potassium and chlorine

chlorine

copper

aluminium

potassium, chlorine
When the mixture of alkanes in crude oil is heated, they vapourise. The hot vapour
cools and condenses as it rises up the fractionating column.

Smaller molecule such as propane with lower boiling point rises higher up and is
condensed and collected at the top of the column.

Larger molecules such as octane with higher boiling point will be collected
slightly lower at the fractionating column.

Both propane and butane are gases with boiling points that are close together
hence they can be collected in the same fraction.
 C3 H 8 C3 H 8

C4 H 9

Mr

114

58

Octane is a larger molecule of hydrocarbon compared to butane.

Burning a larger molecule of octane releases more energy per mole, hence
its enthalpy change of combustion is more negative as compared to butane.

3 3
No. of mole of octane = 50X10 / 114 = 0.4386 X10 mol.

3
Energy given out by octane = 0.4386 X10 X 5470 kJ
= 2399 X 103kJ

2880 kJ of heat is given out by 58 g of butane

3
2399 X 103 kJ of heat is geiven out by (58 X 2399 X10 ) / 2880
= 48.3 X 10 3g = 48.3 kg
48.3
 hydrogen oxygen

hydrogen chlorine

copper copper(II) ions

Carbon and silver are inert elctrodes while copper are not acting as inert electrodes.

The inert electrodes do not react with the electrolyte during electrolysis, but copper
at the positive electrode oxidised to form copper(II) ions during electyrolysis.

A reddish brown coating (copper) is seen deposited on the negative electrode.

4OH - (aq) 2H2O(l) + O 2 (g) + 4e

-

During electrolysis, the copper(II) ions from the solution are reduced to
copper at the negative electrode, and the concentration of Cu2+(aq)
decreases, hence the blue solution gradually turns lighter until
colourless.
 calcium silicate
CaSiO3

Assuming 100 % purity of iron(III)oxide,

maximum mass of Fe in Fe2O 3

= 56X2 X 14000 ton
160 Mr of Fe 2O 3 = 160

= 9800 ton
 There are other impurities beside iron(III) oxide present in iron ore.

During the extraction process, some iron may have mixed with slag.
some may still be left inside the furnace.

Nitrogen is the major part of the unreacted hot air.

Carbon dioxide is formed when coke burns in oxygen, it is also formed when carbon
monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide.

Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon dioxide reacts with coke in the centre of the
furnace with little oxygen.

Carbon is added to iron to make steel.

The amount of carbon added must be carefully controlled in order to obtain steel
of the correct strength and yet not too brittle.
If the tank becomes too hot, reaction represented by equation 1 occurs.
A mixture of two gases, ammonia and carbon dioxide is formed.
Since the gases occupies a larger volume than liquids, the tank might explode.
 Ammonia removes the oxides of nitrogen in the exhaust gases to form nitrogen
gas and water vapour.
Both of these products are harmless to humans and the environment.

Carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas that traps heat, is formed in reaction 1.

Although the acidic oxides of nitrogen is removed but the prodcuction of

carbon dioxide might lead to global warming.

Eqt 1

Eqt 3

Overall equation: (NH 2 )2CO + 6NH 3 + 6NO 2 -----> 7N 2 + CO 2 + 11H2O

No. of mol of urea = 160/60 = 2.667

Concenration of urea = 2.667 / 0.5 mol/ dm 3

= 5.33 mol/ dm 3

5.33
 - -
Hydrochloric acid HCl fits the general formula HA where the anion
- A is Cl.

Ethanoic acid does not quite fit the general format HA but AH where anion A- -is CH3COO
-

Sulfuric acid does not fit HA because it has two+H ions instead of one in each molecule
of the acid.

2HA + M 2 CO3 ---> 2MA + CO2 + H2 O

2CH3COOH + Ca ---> (CH COO) Ca + H 2

3 2

Calcium forms Ca2+ salt, hence x = 2

This concurs with equation 2.

