MBA NEW SYLLABUS SEMESTER-II (Business Communication)

1) UNIT I : Fundamentals of Business Communication (6 hours) : Meaning and

Objectives of Communication; Importance of Communication in an organization.
2) UNIT II : Communication System( 4 hours): Flow of Communication;
Communication Process; Communication Models; Channels of Communication.
3) UNIT III : Dimensions of Business Communication (10 hours) : Nature and
Characteristics of Oral and Written Communication; Advantages and Disadvantages
of Oral and Written Communication; Business Letter Writing; Characteristics of
Non-Verbal Communication, Components of Non-Verbal Communication; Body
Language; Effective use of Body Language; Main Factors of Para Language;
Advantage and Limitations of Para Language. Nature of Effective Communication,
Barriers to communication. Effective Listening. Barrier to effective listening.
4) UNIT IV : Modes of Business Communication (6 hours): Vocabulary- confusion, miss
pelt and common errors. Memorandum, MOU, MOA, Notice, Agenda, Minutes, Job
Application Letter, Resume Preparation, Letter Writing, Business Correspondence,
Report Writing, Presentation- Types, Interviewing, Group Discussion.
5) UNIT V : Digital Communication (4 hours): Nature and scope of digital
communication; Use of digital tools and techniques for communication
UNIT-I

What is Business Communication?

Business communication is the process of sharing information between people within the
workplace and outside a company.

Effective business communication is how employees and management interact to reach

organizational goals. Its purpose is to improve organizational practices and reduce errors.
It’s important to work on both your communication skills and communication processes
to achieve effective business communication.

Objectives of Business Communication

1) To exchange information: The main objective of business communication is to

exchange information with internal and external parties. Internal communication
occurs within the organization through orders, instructions, suggestions, opinions
etc.
2) To develop plans: Plan is the blueprint of future courses of actions. The plan must be
formulated for attaining organizational goals. In order to develop a plan,
management requires information. In this regard, the objective of communication is
to supply required information to the concerned managers.
3) To implement the plan: Once a plan is prepared, it is to be implemented.
Implementation of a plan requires timely communication with the concerned
parties. Thus, communication aims at transmitting a plan throughout the
organization for its successful implementation.
4) To facilitate policy formulation: Policies are guidelines for performing
organizational activities. Policies are also termed as standing decisions to recurring
problems. Every organization needs to develop a set of policies to guide its
operation. Preparing policies also require information from various sources.
Therefore, the objective of communication is to collect necessary information for
policy formulation.
5) To achieve organizational goal: Collective efforts of both managers and workers are
essential for achieving organizational goals. Communication coordinates and
synchronizes the efforts of employees at various levels to achieve the stated goals of
the organization.
6) To organize resources: Various kinds of resources are available in an organization
such as human resources, material resources, financial resources and so on. In
organizing these resources in an effective and efficient way is a key challenge to the
managers. Communication is the vehicle to overcome this challenge.
 7) To coordinate: Coordination is a basic management function. It involves linking the
various functional departments of large organizations. Without proper and timely
coordination, an achievement of organizational goals is impossible. Therefore, the
objective of communication is to coordinate the functions of various departments
for the easy attainment of organizational goals.
8) To direct the subordinates: The job of a manager is to get the things done by others.
In order to get the things done, management needs to lead, direct and control the
employees. The performance of these managerial functions depends on effective
communication with subordinates.

Importance of Communication in an organization

1. Need for proper and efficient operation of the business.

2. Developing skill of coordination.
3. Need for effective leadership.
4. Helps in proper planning.
5. Helps in the development of management skills.
6. Improving public relations.
7. Helps in providing competitive information.
8. Delegation and decentralization.
9. Achieving high productivity through job satisfaction.
10. Democratic management system.

