possible applications of MI theory in light of their individual
Musical intelligence
playing recorded music singing teaching situations.
playing live music (piano, guitar) group singing
music appreciation mood music
Learner roles
student-made instruments jazz chants Learners need to see themselves engaged in a process of personality development above
Interpersonal Intelligence and beyond that of being successful language learners. The MI classroom is one designed
, cooperative groups conflict mediation to support development of the “whole person,” and the environment and its activities are
peer teaching board games intended to enable students to become more well-rounded individuals and more success-
group brainstorming pair work ful learners in general. Learners are encouraged to see their goals in these broader terms.
Learners are typically expected to take an MI inventory and to develop their own MI pro-
intrapersonal Intelligence
independent student work reflective learning files based on the inventory. “The more awareness students have of their own intelligences
individualized projects journat keeping and how they work, the more they will know how to use that intelligence [sic] to access
options for homework interest centers the necessary information and knowledge from a lesson” (Christison 1997: 9). All of this
inventories and checklists self-esteem journals is to enable learners to benefit from instructional approaches by reflecting on their own
personal journal keeping goal setting learning.
self-teaching/programmed instruction
Teacher roles
The following list summarizes several alternative views as to how the MI model can
Campbell (1997: 19) notes that MI theory “is not prescriptive. Rather, it gives teachers a
be used to serve the needs of language learners within a classroom setting, and may serve
complex mental model from which to construct curriculum and improve themselves as
as an aid in choosing appropriate learning activities:
educators.” In this view, teachers are expected to understand, master, and be committed to
e Play to strength. If you want an athlete or a musician (or a student having some of these the MI model. Teachers are encouraged to administer an MI inventory on themselves and
talents) to be an involved and successful language learner, structure the learning mate- thereby be able to “connect your life's experiences to your concept of Multiple Intelligences”
rial for each individual (or similar group of individuals) around these strengths. (Christison 1997: 7). Teachers then become curriculum developers, lesson designers and
e Variety is the spice. Providing a teacher-directed rich mix of learning activities variously analysts, activity finders or inventors, and, most critically, orchestrators of a rich array of
calling upon the eight different intelligences makes for an interesting, lively, and effective multisensory activities within the realistic constraints of time, space, and resources of the
classroom for all students. classroom. Teachers are encouraged not to think of themselves merely as language teachers.
e Pick a tool to suit the job. Language has a variety of dimensions, levels, and functions. They have a role that is not only to improve the second language abilities of their students
These different facets of language are best served instructionally by linking their learning but also to become major “contributors to the overall development of students’ intelli-
to the most appropriate kind of MI activity. gences” (Christison 1999: 12).
238 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 239

The role of instructional materiais Christison (1997: 6) describes a low-level language lesson dealing with description of physical
objects. As explained below, the lesson plan recapitulates the sequence described earlier in the
Where M1 is richest is in proposals for lesson organization, multisensory activity planning,
“syllabus” section. This particular lesson is seen as giving students opportunities to “develop
and in using realia, There are also now a number of reports of actual teaching experi-
their linguistic intelligence (for example, describing objects), logical intelligence (for example,
ences from an MI perspective that are both teacher-friendly and candid in their reportage.
Activities and the materials that support them resemble the taxonomy from Christison
determining which object is being described), visual/spatial intelligence (for example, deter-
shown in Table 12.1 above. Because MI requires significant creativity on the part of the
mining how to describe things), interpersonal intelligence (for example, working in groups),
and intrapersonal intelligence (for example, reflecting on one’s own involvement in the lesson)?
teacher, it may not always be possible to find appropriate activities in published materials.
‘Thus, one of the challenges of MI is extensive planning and the time necessary to prepare e Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence. The teacher brings many different objects to class.
appropriate classroom activities. Students experience feeling things that are soft, rough, cold, smooth, and so on. They
might taste things that.are sweet, salty, sour, spicy, and so on. Experiences like this help
Procedure activate and make learners aware of the sensory bases of experience.
MI-based lessons may vary a great deal, but several examples are offered of how one might e Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence. Students are asked to bring objects to class or to use
be prepared. Palmberg (201: 29) describes the following procedures that can be used: something in their possession. Teams of students describe each object attending to the
five physical senses. They complete a worksheet including the information they have
Assume that you are going to teach a given topic to a group of foreign-language observed and discussed (Table 12.2).
learners. Select the topic to be taught (such as shopping, at the zoo, flowers, etc.) e Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence. At this stage, the teacher structures larger sec-
and make sure that you have a specific learner group in mind (for example begin- tions of lesson(s) so as to reinforce and emphasize sensory experiences and the language
hers, intermediate-level learners, or advanced learners). Write down the topic on a that accompanies these experiences, Students work in groups, perhaps completing a
large sheet of paper and draw a circle around it. If possible, set up detailed teach- worksheet such as that shown in Table 12.3,
ing goals. Make notes of all tasks, texts, exercises, visual aids, classroom activi- © Stage 4: Transfer of the Intelligence. This stage is concerned with application of the intel-
ties, and songs that relate to the given topic (and teaching goals) that you come to ligence to daily living. Students are asked to reflect on both the content of the lesson and
think of. It does not matter at this stage whether some of them appear unrealistic its operational procedures (working in groups, completing tables, etc.).
or impractical.

Arrange your ideas according to the intelligence type that, in your opinion, each Table 12,2 The sensory handout (Christison 1997: 10)
task, text, exercise, visual aid, classroom activity, song, etc. will be most suitable for.
If you are a visual-spatial person, you may want to draw nine new circles around the Name of team

central circle and draw lines from the central circle to each of the new circles. Label the
Team members
new circles according to each intelligence, and write down each task, text, exercise,
visual aid, classroom activity, and song into the appropriate circles; Sight
If you feel that you have no more fresh ideas, read through the very practical teach-
Sound
ing suggestions listed on the Literacyworks® website “Multiple Intelligences for Adult
Literacy and Education” for the various intelligences [http:/Avww.literacyworks.org/ Feel
mi/intro/about.htmi]. Make notes of the ones that appeal to you and might fit into
your lesson. After a while, take an overall look at your sheet of paper. Are there any
activities that can be combined? Are there activities that can be modified to fulfil the
teaching goals more efficiently? Are there activities that do not seem at all suitable for
the present purpose?
What it’s used for
To wrap things up, arrange, and, if needed, rearrange the (remaining) ideas and
activities into a lesson outline that is jogical and fulfils the teaching goals of the Name of the object
proposed lesson. Make sure that your lesson caters for all of the nine multiple
intelligences.
240 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 24:

Table 12,3 Multiple Intelligences description exercise (Christison 1997: 10-12) . Look at the four stages (on p. 234) of the basic developmental sequence of a syllabus
based on a Multiple Intelligences view of learning. How would this sequence work at a
What am | describing?
Directions: Work with your group. Listen as the teacher reads the description of the practical level? In other words, when teaching, for example, the past perfect tense, how
object. Discuss what you hear with your group, Together, decide which object in the would you introduce and teach this subject in this sequence? How difficult would these
class is being described. stages be to implement in class?
Name of the object A colleague experienced in using a Multiple Intelligences approach in teaching suggests
Object 1 using the school’s self-access center as a way to individualize the learning experience.
Object 2 Consider a specific skill (e.g., reading or listening) and a particular language level. In
Object 3 a _—_—_—$_—— ae order to use the self-access center effectively:
Object 4.
Object 5 © What kind of preparation would the students need to successfully learn in the center?
e What kinds of materials would need to be provided?
Next have each group describe an object in the classroom using the formula given in e What kinds of activities could be used?
Stage 2. Then, collect the papers and read them, one at a time. Ask each group to work
e What kinds of teacher support might be needed?
together to write down the name of the object in the classroom that you are describing.
In what other ways does self-access learning (potentially) support individualization of
learning?
Conclusion
. One claim made by proponents of Multipie Intelligences is that “Pedagogy that appeals
Multiple Intelligences was one of a number of learner-centered initiatives which attracted to all the intelligences speaks to the ‘whole person” (p. 237). Explain to a colleague how
considerable interest from educators as well as language teachers when it was first proposed this is helpful for learning.
in the early 1990s. It was seen as an approach to characterizing the ways in which learners
are unique and to developing instruction to respond to this uniqueness. MI is one of a set . Multiple Intelligences emphasizes that traditional views of intelligence (such as measure-

an
of such perspectives dealing with learner differences and borrows heavily from these in its ment of “IQ”) are biased towards Western views of education. Can you think of an exam-
recommendations and designs for lesson planning. It offers a new rationale both for the ple of ways in which a non-Western culture you are familiar with might give more weight
selection of existing language teaching activities and for the design of activities to reflect to one or more intelligences than Western culture? Do you think there are any problems
particular intelligences in the MI inventory. ‘The literature on MI provides a rich source with considering questions of this sort about non-Western cultures?
of classroom ideas regardless of one’s theoretical perspective and can help teachers think Look again at the taxonomy of activity types for Multiple Intelligences in Table 12.1 on

~_
about instruction in their classes in unique ways. Some teachers may see the assumptions of page 235. Which of these do you use in your teaching? Which of those you could you
identifying and responding to the variety of ways in which students differ to be unrealistic incorporate in your classes?
in their own settings and antithetical to the expectations of their students and adminis-
trators. There have been, however, entire schools as well as language programs that were . Refer again to Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Model on page 231. ‘This includes the

9
restructured around the MI perspective. In order to justify the claims of MI in education “intelligences” listed in the table below. Using classroom materials you are familiar with,
identify, or create, an activity that would allow students to practice each of these, in the
and in second language teaching, the success of these innovations will need to be more
fully evaluated. context of language learning.

Discussion questions Intelligence Activity Contribution to language learning

1. Gardner (p. 231) lists eight native intelligences that describe the ways in which learn- Linguistic
ers differ from each other. Rank them in order of importance. Which have the greatest
impact on the way students learn in class?
Logical/mathematical
2. Do the same for the impact Gardner's native intelligences have on the teaching in class.
Do you feel the MI model is an effective way to address these differences? Spatial

(Continued)
242 Current approaches and methods 12 Multiple Intelligences 243

Gardner, H. 1985. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Muitiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Intelligence Activity Contribution to language learning
Gardner, H. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory and Practice. New York: Basic Books.
Musical Gardner, H. 2006, Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 2008. The 25th Anniversary of the Publication of Howard Gardner’s Frames of Mind:
Bodily/kinesthetic The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. April 2008. Available at: http://pzweb.harvard.edu/pis/
Milat25.pdf; accessed March 2012.
Gotttredson, L. 1998. The general intelligence factor. Scientific American 9(4) (Winter): 24-9.
Interpersonal Kerr, P. 2009. Should “Multiple Intelligences Theory” play a role in teacher education programmes?
Newsletter of The Teacher Training and Education Special Interest Group, IATEFL 2.
Intrapersonal Lazear, D. 1991. Seven Ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Teaching with Multiple Intelligences. Palatine,
IL: IRI Skylight.
Marzano, R., R. Brandt, C. Hughes, B. Jones, B. Presseisen, and S. Rankin. 1988. Dimensions of
Naturalist
Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Existential McKenzie, W. 1999. Multiple Intelligences Survey. Available at: http://surfaquarium.com/MI/
inventory.htm
McKenzie, W. 2005. Multiple Intelligences and Instructional Technology. 2nd edn. Washington, DC:
International Society for Technolgy in Education.
After completing the table, (a) consider to what extent activities like these feature in Nicholson-Nelson, K. 1988. Developing Students’ Multiple Intelligences. New York: Scholastic.
materials you are familiar with, and (b) consider what contribution having each of these Palmberg, R. 2011. Multiple Intelligences Revisited [Ebook]. Available at: http://www.esldepot.com/
intelligences can make to language learning. PDEF/EnglishClub-Multiple-Intelligences-Revisited pdf
Reid, J. 1997. Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall/Regents.
References and further reading Teele, S. 2000. Rainbows of Intelligence: Exploring How Students Learn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Armstrong, T. 1994. Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Press.
Supervision and Curriculum Development. Weinreich-Haste, H. 1985. The varieties of intelligence: an interview with Howard Gardner. New
Armstrong, T. 1999. 7 Kinds of Smart: Identifying and Developing Your Multiple Intelligences, Ideas in Psychology 3(4): 47-65.
New York: Plume Books.
Atkinson, R. C. 1975. Mnemotechniques in second-language learning. American Psychologist 30:
821-8.
Berman, M. 2001. Intelligence Reframed for ELT. London: Golem Press.
Berman, M. 2002. A Multiple Intelligences Road to an ELT Classroom. 2nd edn. Carmarthen: Crown
House Publishing.
Berman, M. 2010. In a Faraway Land. Ropley, Hampshire: O-Books.
Campbell, L. 1997. How teachers interpret MI theory. Educational Leadership 55(1): 15-19.
Christison, M. 1997. An introduction to multiple intelligences theory and second language learning,
In J. Reid (ed.), Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall/Regents. 1-14.
Christison, M. 1998. Applying multiple intelligences theory in preservice and inservice TEFL educa-
tion programs. English Language Teaching Forum 36(2) (April-June): 2-13.
Christison, M. 1999. Multiple Intelligences: teaching the whole student. ESL Magazine 2(5): 10-13.
Christison, M. 2001. Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory in the Second and Foreign Language
Classroom. Burlingame, CA: Alta Book Center Publishers.
Christison, M. 2005. Multiple Intelligences and Language Learning: A Guidebook of Theory, Activities,
Inventories, and Resources. San Francisco: Alta Books.
 13 Cooperative Language Learning 245
13 Cooperative Language Learning
students might fall behind higher-achieving students in this kind of learning environment. CL
in this context sought to do the following:

