By the end of this chapter you will understand the importance of cells as the basic structural and functional units of life on Earth. You will lear about thi of cifferent types of cells and how the structures and systems of cells function to sustain life, Key knowledge as the basic structural feature of life on Earth, including the distinction ryotic and eukaryotic cells volume ratio as an important factor in explaining the limitat internal compartments the ultrastructure of plant and anime cells in terms of their organelles and ‘identification of these organelles using the light microscope and electron ‘micrographs the characteristics of the plasma membrane as a semi-permeable boundary en the in ronments of 2 cell of tances across the plasma membrane n, Taciitate airtuson, osmosis and active ansport. Study 0 repreduce by2.1 Cell theory, types and microscopy Cells are the basic structural units of all living things. The cell theory is one of the fundamental principles of biology. It is based on microscopic and experimental studies of tissues, from all types of organisms, carried out over the last 300 years. Inthis section youwill learn about cell theory, the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and the microscopy techniques that are used to view cells and their components. CELL THEORY Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms. The cell theory states that: + allorganisms are composed of calls + all cells come from pre-existing cells ‘+ the calli the smallest living organisational unit. Biogenesis “The cell theory states that all cels arise from pre-existing cells, This is known as biogenesis. ‘Until the 1830s, the idea of spontaneous generation was accepted as the origin, ‘of small organisms such as maggots. In other words, maggots could suddenly be formed from anything, even a grain of sand. Experiments by Francesco Redi on maggots in the 17th century and Lazzaro Spallanzani on microorganisms in the 18th century suggested that ‘spontaneous ‘generation’ was caused by contamination. BIOLOGY IN ACTION History of cell theory Hooke: the discovery of cells ‘The first description of cells wes mace by Robert Hooke in his book Micrograph, published in 1665. Hooke made a thin sice of cork ftom the bark of a tree and examined it under a microscope he had made himself Figure 2.1.1). He saw that the bark was made up of hundreds of litle “empty boxes’ that gave it a honeycomb appearance. He called the boxes ‘cells’ Hooke was actually locking at empty dead cells. When he later looked at fresh plant tissue, he noted the cells appeared to contain water. A few years later, Marcello Malpighi produced more detailed descriotions of plant cels. Leeuwenhoek: first observations of living cells FiGuRE 2.1.1 Robert Hooke’s drawing of his ight In 1676 Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed many living ricosoape in Micographa,publshed in 1665. cells under the microscope, including bacteria, blood cells and sperm. He was the first to describe the reproduction of unicellular organisms, which he called ‘animalcules’. 70 AREA OF STUDY 1. | HOWDO ORGANISMS FUNCTION?In 1859 Louis Pasteur finally disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, He did so by boiling beef broth in two flasks. to prevent contaminants in the air from reaching the broth point no microorganisms grew in either of the flasks. When the goose neck was broken on one flask and the broth was exposed to the air, microorganisms began to grow in the broth. But the unbroken flask remained free of microorganisms. Pasteur had finally disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, Ne & Broth is balled Astime passes the Pasteurremoves Consequenty, ‘naswareneck broth remains free the swan-neck—_ricroorganisms ask, ‘of contamination by fromthe flack. contaminate the ‘microorganisms. broth. riguRe 2.12 Pasteu's emeriment disproved the theory of spontaneous generation. Pasteur also showed that boiling and cooling wine or milk killed any microorganisms in them. This process was named after him and is called pasteurisation, Animportant implication of Pesteur's experiments that it provided the scientific basio for the germ theory of infection. This theory etaten that germs are widely present in the environment and are the cause of many diseases. Understanding germ theory eventually led to the developmentof antiseptic proceduresin medicine. Lamarck and Dutrochet: all living things are composed of cells By the early 19h century tha ricroecope had become eri tol of Magia andl Weg anal and lark aie parece Seam rear Cleary oat eretieted tel ere arlene eee cas pee et eee rere aera FRané Dutrochot supported this idea, stating ‘plants ere composed ently of cells or of orgens thal ere obviously derived from clls.the same is true for animals’ ‘Schleiden and Schwann: cells are organised into tissues By the middle ofthe 19th century the fundamental ee se Ren eee era areata FIGURE 2.13 A cel ding to form a new ce organised groups of cells wes broedly accepted, This was largely because of the work of Matthias Schieiden on plant tissues, and Theodor Schwann on anima tissues. Remak and Virchow: the theory of biogenesis Until the 1840s most biologists still believed that cells formed spontaneously from body fluids or fom the nucleus, which they thought was the embryo of a new cell, Then Robert Remak discovered that new cells were formed bya single call dividing in two, with the nucleus dividing at the same time (Figure 2.1.3). In the 1850s Rudolph Virchow used Remak’s discovery to popularise the theory of biogenesis: that all celis come from