UNIT-II

Flow of Communication

1) Vertical (Upward & Downward)

2) Horizontal/Lateral
3) Diagonal/Matrix (Upward & Downward)
4) External/Internal

Communication Process

The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,
thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of
creating a shared understanding.
1) Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the
conversation and has conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.
2) Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain
words or non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate
the information into a message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the success of the message.
3) Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends
to convey. The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body
gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of
a receiver.
4) Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants
to convey his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make
the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of
medium depends on the interpersonal relationships between the sender and the
receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral, virtual, written,
sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication mediums.
5) Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted.
He tries to comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication
objective is attained. The degree to which the receiver decodes the message
depends on his knowledge of the subject matter, experience, trust and relationship
with the sender.
6) Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to
understand it in the best possible manner. An effective communication occurs only
if the receiver understands the message in exactly the same way as it was intended
by the sender.
 7) Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has
received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender.
It increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know
the efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Communication Models

1. Linear Models — Only look at one-way communication. The most prominent linear
models of communication are:
1. Aristotle’s model of communication
2. Laswell’s model
3. The Shannon-Weaver model
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model
2. Interactive Models — They look at two-way communication. These are the
following:
1. The Osgood-Schramm model
2. The Westley and Maclean model
3. Transactional Models — They look at two-way communication where the message
gets more complex as the communication event progresses. These include:
1. Barnlund’s transactional model
2. Dance’s helical model
Linear Models

Linear Communication Model

Linear models of communication suggest that communication takes place only in one
direction.

The main elements in these models are:

 The channel,

 The sender, and

 The receiver.

Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel.

The channel is the medium and changes the message into speech, writing, or animation.
The message then reaches the receiver, who decodes it.
This model is straightforward and is used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in
communication with customers.
We already mentioned the most prominent linear models of communication, and now it is
time for a more detailed analysis of each one of them.

1. Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle’s communication model

This is the oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC.

Aristotle’s model was designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive
communicator.

It is a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures, where the sender
(public speaker, professor, etc.) passes on their message to the receiver (the audience). So,
the sender is the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive.

Aristotle identified three elements that improve communication:

 Ethos — defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority,
and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.

 Pathos — connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions
(anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
  Logos — an important element that signifies logic. It is not enough for the speech to
be interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.

Aside from that, Aristotle suggested that we look at five components of a communication
situation to analyze the best way to communicate:

 Speaker
 Speech
 Occasion
 Target audience
 Effect

Aristotle’s Model example

Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students. She is

delivering her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized.
Professor is in the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students, are merely
passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them act
accordingly.

So, professor Hustvedt is the speaker, and her lecture on disorders is the act of speech.

The occasion in question is a university lecture, the students being her target audience.

The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this subject matter.

One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the feedback
in communication because the audience is passive.
2. Laswell’s Model

Laswell’s communication model

The next linear model on our list is Laswell’s Model of mass communication.
According to this model, communication is the transmission of a message with the
effect as the result.
The effect is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message, that is
caused by the elements of communication. If any of the elements change, the effect also
changes.
Laswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 important questions regarding its
elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

 Communicator
 Message
  Medium
 Audience/Receiver
 Effect

Laswell’s Model example

Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase
salesman, Mr. Sanders. He is promoting his brand of a suitcase as the best. Aware that
millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a
remarkable impression. By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his
product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.

So, Mr. Sanders is the communicator.

The message he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of a suitcase as the best.

The medium he uses is television.

His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US.

The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales
revenue.
3. The Shannon-Weaver Model

The Shannon-Weaver communication model

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work
during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover
which channels are most effective for communicating.

So, although they were doing the research for engineering endeavors, they claimed that
their theory is applicable to human communication as well.

And, they were right.

So, first, let’s consider the components of the Shannon-Weaver model of communication.
These are:

 Sender
 Encoder
 Channel
 Decoder
 Receiver
Shannon and Weaver were the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication
process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, John Fiske defines noise
as “anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not
intended by the source.”
The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static
on a radio broadcast.

The Shannon-Weaver Model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new marketing

strategies they are about to introduce next month. She wants a detailed study on the
competitor’s activity by the end of the week. Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her
assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most important
issue.

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which
had to be corrected later on.

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example.

Paula is the sender, her mouth being the encoder.

The meeting she held was the channel.

Julian’s ears and brain were decoders, and Julian was the receiver.

Can you guess Peter’s role?

Yes, he was the noise.

The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for
clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have
been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes.

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver Model

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the
updated version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human
interaction. The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of Norbert Wiener, the
so-called father of cybernetics.

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

It allows the speaker to modify their performance to the reaction of an audience.

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver feel
involved in the communication process.