e raise the achievement of all students, including those who are gifted or academi-
cally handicapped
e help the teacher build positive relationships among students
e give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and
cognitive development
® replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools
Introduction
with a team-based, high-performance organizational structure
Language teaching is sometimes discussed as if it existed independently of the teach- (Qohnson, Johnson, and Holubec 1994: 2)
ing of other subjects and of trends in teaching generally. However, like teachers in
other areas of a school curriculum, language teachers too have to to create a posi- In second language teaching, CL (where, as noted above, it is often referred to as Cooperative
tive environment for learning in the classroom. They have to find ways of engaging Language Learning ~ CLL) has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative inter-
students in their lessons, to use learning arrangements that encourage active student action in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative
participation in lessons, to acknowledge the diversity of motivations and interests Language Teaching (Chapter 5). It is viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching that
learners bring to the classroom, and to use strategies that enable the class to function is held to offer advantages over teacher-fronted classroom methods. In language teaching
as a cohesive group that collaborates to help make the lesson a positive learning expe- its goals are:
rience. In dealing with issues such as these, language teachers can learn much from
e to provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of
considering approaches that have been used in mainstream education. Cooperative
interactive pair and group activities;
Language Learning (CLL) is one such example. CLL is part of a more general instruc-
e to provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one that
tional approach, known as Collaborative or Cooperative Learning (CL), which origi-
can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content-based, foreign language
nated in mainstream education and emphasizes peer support and coaching. CL is an
classrooms; mainstreaming);
approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving
e to enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and com-
pairs and smail groups of learners in the classroom. It has been defined as follows:
municative functions through the use of interactive tasks;
Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent e to provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication
on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in strategies;
which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to e to enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective
increase the learning of others. classroom climate.
(Olsen and Kagan 1992; 8)
CLL is thus an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second
and foreign language teaching. CLL also seeks to develop learners’ critical thinking
Cooperative Learning has antecedents in proposals for peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring
skills, which are seen as central to learning of any sort. Some authors have even ele-
that go back hundreds of years and longer. The early-twentieth-century US educator John
vated critical thinking to the same level of focus as that of the basic language skills of
Dewey is usually credited with promoting the idea of building cooperation in learning into regu-
reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Kagan 1992). One approach to integrating
lar classrooms on a regular and systematic basis (Rodgers 1988). It was more generally promoted.
the teaching of critical thinking adopted by CLL advocates is called the Question
and developed in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the forced integration
Matrix (Wiederhold 1995). Wiederhold has developed a battery of cooperative
of public schools and has been substantially refined and developed since then. Educators were
activities built on the matrix that encourages learners to ask and respond to a deeper
concerned that traditional models of classroom learning were teacher-fronted, fostered com-
array of alternative question types. Activities of this kind are believed to foster the
petition rather than cooperation, and favored majority students. They believed that minority
development of critical thinking. (The matrix is based on the well-known Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives devised by Bloom [1956], which assumes a hierarchy of

244
246 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 247

learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming concep- depends on the ability to express and understand functions or speech acts, such as those
tual judgments.) Kagan and other CL theorists have adopted this framework as an used to express personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative mean-
underlying learning theory for Cooperative Learning. The word cooperative in ings. CLL activities can be used to develop fluency in expressing categories of functional
Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important dimension of CLL: it seeks meaning.
to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. © Language is a means of interpersonal and social interaction. In CLL learners are required
Advocates of CLL in general education stress the benefits of cooperation in promoting to interact through the use of both spoken and written language, and language is the
learning: means by which interaction is achieved and develops through the results of such inter-
action.
Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative e Language is a resource for carrying out tasks, The focus of many CLL activities is col-
situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all other group laborating to complete different kinds of tasks. Language thus serves to achieve practical
members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups through which goals that relate to the learners’ needs.
students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. It may be
contrasted with competitive learning in which students work against each other to
achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A.” Theory of learning
(Johnson et al. 1994: 4)
Learning theory that supports CLL draws on SLA-related theory as well as sociocultural
From the perspective of second language teaching, McGroarty (1989) offers six learn-
learning theory (Chapter 2).
ing advantages for ESL students in CLL classrooms: Learning results from conversational interaction
1. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of This strand of theory is central to some theories of second language acquisition, It is based
interaction on the assumption that as learners seek to achieve meaning, they engage in a joint process
2, Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive develop- of negotiation of meaning, during which various communication strategies are used to
ment and increased language skills maintain the flow of communication. These are such things as “repetitions, confirmations,
3. Opportunities to integrate language with Content-Based Instruction reformulations, comprehension checks, clarification requests etc” (Long 1996: 418), and
4, Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language it is these aspects of conversational interaction that serve as the basis for learning. CLL
as well as concept learning activities provide an optimal context for negotiation of meaning and hence should be
5. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing beneficial to second language development. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) suggest that CL
communication promotes interaction in the following ways:
6. Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more 1. The literature on Cooperative Learning recommends that students who are differ-
active role in their learning. ent from each other according to the variable of proficiency become groupmates.
This heterogeneity increases the likelihood that negotiation for meaning will be
Approach necessary. Furthermore, teachers often use the variable of second language pro-
Theory of language ficiency when creating heterogeneous groups. This means that more proficient
students will be available to facilitate comprehension of their less proficient peers.
Although CLL supports an interactional theory of language, it is not linked directly to any
2. In Cooperative Learning, teachers can encourage more negotiation for meaning by
specific theory and is compatible with several theories of language that inform approaches
allowing groups to try to sort out their own communication difficulties without teacher
to language teaching.
intervention, although teachers do stand ready to help, if, after trying, groups remain
e Language is a resource for expressing meaning. Language is not something that is deadlocked or confused.
acquired for its own sake but serves the goal of making meaning. Meaning is often reali- 3. Cooperative Learning activities provide a context in which students may be more likely
zed through a joint process of collaboration. to interact than in a whole class setting.
e Language is a means of expressing different communicative functions. CLL shares with 4. SLA researchers propose that group activities can encourage students to interact with
Communicative Language Teaching the notion that communicative competence each other in a way that promotes a focus on form ... Such a focus on form can be
 r 13 Cooperative Language Learning 245