pre-existing cells. Because of Virchow’s great popularity this theory was quickly accepted in Europe, and then the rest of the world. CHAPTER2 | CALS 71@ Proteins are large molecules compesed of one or more polypeptides. Polypentides are lorg, chain-like molecules consisting of many amino acids linked together. FIGURE 2.2.5 A typical prokaryotic cl ( ‘and eutacyaticcell(b). Note the citferent ‘membrane-bound organelles the eukaryotic celland the lack of such organelles in the prokaryotic cel COMMON CELL FEATURES Calls are the basic structural unit of all living things. Although there are different types of cells, the cells of plants animals and bacteria share a number of common features (Figure 2.1.4). These common features include: + a plasma membrane (also called a cell membrane)—separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment + cytoplasm—| > Co = ‘small ion potassium ion (K*) cates ne ease ae 7] RERNW es EeER wee eRe large, polar, waters | amino acid, A diffusion eer (SE jada - omels 2. Descibn dftxon ad expin the once bomen OHTER ‘simple and facilitated diffusion, Include an example of each 3. What are the two types of proteins used in facilitated diffusion, and how are they different? 4 What term is used for the net movement of water from a cilute to a concentrated solution down its own ‘concentration gredient? 5 Define the term ‘active transport’. Outline how this process is different from diffusion, AREA OF STUDY 1. | HOWDO ORGANISMSFUNCTION? 8 a Use all the following terms and phrases to write a definition of diffusion: area of ow concentration, passive, area of high ‘concentration, concentration gradient, particles, process b Explain why diffusion is called a passive process List the factors that affect the rate of diffusion of different types of substances across membranes. 9 Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. Write @ efinition for osmosis. Use a diagram to ilustrate ‘you anewarChapter review KEY TERMS active transport endocytosis tipi amino acid enzyme ‘microvllus biogenesis epithelium mRNA carbohydrate eukaryote murein plesmid substrate cartier protein exocytosis nucleolus polypeptide symbiosis cell extremophile organelle prokaryote taxonomy cell compartmentalisation facilitated citfusion organic compound protein tonoplast channel protein sgenophore osmosis recombinant DNA transmembrane chdlesterol alycolipia osmotic gradient ribosome protein chromosome glycoprotein Osmotic pressure rough endoplasmic turgor concentration gradient hydrophobic Peripheral protein reticulum vesicle cytoplasm Inorganic compound phagocytosis FRNA villus cytosol integral protein phospholipid semi-permeable xylem siftusion internal environment pinocytosis solute DNA, intracellular fluid plesmma membrane solvent KEY QUESTIONS 1 Select the statement that accurately describes What does cytology study? eukaryotic cells. A cytosol A Fukanticealls have circular chromesames and B tonoplacte membrane-bound organelles, and some also have C calle cell walls, Beinn B Eukaryotic cells have linear chromosomes but not ‘membrane-bound organelles, and some have cell walls © Eukaryotic calls have linear chromosomes and. ‘membrane-bound organelles, and some also have cel walls, D Eukaryotic calls have linear chromosomes and. membrane-bound organslles, but not call wall, 2. The micrometre is the unit used when stating cell sizes. ‘There are 1000 micrometres in a millimetre. Convert 1.6 mm (millimetres) into um (micrometres). 3. Select the answer that is closest to the diameter of the. ‘animal cell shown in the following photograph. A 10pm B 100 um Cc lum D 1000 um Define cell compartmentalisation, and list three ways that it benefits a cel cell from an organism has a distinct nucleus, green ‘organelles, and a plesma membrane within a cell wall. ‘In what kingdom is this organism classified? State the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis. Explain what happens to substances as they are transported in each process. a Explain what causes blood cells to burst when a drowning person inhales fresh water. b Explain why a plant does not burst when placed in fresh water CHAPTER2 | CLS 1079 a Complete the table of surface area to volume (SA: ¥) ratios. Show your working b What happens to the SA: V ratio as abjects increase in size, a occurs in examples (), (i) anc (i) in the table? ¢ In the table, objects (i) and (iv) have the same volume; so do objects (i) and (v). How does a change in shape affect the SA : V ratio of these objects? d_ Explain the significance of the SA: V ratio for ‘organisms and/or exchange organs. os erie |e — a ‘ me za = 7 aS = LOB AREA OF STUDY 1 | HOWDO ORGANISMSFUNCTON? 10 Root hair cells on the roots of plants use energy to ‘take up some nutrients from the sol, but not others. Describe the circumstances in which energy Is ‘expended during nutrient uptake. 11. Give an example of an organism's body shape and surface area to volume ratio that is suited to: ‘a. geining heat from its environment 'b preventing heat loss. ‘© maximising heat loss 12 Two different solutions with the same volume are placed on either side of a serni-permeable membrane ina U-shaped glass tube, as shown in the following diagram. The membrane is permeable to salt but not glucose. ‘The tube is then left to etand for several days. Explain what you would expect to happen te: ‘athe salt concentration on each side of the membrane 'b the glucose concentration on each side of the ‘membrane © the fluid levels on each side of the membrane. low high salt salt high Tow. ‘glucose glucose partially permeable membrane