That makes the receiver more receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is
being taken into account.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model

Berlo’s model of communication is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of
the key elements in each step.

This model explains communication in four steps:

1. Source
2. Message
 3. Channel
4. Receiver

Let’s consider the key elements that affect how well the message is communicated,
starting with the source.

The source
The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the
message to the receiver.

So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver?

With the help of:

 Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good communication
skills to ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker should know when
to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.

 Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a
great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting
impression on the receiver(s).

 Knowledge — The third element on our list is knowledge. Here, knowledge does not
refer to educational qualifications. It refers to the clarity of the information which
the source wants to transfer to the receiver.

 Social system — Moving on to the fourth element on the list — the social system.
The source should be familiar with the social system in which the communication
process takes place. That would help the source not to offend anyone.

 Culture — Last but not least, culture. To achieve effective communication, the
source needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication
encounter is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural
communication.

The message
The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.

Here are the key factors of the message:

  Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.

 Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That
is why other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial
expressions, etc.

 Treatment — the way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the
importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.

 Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the
receiver will understand it correctly.

 Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not
want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

The channel
To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.

All our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another.

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.

Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are
eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

The receiver
A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed
message.

To understand the message, the receiver should entail the same elements as the source.
They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be
acquainted with the social system and culture in which they communicate.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model example

Watching the news on the television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
communication.

The news presenter is the source of the news and she conveys the message to the
audience. The news is the message, the television — the channel, and the audience
are the receivers of the message.

Now that we got acquainted with linear models, it is time we move on to a little more
complex and dynamic, interactive models of communication.
Interactive Models

Interac tive communication model

As more dynamic models, interactive models of communication refer to two-way

communication with feedback.

However, feedback is not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect.

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication (telephone

conversations, letters, etc.).

Let’s take a look at the main elements of these models:

 Sender

 Message

 Receiver

 Feedback

 Field of experience
You probably noticed the new, previously not seen, element — field of experience.

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal
history.

All of these factors influence how a sender constructs a message, as well as how the
receiver takes it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication
situations.

We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication.

Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail.

5. The Osgood-Schramm Model

The Osgood-Schramm communication model

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge,

Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear
break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”

This model is useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less
suitable for cases with 0little or no feedback.
The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go
in two directions.

There are four principles in this model:

1. Communication is circular— individuals involved in the communication process are

changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal— both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation— the information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4. There are three steps in the process of communication:

 Encoding

 Decoding

 Interpreting

In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are
equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is a person trying to
understand the message.

Furthermore, this model shows that information is of no use until it is put into words and
conveyed to other people.

The Osgood-Schramm Model example

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, she calls you,
and you start updating each other with what happened during the time you have not seen
each other.

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and
your communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages.

In Information theory and mass communication, Schramm even says that “it is misleading
to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is
really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great
endless current of information.”
6. The Westley and Maclean Model

The Westley and Maclean communication model

The Westley and Maclean model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

This model introduces environmental and cultural factors to the process of

communication. Namely, according to this model, the communication process does not
start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

The Westley and Maclean model also takes into account the object of the
orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.

The very process of communication starts with environmental factors which influence the
speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or
private space, etc.

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

This model consists of nine crucial components:

1. Environment (X)
2. Sensory experience (X¹)
3. Source/Sender (A)
 4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²)
5. Receiver (B)
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)
7. Feedback (F)
8. Gatekeepers (C)
9. Opinion leaders

Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let’s look at
all of them in greater detail.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean Model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start
from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment.

So, we will start with this element.

Environment (X)
According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a
stimulus from the environment motivates a person to create and send a message.

The Westley and Maclean Model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. This is the stimulus
that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call
your boss to say you are going to be a bit late.

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road
accident you have witnessed.

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication allows us to pay

attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication.

Sensory experience (X¹)

When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges
them to send the message, we are talking about sensory experience as an element of
communication.

In the example above, this sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident.
Source/Sender (A)
Only now does the sender come into play.

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in

the interpersonal communication situation.

However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In

that case, we are talking about mass communication.

The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the
source.

Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences.

If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A)

are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for work because of the accident (X¹), and
that is why you are calling your boss.

Receiver (B)
The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender.