13 Cooperative Language Learning

students might fall behind higher-achieving students in this kind of learning environment, CL
in this context sought to do the following:
e raise the achievement of alt students, including those who are gifted or academi-
cally handicapped
e help the teacher build positive relationships among students
e give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and
cognitive development
e replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools
Introduction
with a team-based, high-performance organizational structure
Language teaching is sometimes discussed as if it existed independently of the teach- (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec 1994: 2)
ing of other subjects and of trends in teaching generally. However, like teachers in
other areas of a school curriculum, language teachers too have to to create a posi- In second language teaching, CL (where, as noted above, it is often referred to as Cooperative
tive environment for learning in the classroom. They have to find ways of engaging Language Learning ~ CLL) has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative inter-
students in their lessons, to use learning arrangements that encourage active student action in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative
participation in lessons, to acknowledge the diversity of motivations and interests Language Teaching (Chapter 5). It is viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching that
learners bring to the classroom, and to use strategies that enable the class to function is held to offer advantages over teacher-fronted classroom methods. In language teaching
as a cohesive group that collaborates to help make the lesson a positive learning expe- its goals are:
rience. In dealing with issues such as these, language teachers can learn much from
e to provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of
considering approaches that have been used in mainstream education. Cooperative
interactive pair and group activities;
Language Learning (CLL) is one such example. CLL is part of a more general instruc-
to provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one that
tional approach, known as Collaborative or Cooperative Learning (CL), which origi-
can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content-based, foreign language
nated in mainstream education and emphasizes peer support and coaching. CL is an
classrooms; mainstreaming);
approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving
to enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and com-
pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. It has been defined as follows:
municative functions through the use of interactive tasks;
Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent e to provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication
on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in strategies;
which each learner is hetd accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to ® to enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective
increase the learning of others. classroom climate.
(Olsen and Kagan 1992: 8) CLL is thus an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second
and foreign language teaching. CLL also seeks to develop learners’ critical thinking
Cooperative Learning has antecedents in proposals for peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring
skills, which are seen as central to learning of any sort. Some authors have even ele-
that go back hundreds of years and longer. The early-twentieth-century US educator John
vated critical thinking to the same level of focus as that of the basic language skills of
Dewey is usually credited with promoting the idea of building cooperation in learning into regu-
reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Kagan 1992). One approach to integrating
lar classrooms on a regular and systematic basis (Rodgers 1988). It was more generally promoted.
the teaching of critical thinking adopted by CLL advocates is called the Question
and developed in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the forced integration
Matrix (Wiederhold 1995). Wiederhold has developed a battery of cooperative
of public schools and has been substantially refined and developed since then. Educators were
activities built on the matrix that encourages learners to ask and respond to a deeper
concerned that traditional models of classroom learning were teacher-fronted, fostered com-
array of alternative question types. Activities of this kind are believed to foster the
petition rather than cooperation, and favored majority students, They believed that minority
development of critical thinking. (The matrix is based on the well-known Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives devised by Bloom [1956], which assumes a hierarchy of

244
246 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 247

learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming concep- depends on the ability to express and understand functions or speech acts, such as those
tual judgments.) Kagan and other CL theorists have adopted this framework as an used to express personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative mean-
underlying learning theory for Cooperative Learning. The word cooperative in ings. CLL activities can be used to develop fluency in expressing categories of functional
Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important dimension of CLL: it seeks meaning,
to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. e Language is a means of interpersonal and social interaction. In CLL learners are required
Advocates of CLL in general education stress the benefits of cooperation in promoting to interact through the use of both spoken and written language, and language is the
learning: means by which interaction is achieved and develops through the results of such inter-
action.
Cooperation is working tegether to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative e Language is a resource for carrying out tasks. The focus of many CLL activities is col-
situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all other group laborating to complete different kinds of tasks. Language thus serves to achieve practical
members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups through which goals that relate to the learners’ needs.
students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It may be
contrasted with competitive learning in which students work against each other to
achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A.” Theory of learning
(Johnson et al. 1994: 4)
Learning theory that supports CLL draws on SLA-related theory as well as sociocultural
From the perspective of second language teaching, McGroarty (1989) offers six learn- learning theory (Chapter 2).
ing advantages for ESL students in CLL classrooms: Learning results from conversational interaction
1. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of This strand of theory is central to some theories of second language acquisition. It is based
interaction on the assumption that as learners seek to achieve meaning, they engage in a joint process
2. Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive develop- of negotiation of meaning, during which various communication strategies are used to
ment and increased language skills maintain the flow of communication. These are such things as “repetitions, confirmations,
3. Opportunities to integrate language with Content-Based Instruction reformulations, comprehension checks, clarification requests etc.’ (Long 1996: 418), and
4. Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language it is these aspects of conversational interaction that serve as the basis for learning. CLL
as well as concept learning activities provide an optimal context for negotiation of meaning and hence should be
5. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing beneficial to second language development. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) suggest that CL
communication promotes interaction in the following ways:
6. Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more 1. The literature on Cooperative Learning recommends that students who are differ-
active role in their learning. ent from each other according to the variable of proficiency become groupmates.
This heterogeneity increases the likelihood that negotiation for meaning will be
Approach necessary. Furthermore, teachers often use the variable of second language pro-
Theory of language ficiency when creating heterogeneous groups. This means that more proficient
students will be available to facilitate comprehension of their less proficient peers.
Although’CLL supports an interactional theory of language, it is not linked directly to any
2. In Cooperative Learning, teachers can encourage more negotiation for meaning by
specific theory and is compatible with several theories of language that inform approaches
allowing groups to try to sort out their own communication difficulties without teacher
to language teaching.
intervention, although teachers do stand ready to help, if, after trying, groups remain
e Language is a resource for expressing meaning. Language is not something that is deadlocked or confused.
acquired for its own sake but serves the goal of making meaning. Meaning is often reali- 3 Cooperative Learning activities provide a context in which students may be more likely
zed through a joint process of collaboration. to interact than in a whole class setting.
e Language is a means of expressing different communicative functions. CLL shares with 4. SLA researchers propose that group activities can encourage students to interact with
Communicative Language Teaching the notion that communicative competence each other in a way that promotes a focus on form ... Such a focus on form can be
248 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 249