From the data, it can be seen that for the same acid, increasing the inital
concentration results in a lower pH.

But for different acids, even with the same concentration of 0.01 mol/dm,
hydrochloric, sulfuric and ethanoic acid give different pH values of 2, 1.7 and 3.4
respectively.

The pH of an acid depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the acid;

this in turn depends on the strength of the acid; and the basicity of the acid.

Hydrochloric is a strong acid which fully ionises to give a high concentration of

H+ while ethanoic acid is a weak acid while ionises partially, with the same
concentration of both acids, the pH value of HCl is lower than that of CH3COOH.
The basicity of an acid determines the number of ionisable H+ in a molecule of
the acid. Sulfuric acid produces twice the concentration of H+ hence lower pH
compared to hydrochloric acid with the same concentration.

0.04 1.4

0.10 1.0
Repeat unit :

Mr = 16+ (12+2)X4 + 16 + 12 + 16 +(12X6 + 1X2) + 12 + 16

= 220

O H H O

H O C C C C O H

H H
The linkage in the polymer is an ester linkage - C - O -

Condensation of molecule C and addition polymerisation of ehtene:

Similarity: Only 1 monomer is reqiured for both polymerisation

Differences: Addition polymerisation involves addition reaction where double

bond is opened to form single bonds whereas condensation polymerisation
results in small molecules of water being removed.

Addition polymerisation gives only one product; condensation

polymerisation results in the polymerisation and another by product.
Since carbon can reduce SiO2 to Si but not Al2 O3 to Al,
we can conclude that carbon is more reactive than silicon
but carbon is less reactive than aluminium.

Carbon monoxide has a simple molecular structure; little energy is required to

overcome the weak intermolecular forces of attraction among the molecules;
resulting in a low melting and boling point. At room temperature, the molecules
at gaseous state are far apart resulting in a very low density. There are no charge
carriers to conduct electricity.
Silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure; large amount of energy is required
to weaken the strong covalent bonds among atoms of silicon and oxygen resulting
in a high melting and boiling point. It is a solid at room temperature and the atoms
are closely packed and its density is high.Like carbon monoxide, there are no charge
carriers in silicon dioxide to conduct electricity.

Aluminium oxide has a giant ionic structure; large amount of energy is required
to weaken the strong ionic bonds among opposite charged Al3+and O2- ions
resulting in a high melting and boiling point. It is a solid at room temperature and
the ions are closely packed and its density is high. In the molten state, the ions are
mobile and serve as charged carriers to conduct electricity.

% by mass of Al
>77
(100-7-<16)
73-76

70-72

2.8 mol of Al = 2.4 X27 = 75.6 g

% by mass of Al in the alloy = 75.6/100 X100 %

= 75.6%

The alloy is alloy Y.

The concentration of 0.2 mol/dm is kept constant for experiments 2,3 and 4.
The temperature of 200C is kept constant for experiments 1,2 and 4.
No catalyst is used for experiments 1,2 and 3.
Hence Experiment 2 is used as a reference.
Compare Expt 1 and 2:
Increasing the concentration of the iodide ions increases the number of ions per unit volume,
resulting in greater frequency of effective collision between reacting particles producing
iodine in a shorter time.

Compare Expt 2 and 3:

Increasing the temperature of the iodide solution increases the kinetic energy and a larger
number of ions with minimum activation energy. This also results in greater frequency of
effective collision between reacting particles; shortening the time for iodine to appear
blue-black with starch.

Compare Expt2+ 2 and 4:

By using Cu as catalyst, the recation takes place using an alternative pathway with
lower activation energy. More reacting particles have activation energy resulting in greater
frequency of effective collision producing iodine in a shorter time.

No. of mol of H2O2 = 0.03 X 0.05

= 0.0015

Expt : No. of mol of iodide ions

1 : 0.1 X 0.01 = 0.001

2,3,4 : 0.2 X 0.01 = 0.002

Mole ratio: I : H2O2

2: 1

Iodide ions is the limiting reactant for each experiment.