In mass communication, a receiver is a person that watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.

When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person that listens to

the message.

In the example with a road accident, mentioned above, receivers of the message are your
friends and your boss.

The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)

The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences, which
influence how the message is received.

For example, a skeptical person (B) watching the news is critical (X³) towards the
message.

Feedback (F)
Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear.
As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent.

That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender.

After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back.

Let’s go back to our first example (about the road accident).

So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best friend.

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!”

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”

You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”

In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message
and send it back to her.

Gatekeepers (C)
This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal
communication.

Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate to receivers.

For example, these are newspaper editors that edit the message before it reaches the
readers.

Opinion leaders
Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations.

Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental factor (X) on the
sender of the message (A).

These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers.

—
Now that we got familiar with interactive models, all we have left are transactional
models.

Transactional Models

Transactional communication model

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models.

Their key components are:

 Encoding

 Decoding

 Communicators

 The message

 The channel

 Noise
In these models, communication is viewed as a transaction, meaning that it is a
cooperative process in which communicators (a new term for senders and receivers,
which first appears in these models) co-create the process of communication, thereby
influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information
during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our
opinions.

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

These models also introduced the roles of social, relational, and cultural context.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective

communication — noise.

We have already mentioned the most prominent transactional models of communication,

and now it is time to meticulously analyze them.
7. Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Barnlund’s communication model

Barnlund’s Transactional Model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback

communication, and is a multi-layered feedback system.

That means that the sender and the receiver change their places and are equally
important. Feedback for the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators
provide feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s effect
and effectiveness.

The main components of Barnlund’s Transactional Model are:

 Encoding

 Decoding

 Communicators

 The message (including the cues, environment, noise), and

  The channel

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. So, Barnlund
differentiates between:

 Public cues (environmental cues),

 Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and

 Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).

All these cues, as well as the environment, and noise, are part of the message. Each
communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and
beliefs.

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

 Face-to-face interactions,

 Chat sessions,

 Telephone conversations,

 Meetings, etc.

Let’s illustrate this model with an example from a business messaging platform Pumble.

An example that shows a misunderstanding due to the cultural differences in celebrating

certain holidays (Pumble business messaging app)

Barnlund’s Transactional Model example

Why was there a misunderstanding in this conversation?

This misunderstanding has arisen due to cultural cues.

Namely, Catherine had thought that Irene wanted a day off on July 4th.

However, Irene comes from Norway and celebrates Independence day on May 17th.
On that day, she does not show up at work, to Catherine’s bewilderment because she has
expected Irene to take a day off on July 4th, on US Independence Day.

So, due to cultural cues, there was a misunderstanding between them.

Still, this misunderstanding could have easily been avoided, had they cleared up the dates
by providing each other with feedback.

8. Dance’s Helical Model

Dance’s helical communication model

According to Dance’s Helical Model, communication is seen as a circular process that gets
more and more complex as communication progresses.

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral.

With every cycle of communication, we expand our circle, and each communication
encounter is different from the previous one because communication never repeats itself.

Additionally, in the process of communication, the feedback we get from the other party
involved influences our next statement and we become more knowledgeable with every
new cycle.
In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe,
and Diana K. Ivy state:

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication

never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication
partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.”

Dance’s Helical Model example

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their
life.

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using
rudimentary methods of communication.

For instance, a baby cries to get the mother’s attention. Later on, they learn to speak in
words, and then full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.

Every communication act is a chance for us to learn how to communicate more effectively
in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication.

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.

Wrapping up: Communication models help us solve our workplace communication problems
Communication in real life is too complex to be truly represented by communication
models, but they help us examine the steps in the process of communication, so we can
better understand how we communicate both at the workplace and outside of it.

Let’s sum up the key takeaways from this guide.

In this guide, we have covered the most important models of communication, divided into
three categories:
  Linear Models — they see communication as a one-way process. These are mainly
used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

 Interactive Models — Used in internet-based and mediated communication, they

refer to two-way communication with indirect feedback.

 Transactional Models — as most dynamic communication models, these are the

most complex models of communication, which best reflect the communication
process.

Although none of these models represent our communication 100%, they can help us
detect and solve potential problems and improve our overall communication skills.