encouraged when grammar constitutes at least one aspect of group tasks. Examples of The syllabus
making grammar an aspect of groups’ tasks include: CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus, since activities from a
e noticing tasks in which students analyze how a grammar point functions and wide variety of curriculum orientations can be taught via this approach. Thus, we find
formulate their own rule; CLL used in teaching content classes, ESP, the four skills, grammar, pronunciation, and
® peer assessment in which students check each other’s writing or speaking for vocabulary. What defines CLL is the systematic and carefully planned use of group-
particular grammatical features, for example, in an English L2 class, the presence of based procedures in teaching as an alternative to teacher-fronted teaching. A sense of
plural -s. what a whole course design looks like organized around CLL, and the ways in which
it promotes a focus on critical and creative thinking, can be found in Jacobs, Lee, and
The teaching of collaborative skills can play a crucial role in promoting peer inter-
Ball (1995).
action, because the skills provide students with strategies for effective interaction.
Examples include collaborative skills that second language learners can use to repair
communication breakdowns, such as asking for repetition, slower speed of speaking, Types of learning and teaching activities
louder volume, and explanation of words. Collaborative skills also prove useful when Johnson et al. (1994: 4-5) describe three types of CLL groups.
students understand the input they have received but wish to disagree or ask for further
information. 1. Formal CLL groups. These tast from one class period to several weeks. These are
established for a specific task and involve students working together to achieve shared
Language learning is a sociocultural process learning goals.
This theory of learning, derived initially from the work of the Soviet psychologist 2. Informal CLL groups. These are ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to a class
Vygotsky ([2935] 1978) but elaborated considerably since its original formulation, makes period and are used to focus student attention or to facilitate learning during direct
use particularly of the notions of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffold- teaching.
ing (Chapter 2). Scaffolding refers to the assistance a more advanced learner or language 3. Cooperative base groups. These are long-term, lasting for at least a year, and consist of
user gives to a less advanced learner in completing a task and makes use of collaborative heterogeneous learning groups with stable membership whose primary purpose is to
dialogue (Swain 2000: 102) — a form of discourse in which new knowledge or skill is the allow members to give each other the support, help, encouragement, and assistance they
outcome of interaction. CLL tasks provide extended opportunities for these processes need to succeed academically.
to take place. Abdullah and Jacobs (2004) cite sociocultural learning theory as support
for CLL. The success of CLL is crucially dependent on the nature and organization of group
CLL overlaps with sociocultural learning theory by attempting to build an environ- work, This requires a structured program of learning carefully designed so that learn-
ment that fosters mutual aid. As Newman and Holtzman (1993: 77) note: “Vygotsky's ers interact with each other and are motivated to increase each other's learning. Olsen
strategy was essentially a cooperative learning strategy. He created heterogeneous groups and Kagan (1992) propose the following key elements of successful group-based learn-
of children (he called them a collective), providing them not only with the opportunity ing in CL:
but the need for cooperation and joint activity by giving them tasks that were beyond the e Positive interdependence
development level of some, if not all, of them.” e Group formation
e Individual accountability
Design e Social skills
Objectives e Structuring and structures
Since CLL is an approach designed to foster cooperation rather than competition, to Positive interdependence occurs when group members feel that what helps one
develop critical thinking skills, and to develop communicative competence through member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all, It is created by the structure of
socially structured interaction activities, these can be regarded as the overall objec- CLL tasks and by building a spirit of mutual support within the group. For example, a
tives of CLL. More specific objectives will derive from the context in which CLL group may produce a single product, such as an essay, or the scores for members of a
is used. group may be averaged.
250 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 251

Group formation is an important factor in creating positive interdependence. Factors 2. Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input - evaluation and synthesis of facts and
involved in setting up groups include the following: opinions
e Deciding on the size of the group. This will depend on the tasks they have to carry out, the e Each group member receives a different piece of the information.
age of the learners, and time limits for the lesson. Typical group size is from two to four, e Students regroup in topic groups (expert groups) composed of people with the same
e Assigning students to groups. Groups can be teacher-selected, random, or student- piece to master the material and prepare to teach it.
selected, although teacher-selected is recommended as the usual mode so as to create e Students return to home groups (Jigsaw groups) to share their information with each
groups that are heterogeneous on such variables as past achievement, ethnicity, or sex. other.
e Student roles in groups. Each group member has a specific role to play in a group, such e Students synthesize the information through discussion.
as noise monitor, turn-taker monitor, recorder, or summarizer. e Each student produces an assignment of part of a group project, or takes a test, to
demonstrate synthesis of all the information presented by all group members.
Individual accountability involves both group and individual performance, for exam-
e This method of organization may require team-building activities for both home
ple, by assigning each student a grade on his or her portion of a team project or by calling
groups and topic groups, long-term group involvement, and rehearsal of presentation
on a student at random to share with the whole class, with group members, or with another
methods.
group.
e This method is very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for both homogeneous
Social skills determine the way students interact with each other as teammates,
and heterogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency.
Usually some explicit instruction in social skills is needed to ensure successful interaction.
e Information gap activities in language teaching are jigsaw activities in the form of
Structuring and Structures refer to ways of organizing student interaction and differ-
pair work. Partners have data (in the form of text, tables, charts, etc.) with missing
ent ways in which students are to interact, such as Three-step interview or Round Robin
information to be supplied during interaction with another partner.
(discussed later in this section).
Numerous descriptions exist of activity types that can be used when transferring the
3. Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by students ~ discovery learning
above elements of cooperative learning to a language environment. Coelho (1992b: 132)
describes three major kinds of CL tasks and their learning focus, each of which has many Topics may be different for each group.
variations. Students identify subtopics for each group member.
Steering committee may coordinate the work of the class as a whole.
1, Team practice from common input - skills development and mastery of facts
Students research the information using resources such as library reference,
e All students work on the same material. interviews, visual media.
e Practice could follow a traditional teacher-directed presentation of new material and e Students synthesize their information for a group presentation: oral and/or written.
for that reason is a good starting point for teachers and/or students new to group Each group member plays a part in the presentation.
work. e Each group presents to the whole class.
e The task is to make sure that everyone in the group knows the answer to a question e This method places greater emphasis on individualization and students’ interests.
and can explain how the answer was obtained or understands the material. Because Each student’s assignment is unique.
students want their team to do well, they coach and tutor each other to make sure ® Students need plenty of previous experience with more structured group work for
that any member of the group could answer for all of them and explain their team’s this to be effective.
answer.
Olsen and Kagan (1992: 88) describe the following examples of CLL activities:
e When the teacher takes up the question or assignment, anyone in a group may be
called on to answer for the team. e Three-step interview, (1) Students are in pairs; one is interviewer and the other is inter-
e This technique is good for review and for practice tests; the group takes the practice viewee. (2) Students reverse roles. (3) Each shares with his or her partner what was
test together, but each student will eventually do an assignment or take a test learned during the two interviews.
individually. e Roundtable. There is one piece of paper and one pen for each team. (1) One student makes
e This technique is effective in situations where the composition of the groups is a contribution and (2) passes the paper and pen to the student on his or her left. (3) Each
unstable (e.g., in adult programs). Students can form new groups every day. student makes contributions in turn. If done orally, the structure is called Round Robin.
252 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 253

e Think-Pair-Share. (1) Teacher poses a question (usually a low-consensus question). control (Harel 1992). The teacher may also have the task of restructuring lessons so that
(2) Students think of a response. (3) Students discuss their responses with a partner. students can work on them cooperatively. This involves the following steps, according to
(4) Students share his or her partner's response with the class. Johnson et al. (1994: 9):
¢ Solve-Pair-Share. (1) Teacher poses a problem (a low-consensus or high-consensus item
1. Take your existing lessons, curriculum, and sources and structure them cooperatively.
that may be resolved with different strategies). (2) Students work out solutions individu-
2, Tailor cooperative learning lessons to your unique instructional needs, circum-
ally. (3) Students explain how they solved the problem in Interview or Round Robin
stances, curricula, subject areas, and students.
structures.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and intervene
e Numbered heads. (1) Students number off in teams. (2) Teacher asks a question (usu-
to increase learning groups’ effectiveness.
ally high-consensus). (3) Heads Together - students literally put their heads together
and make sure everyone knows and can explain the answer. (4) Teacher calls a number
and students with that number raise their hands to be called on, as in a traditional The role of instructional materiais
classroom. Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work coopera-
tively. The same materials can be used as are used in other types of lessons, but variations
Learner roles are required in how the materials are used. For example, if students are working in groups,
‘The primary role of the learner is as a member of a group who must work collaboratively each might have one set of materials (or groups might have different sets of materials),
on tasks with other group members. Learners have to learn teamwork skills. Learners are or each group member might need a copy of a text to read and refer to. Materials may be
also directors of their own learning. They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their specially designed for CLL learning (such as commercially sold jigsaw and information
own learning, which is viewed as a compilation of lifelong learning skills. Thus, learning gap activities), modified from existing materials, or borrowed from other disciplines.
is something that requires students’ direct and active involvement and participation. Pair
grouping is the most typical CLL format, ensuring the maximum amount of time both Comparison of Cooperative Language Learning and traditional
learners spend engaged on learning tasks. Pair tasks in which learners alternate roles approaches
involve partners in the role of tutors, checkers, recorders, and information sharers.
Zhang compares CLL and traditional approaches in Table 13.1. In practice, many classrooms
Teacher roles
may fall somewhere between CLL and traditional approaches, where teaching is not neces-
sarily teacher-fronted and elements of CLL are incorporated, but where the approach does
‘The role of the teacher in CLL differs considerably from the role of teachers in traditional not form the basis for the organization of the course.
teacher-fronted lessons. The teacher has to create a highly structured and well-organized
learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, estab- Table 13.1 Comparison of Cooperative Language Learning and traditional language
lishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, teaching (from Yan Zhang 2010)
and selecting materials and time (Johnson et al. 1994). An important role for the teacher is
that of facilitator of learning. In his or her role as facilitator, the teacher must move around oe Traditional fanguage Cooperative Language
the class helping students and groups as needs arise: teaching. Learning S
Independence None or negative Positive
During this time the teacher interacts, teaches, refocuses, questions, clarifies, supports, Learner roles Passive receiver and performer | Active participator, autonomous
expands, celebrates, empathizes. Depending on what problems evolve, the following learners
supportive behaviors are utilized. Facilitators are giving feedback, redirecting the group Teacher roles The center of the classroom, Organizer and counselor of
with questions, encouraging the group to solve its own problems, extending activity, controlier of teaching pace group work, facilitator of the
encouraging thinking, managing conflict, observing students, and supplying resources. and direction, judge of communication tasks, intervener
(Harel 1992: 169) students’ right or wrong, the to teach collaborative skills
major source of assistance,
Teachers speak less than in teacher-fronted classes. They provide broad questions feedback, reinforcement and
to challenge thinking, they prepare students for the tasks they will carry out, they assist support
students with the learning tasks, and they give few commands, imposing less disciplinary (Continued)
254 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Leaming 255