Channels of Communication

Communication channels are mediums through which you can send a message to its
intended audience. For example, phone calls, text messages, emails, video, radio, and
social media are all types of communication channels. In a company, communication
channels keep information flowing efficiently.

1. Formal Channels: It is an official way of communicating. A formal communication

channel transmits information such as the goals, policies and procedures of an
organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a chain of command.
This means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and they in turn pass
on the information to the next level of staff. Some examples include company newsletters,
business plans, instructions, annual reports, agreements, company-wide communications,
board presentations etc.

2. Informal Channels: It is also an official way of communicating, with somewhat relaxed

norms. There may not be a need for a chain of command or hierarchy in this kind of
communication. There will be immense official communication where such hierarchy or
command is not needed, but they happen within the official framework. Some examples
will include conversations on the work floor addressing queries of team members, lunch
time conversations, many of the emails where formal command is not needed such as
someone is seeking some quick information etc.

3. Unofficial Channels: There exists an unofficial mode of communication as well. The

employees communicate outside work environment on topics not related to work. General
social, sports, political and personal communication are unofficial channels. But a manager
needs to be aware about the existence of such a channel and information flowing in them.
Many times rumors and gossips also provide very important information which otherwise
will not be available.

4. Verbal Communication: Verbal communications in business take place over the phone
or in person. The medium of the message is oral. Let’s return to our printer cartridge
example. This time, the message is being conveyed from the sender (the manager) to the
receiver (an employee named Bill) by telephone. We’ve already seen how the manager’s
request to Bill (“Buy more printer toner cartridges!”) can go awry. Now let’s look at how
the same message can travel successfully from sender to receiver.

5. Written Communication: In contrast to verbal communications, which are oral,

written business communications are printed messages. Examples of written
communications include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training manuals, and
operating policies. They may be printed on paper or appear on the screen. Written
communication is often asynchronous. That is, the sender can write a message that the
receiver can read at any time, unlike a conversation that is carried on in real time. A
written communication can also be read by many people (such as all employees in a
department or all customers). It’s a “one-to-many” communication, as opposed to a one-
to-one conversation. There are exceptions, of course: A voice mail is an oral message that
is asynchronous. Conference calls and speeches are oral one-to-many communications,
and e-mails can have only one recipient or many.

6. Nonverbal Communication: What you say is a vital part of any communication.

Surprisingly, what you don’t say can be even more important. Research shows that
nonverbal cues can also affect whether or not you get a job offer. Judges examining
videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess the social skills of job candidates with
the sound turned off. They watched the rate of gesturing, time spent talking, and formality
of dress to determine which candidates would be the most socially successful on the job.
Research also shows that 55% of in-person communication comes from nonverbal cues
such as facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice. According to one study, only 7%
of a receiver’s comprehension of a message is based on the sender’s actual words, 38% is
based on paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of speech), and 55% is based
on nonverbal cues (body language). To be effective communicators, our body language,
appearance, and tone must align with the words we’re trying to convey. Research shows
that when individuals are lying, they are more likely to blink more frequently, shift their
weight, and shrug.
UNIT-III

Nature and Characteristics of Oral Communication

1) Communication is dynamic – It is not static. It is not fixed but always changing. As

it deals with change of behavior it changes constantly.
2) Communication is un-systematic – A simple speech communication occurs within
a larger system. It is a system itself composed of interrelated and interdependent
elements working together to achieve a desired outcome.
3) Communication is transactional – The essence of the term transaction is
relationship. Included in the transactional characteristic of communication is the
fact that each communication event is unique combination of people, messages, and
situation that operate to achieve some definite purpose.
4) Communication is adaptive – Communication takes place with an intention to
achieve some outcome. In this process it must adapt to change. Thus,
communication must pay attention to the other person, to the topic, to the physical
surroundings, to motives and needs, and to other elements that we will study in this
text. The ability to adjust and adapt to changing situation is a characteristic of
effective communication.
5) Communication is continuous – It has no beginning and no end. We can consider
communication as a product of a previous communication event that proceeds to
another communication situation.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 Time-saving
 Reduction of cost
 Easiness
 Effective for illiterate persons
 Quick feedback
 Maintaining secrecy
 Reliability
 Coordination
 Motivation
 Avoidance of slowcoach
 Flexibility
 Special application
Disadvantages of Oral Communication