Traditional tanguage ; Cooperative Lang lage * :

4. The students individually research the material they need for their compositions, each
: teaching #38 Learning ee eee ee keeping an eye out for material useful to their partner.
5. The students work together to write the first paragraph of each composition to ensure
Materials Complete set of rristerials for Materials are arranged
that they both have a clear start on their compositions.
each student according to purpose of fesson.
Usually one group shares a 6. The students write their compositions individually.
complete set of materials. 7. When the students have completed their compositions, they proofread each other's
Types of Knowledge recall and review, Any instructional activity, compositions, making corrections in capitalization, punctuation, spelling, language
activities phrasal or sentence pattern mainly group work to engage usage, and other aspects of writing the teacher specifies. Students also give each other
practice, role play, translation, learners in communication, suggestions for revision.
listening, etc. involving processes like 8. The students revise their compositions.
information sharing, negotiation 9. The students then reread each other’s compositions and sign their names to indicate that
of meaning, and interaction each composition is error-free.
Interaction Some talking among students, Intense interaction among
mainly teacher-student students, a few teacher-student Daring this process, the teacher monitors the pairs, intervening when appropriate to help
interaction interactions students master the needed writing and cooperative skills.
Room Separate desks or students Collaborative small groups
arrangement placed in pairs Conclusion
Student Take a major part in evaluating | All members in some way
expectations own progress and the quality of | contribute to success of group.
This chapter has reviewed the principles underlying Cooperative Language Learning and
own efforts toward learning. Be | The one who makes progress is some ways in which the approach can be implemented. The use of discussion groups,
a winner or loser. the winner. group work, and pair work has often been advocated in teaching both languages and other
Teacher-student | Superior, inferior or equal Cooperating and equal subjects. Typically, such groups are used to provide a change from the normal pace of class-
relationship room events and to increase the amount of student participation in lessons. Such activities,
however, are not necessarily cooperative. In CLL, group activities are the major mode of
learning and are part of a comprehensive theory and system for the use of group work in
Procedure
teaching. Group activities are carefully planned to maximize students’ interaction and to
The procedure for a CLL lesson follows from going through the steps involved in determin- facilitate students’ contributions to each other's learning. CLL activities can also be used in
ing the lesson objective and choosing appropriate cooperative activity types for teaching collaboration with other teaching methods and approaches, for example, Communicative
and learning. Johnson et al. (1994: 67-8) give the following example of how a collaborative Language Teaching, as mentioned earlier.
learning lesson would be carried out when students are required to write an essay, report,
Unlike most language teaching proposals, CLL has been extensively researched and
poem, or story, or review something that they have read. A cooperative writing and edit- evaluated, and research findings are generally supportive (see Slavin 1995; Baloche 1998;
ing pair arrangement is used. Pairs verify that each member's composition matches the
Crandall 2000; Jia 2003; McGafferty and Jacobs 2006), although little of this research was
criteria that have been established by the teacher; they then receive an individual score on conducted in L2 classrooms. CLL is not without its critics, however. Some have questioned
the quality of their compositions. They can also be given a group score based on the total
its use with learners of different proficiency levels, suggesting that some groups of students
number of errors made by the pair in their individual compositions. The procedure works (eg., intermediate and advanced learners) may obtain more benefits from it than others.
in the following way: In addition, it places considerable demands on teachers, who may have difficulty adapting
1, The teacher assigns students to pairs with at least one good reader in each pair. to the new roles required of them. Proponents of CLL stress that it enhances both learning
2. Student A describes what he or she is planning to write to Student B, who listens care- and learners’ interaction skills.
fully, probes with a set of questions, and outlines Student A’s ideas. Student B gives the
written outline to Student A. Discussion questions
3. This procedure is reversed, with Student B describing what he or she is going to write 1, CLL emphasizes pair and group work and extensive collaboration and learning through
and Student A listening and completing an outline of Student B's ideas, which is then interaction. Do you think that the benefits of this are age-related? For example, might
given to Student B. such an approach work better with younger learners? Why (not)?