 No record
 Misunderstanding
 Distorted meaning
 Lack of accuracy
 Limited use
 Confused speech
 No legal validity
 Leakage of secret information
 More importance is given to presenting the speech
 Emotion
 Less effective
 Expensive
 Late decision
 Not easy to fix responsibility
 Possibility of conspiracy

Nature and Characteristics of Written Communication

 Clarity & Simplicity

 Source of information
 Adequacy& Consistency
 Time bound
 Balance between uniformly and adaptability
 Clear Feedback & Purpose

Advantages of Written Communication:

1) It provides us records, references etc., on which important decisions, rest.

2) It builds up the legal defenses of the organisation through records, letters,
instructions etc.
3) It promotes uniformity of policy and procedure and builds up proper guidelines for
the working of the organisation.
4) It builds up the image of the company.
 5) It makes for accuracy and dependability (Oral communication may be changed or
interpreted in different ways. But in written communication the
message/information is stated very clearly or unambiguously).
6) It is permanent.
7) Responsibility can be easily assigned. (One may go back on the spoken words. But
not so on the statement in black and white).

Disadvantages of Written Communication:

1) It builds up unmanageable clutter of papers and files. It costs a lot to the

organisations.
2) It is time consuming. Immediate feedback is not possible.
3) It is costly in terms of money and man-hours.
4) It becomes ineffective in the hands of people who are poor in expression.
5) Absence of immediate clarification. In conclusion, we can say that written
communication remains the backbone of an organization.

Business Letter Writing

The structure of a business letter:-

1) Opening: Include your mailing address, the full date (for example, July 30, 2017),
and the recipient’s name, company, and address. Skip one line between your
address, the date, and your recipient’s information. Don’t add your address if you’re
using letterhead that already contains it.
2) Salutation: Address the recipient using “Dear,” along with their title and last name,
such as “Dear Mr. Collins” or “Dear Director Kinkade.” If you don’t know the
recipient’s gender, use their full name, such as “Dear Taylor Dean.” Finally, be sure
to add a colon to the end of the salutation.
3) Body: In the first paragraph, introduce yourself and the main point of your letter.
Following paragraphs should go into the details of your main point, while your final
paragraph should restate the letter’s purpose and provide a call to action, if
necessary.
4) Closing: Recommended formal closings include “Sincerely” or “Yours truly.” For a
more personal closing, consider using “Cordially” or “Best regards.” Regardless of
what you choose, add a comma to the end of it.
5) Signature: Skip four lines after the closing and type your name. Skip another line
and type your job title and company name. If you’re submitting a hard copy, sign
your name in the empty space using blue or black ink.
6) Enclosures: If you’re including documents with this letter, list them here.
 7) Structure: It is the layout, which determines how the text is formatted. The most
common layout for a business letter is known as block format, which keeps all text
left-justified and single spaced, except for double spaces between the paragraphs.
This layout keeps the letter looking clean and easy to read.

Non Verbal Communication- It refers to gesture, facial expression, tone of voice, eye
contact, body language, posture and other ways people can communicate without using
language.

Characteristics of Non-Verbal Communication

1) No use of words
2) Culturally determined
3) Difference in meaning
4) Vague and imprecise
5) Conflicting
6) Unconscious
7) Shows feeling and attitude
8) Informal