i
256 Current approaches and methods 13 Cooperative Language Learning 257

2. By promoting interaction, CLL activities may encourage the following (p. 247): References and further reading
¢ Negotiation of meaning Abdullah, M., and G. Jacobs 2004. Promoting cooperative learning at primary school.
e Focus on form TESOL-EJ 7(4).
e (Repairing) communication breakdowns Baloche, L. 1998. The Cooperative Classroom, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bloom, S. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: David McKay.
For each of these, think of one classroom activity (from this chapter or elsewhere) that Brody, C., and N. Davidson (eds.). 1998. Professional Development for Cooperative Learning.
would be likely to lead to these. New York: State University of New York Press.
3. In the chapter you have read about positive interdependence, which occurs when group Christison, M., and S. Bassano, 1981. Look Who’ Talking. San Francisco: Alemany Press.
members feel that what helps one member helps all and what hurts one member hurts Coelho, E, 1992a. Cooperative learning: foundation for a communicative curriculum. In Kessler
all. One way of encouraging it is by building 4 spirit of mutual support within the group; (ed.), 31-51.
for example, by asking a group to produce a single product such as an essay on which the Coelho, E. 1992b. Jigsaw: integrating language and content. In Kessler (ed.), 129-52.
Coelho, E. 1994. Learning Together in the Multicultural Classroom. Scarborough, Ont.: Pippin.
scores for all members are averaged. Can you think of other ways to encourage positive
Crandall, J. 1999. Cooperative language learning and affective factors. In J, Arnold (ed.), Affect in
interdependence? Compare your answer with a colleague's.
Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 226-45.
4. Jigsaw tasks with differentiated input are “very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for Dishon, D., and P. W, O'Leary. 1998. A Guidebook for Cooperative Learning. Holmes Beach, FL:
... heterogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency” (p. 251) as it will encourage Learning Publications.
interaction between learners. Give an example of a language outcome of such a task. Fathman, A., and C. Kessler. 1992. Cooperative language learning in school contexts, Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics 13: 127-40. .
5. Read the description of the essay writing task on page 254. If you teach essay writing, is Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P, Cole and J. Morgan (eds.), Syntax and Semantics,
this different from the way you conduct your classes? If so, how? Vol. III: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press, 41-58.
6. Some research has suggested that CLL, with its focus on heterogeneous groups, may Harel, Y. 1992. Teacher talk in the cooperative learning classroom. In Kessler (ed.), 153-62.
Jacobs, G. M., G. Lee, and J. Ball. 1995. Learning Cooperative Learning via Cooperative Learning.
work better with intermediate and advanced learners. Why would this be so?
Singapore: Regional Language Centre.
7. Together with a colleague, select a classroom task you are both familiar with and rede- Jacobs, G. M., and C. M. C. Goh. 2007. Cooperative Learning in the Language Classroom. Singapore:
sign it using the principles of CLL. Try to include: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Jacobs, G. M., and D, Hannah. 2004. Combining cooperative learning with reading aloud by teachers.
ample opportunities for interaction;
International Journal of English Studies 4: 97-118.
a focus on collaboration (not competition);
Jia, G. 2003. Psychology of Foreign Language Education. 2nd edn. Nanning: Guangxi Education Press.
activities that are student rather than teacher-managed; Johnson, D., R. Johnson, and E. Holubec. 1994. Cooperative Learning in the Classroom, Alexandria,
(where appropriate) a focus on critical thinking skills. VA; Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Now try out the task with a group of students. One of you teaches it in its original form, Johnson, D. W, and R. T. Johnson, 1991. Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and
the other in its revised form. Observe each other. Which task worked better? What were Individualistic, 3rd edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hail.
Kagan, S. 1992. Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.
some of the (dis)advantages of each?
Kessler, C. (ed.). 1992. Cooperative Language Learning: A Teacher's Resource Book. New York: Prentice
8. One of the benefits given for CLL is that it provides “opportunities for students to act as Hall.
resources for each other, thus assuming a more active role in their learning” (p. 246). A Long, M. H. 1996. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition, In
colleague comes to you and says he is concerned that this will not work with his class W. C. Ritchie and T. K. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. New York:
which has very mixed abilities. How will you respond to this teacher? Now reread point 1 Academic Press. 413-68.
on page 248, which suggests that students who are different from each other according to McGafferty, S. G., and G. M. Jacobs. 2006. Cooperative Learning and Second Language Teaching.
the variable of proficiency become groupmates. Do you agree with this? Can you think New York: Cambridge University Press,
of disadvantages to creating such heterogeneous groups? McGroarty, M. 1989. The benefits of cooperative learning arrangements in second language instruc-
tion. NABE Journal 13(2) (Winter); 127-43.
9. On page 252 you have read a description of the roles of the teacher in CLL. Your school Newman, E, and L. Holzman. 1993. Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary Scientist. London: Routledge.
is looking for a new teacher who is familiar with this approach. Write a short job Olsen, J. W. B. 1978. Communication Starters and Other Activities for the ESL Classroom.
announcement (maximum 200 words) describing the teaching style and experience the San Francisco: Alemany Press.
successful candidate should have.
258 Current approaches and methods
Part Ill Alternative twentieth-century
Olsen, R., and S, Kagan. 1992. About cooperative learning. In Kessler (ed.), 1-30.
Palmer, A., and T. Rodgers. 1986. Back and Forth: Pair Activities for Language Development.
approaches and methods
San Francisco: Alemany Press.
Piaget, J. 1965. The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: World Publishing Co.
Richards, J. and R. Schmidt, 1983. Language and Communication. London: Longman,
Rodgers, T. 1988. Cooperative language learning: What's new? PASAA: A Journal of Language
Teaching and Learning 18(2): 12-23.
The period from the 1970s to the 1980s witnessed a major paradigm shift in language
Sharan, S. (ed.). 1994. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
teaching. The quest for alternatives to grammar-based approaches and methods led in
Skehan, P. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
Slavin, R. 1995. Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice. 2nd edn. New York: Prentice several different directions. Mainstream language teaching embraced the growing interest
Hall, in communicative approaches to language teaching, as we saw in Part II. The communica-
Swain, M. 2000.The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition through collaborative tive movement sought to move the focus away from grammar as the core component of
dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (ed.), Sociocultural ‘theory and Second Language Learning: Oxford: language, to a different view of language, of language learning, of teachers, and of learners,
Oxford University Press. 97-114. one that focused on language as communication. Other directions in language teaching,
Vygotsky, L. 1962. Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, also quests for alternatives, appeared during this period and are the focus of this part of
Vygotsky, L. S. [1935] 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. the book.
Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press. Whereas Audiolingualism and Situational Language ‘Teaching were mainstream
Weeks, T. 1979. Born to Talk, Rowley, MA: Newbury House. teaching methods developed by linguists and applied linguists, the approaches and meth-
Wiederhold, C. 1995. The Question Matrix. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.
ods described in this section were either developed outside of mainstream language teach-
Zhang, Y. 2010. Cooperative language learning and foreign language learning and teaching,
ing or represent an application in language teaching of educational principles developed
Journal of Language Teaching and Research 1(1): 81-3.
elsewhere. They are represented by such innovative methods of the 1970s as the Natural
Approach (Chapter 14), Total Physical Response (Chapter 15), the Silent Way (Chapter
16), Community Language Learning (Chapter 17), and Suggestopedia (Chapter 18), Rather
than starting from a theory of language and drawing on research and theory in applied lin-
guistics, the majority of these methods are developed around particular theories of learn-
ers and learning, sometimes the theories of a single theorizer or educator. Many of these
methods are consequently relatively underdeveloped in the domain of language theory,
and the learning principles they reflect are generally different from theories found in sec-
ond language acquisition (SLA) textbooks. The one exception in this group is the Natural
Approach, as explained below.
Alternative approaches and methods of the 1970s and 1980s have had a somewhat
varied history. Although Total Physical Response, the Silent Way, Community Language
Learning, and Suggestopedia did not succeed in attracting the support of mainstream
language teaching, each can be seen as expressing important dimensions of the teaching/
learning process. ‘hey can be seen as offering particular insights that have attracted the
attention and/or allegiance of some teachers and educators, but they have each seen their
popularity rise and fall since the 1970s. Today, in most places, they are of little more than
historical interest. The Natural Approach, on the other hand, was based on Krashen’s inter-
pretation of SLA research and his distinction between acquisition, learning, and the role of
the monitor attracted widespread interest for many years.

259