Components of Non-Verbal Communication

1) Paralanguage : The study of paralanguage focuses on how you say what you say.
Paralanguage has several component parts: voice qualities, voice qualifiers, voice
characteristics, and vocal segregates.
2) Voice Qualities : Voice qualities include such things as volume, rate of speech, pitch,
rhythm, pronunciation and enunciation.
3) Volume : A person may sometimes speak louder to attract others’ attention. But an
overly loud speech can be annoying or disturbing. On the other hand, though a soft
voice conveys a sense of calm, in a business setting it may give an impression of
weakness or indecisiveness. Thus, the volume that may be right in one setting, may
convey a negative message in a different situation.
4) Rate of Speech : On an average, it has been found that people speak at about 150
words a minute. When a person speaks at much higher or lower rates, he may have
a negative impact. Fast speech often makes people nervous, while slow speech
causes boredom or leads people to believe that the speaker is not quite sure about
what to say next.
5) Voice Pitch : Voice pitch is often equated with emotion. High pitch shrieking
generally indicates excitement or nervousness. A low voice pitch usually commands
 attention and respect, because it indicates that the speaker is in control of the
situation.
6) Rhythm : Rhythm refers to the pattern of the voice: whether it is regular or
irregular; whether it flows smoothly or moves in fits and starts. A smooth rhythm,
like a moderately low pitch, indicates a confident, authoritative attitude, while an
uneven rhythm may convey lack of prior preparation and lack of clarity.
7) Pronunciation : Good pronunciation is the correct oral delivery of a word. The
vowel sounds must be said correctly and the right syllables must be accented.
People who mispronounce words are thought to be not as well educated as those
who pronounce words correctly. Thus, the way you pronounce words may play an
important role in building your image.
8) Enunciation: Enunciation also relates to the correctness of how a word is
pronounced, but is more a matter of clear articulation. People with poor enunciation
drop word endings, slur their speech, or do not speak clearly. Poor enunciation may
indicate carelessness, but overly precise enunciation may sometimes seem phony or
pretentious.
9) Voice Qualifiers : Temporary variations in pitch, volume and rate of speech are
known as voice qualifiers. If one is aware of the normal voice qualities of a person, it
is easy to detect the voice qualifiers in his speech. For instance, if your secretary,
who normally talks in a low, even tone, suddenly starts talking faster and louder,
you should be able to tell that something is not quite right. He may be conveying
impatience, anger or excitement.
10) Vocal Characteristics : All of you are familiar with certain audible sounds like
sighing, laughing, crying, clearing the throat, whistling and groaning. These sounds,
which serve to communicate some meaning, are called vocal characteristics. As a
communication expert put it: “Awareness of the more subtle voice characteristics,
such as pleasantness, especially in combination with voice qualifiers, can do much to
help individuals and organizations improve communication. Think, for instance,
how much a company‟s image can be helped by a receptionist who sounds, both in
person and over the telephone, „pleasant,‟ „confident,‟ and „competent‟.”
11) Vocal Segregates : “Er…….um…….will you lend me some money, please?”
Now, in this sentence, what do the words, “er,” “um” mean? They don’t mean a
thing. Such meaningless words or sounds that are used to punctuate or pace-
sentences are called vocal segregates. Sometimes people use filler expressions like
“right?” “you know what I mean” or “OK” to fill in their silences. Vocal segregates are
usually awkward components of speech and should be avoided as far as possible.
These sounds indicate a lack of confidence and exhibit a feeling of stress on the part
of the speaker.
 12) Kinesics : Human beings communicate a lot through body movements and
facial expressions. Kinesics is the study of this kind of communication. Let us look at
how different body movements and facial expressions communicate different
messages.
a) Posture : The way people sit or stand can reveal a lot about their attitudes
and emotions. Posture portrays confidence, anxiety, fear, aggressiveness and a
host of other emotions. A boss who wants to reprimand his subordinate may
do so by standing, leaning over the table and peering down at the hapless
employee. Here, he is using posture to establish his superiority. Insecure or
nervous people often betray their weakness by slouching, biting their nails or
looking down. A person who wants to tell everyone else that he is quite
confident may sit back expansively, wrap his arm over the back of the chair
and stretch out his legs in front.
b) Gestures : Gestures are of various types. Four common ones are emblems,
adaptors, regulators, and illustrators.
c) Emblems : Emblems are gestures that have a meaning that is understood by
the public at large. Of course, most of them are culture specific. Sometimes the
same emblem may have different meanings in different cultures. For instance,
forming an “O” with index and thumb means “OK” in the US, while in Japan it
means “money” and in parts of France it means “worthless” or “zero.”
d) Adaptors : These are learned behavior patterns that we usually pick up in
childhood. They way we use our spoons or our hands while eating is a good
example.
e) Illustrators : These are gestures that go with what we are saying verbally and
tend to depict what is being said. A good example is when you tell someone,
“Come, sit in this chair,” and accompany it by a nod of the head or a wave of
the hand.

What Is Body Language?

Body language is the unspoken part of communication that we use to reveal our true
feelings and to give our message more impact. Communication is made up of so much
more than words. Nonverbal cues such as tone of voice, gestures and posture all play their
part. A simple example of body language is a relaxed facial expression that breaks out into
a genuine smile – with mouth upturned and eyes wrinkled. Equally, it can be a tilt of the
head that shows you're thinking, an upright stance to convey interest, or hand and arm
movements to demonstrate directions. It can also be taking care to avoid a defensive,
arms-crossed posture, or restlessly tapping your feet.

When you can "read" signs like these, you can understand the complete message in what
someone is telling you. You'll be more aware of people's reactions to what you say and do,
too. And you'll be able to adjust your body language to appear more positive, engaging and
approachable.
In this article and video, we explore body language some more, and look at how you can
interpret it to understand and communicate with people more effectively.
We also have an infographic showing how to put this information about body language
into practice.

The Science of Body Language

You've probably heard the statistic that only seven percent of a message is conveyed
through words, and that the other 93 percent comes from nonverbal communication. This
is often quoted out of context and is therefore misleading.

It's taken from Mehrabian's Communication Model , which states that body language is
more important than tone of voice and choice of words when communicating true feelings.
But Mehrabian makes clear that his study dealt only with communications involving
emotions and attitudes. So, it's not applicable in all cases.

However, it does help to explain why it's so tough to gauge sentiment when we can't see
people – on email or messaging apps, for example. It's also part of the reason for the rise in
use of emojis , even in business communication.

How to Read Body Language

Being aware of body language in others means that you can pick up on unspoken emotions
and reactions. It’s a valuable form of feedback, but it can easily be missed if you’re not
aware of what to look out for.

So let’s explore the most important nonverbal clues – some with negative interpretations,
and others that are positive signs.

Negative Body Language Examples

If someone’s exhibiting one or more of the following, negative behaviors, they'll likely
be disengaged, disinterested or unhappy (see figure 1):
 Arms folded in front of the body.
 Minimal or tense facial expression.
 Body turned away from you.
 Eyes downcast, maintaining little contact.
Figure 1.

You may encounter these behaviors when you’re dealing with colleagues who are upset,
or dissatisfied customers .

Being aware of what these signals mean can help you to adjust what you say – and how
you say it. You can show empathy for someone’s unhappiness, for example, explain
yourself more clearly, or work to calm a heated situation .

Other types of body language can indicate that someone’s bored by what you’re saying.
This might be in a presentation, a team meeting, or even a one-on-one chat.

Here are some of the most common signs of boredom (illustrated in figures 2–5, below):

 Sitting slumped, with head downcast.

 Gazing at something else, or into space.
 Fidgeting, picking at clothes, or fiddling with pens and phones.
 Writing or doodling.
Figure 2. Figure 3.

Figure 4. Figure 5.

Additional signs of negative body language include:

 Nail biting – suggesting insecurity or stress.

 Locked ankles – also associated with anxious thoughts.
 Rapid blinking – which may indicate uncertainty or concern.
 Tapping/drumming fingers – often a mark of impatience or boredom.
 Fidgeting – more evidence that someone’s disinterested or distracted.

Positive Body Language Examples

People also use their body language to convey positive feelings, such
as trust, interest and happiness. Spotting these signs can reassure you that others are
engaged with what you’re saying and at ease with the situation.
What’s more, by adopting these behaviors yourself, you can support your points, convey
ideas more clearly, and avoid sending mixed messages.

Here are three specific ways to use positive body language to your advantage:

1. Body Language for a Good First Impression

Your nonverbal signs play a big part in people’s first impression of you. Here are ways to
appear trustworthy, engaged, confident, and calm:
 Have an open posture. Be relaxed, but don't slouch. Sit or stand upright and place
your hands by your sides (see figure 6). Avoid standing with your hands on your hips,
as this can communicate aggression or a desire to dominate (figure 7).
 Use a firm handshake. But don't get carried away! You don't want it to become
awkward, aggressive, or painful for the other person.
 Maintain good eye contact. Try to hold the other person's gaze for a few seconds at a
time. This will show them that you're sincere and engaged. But avoid turning it into a
staring contest! (figure 8).
 Avoid touching your face. If you do this while answering questions, it can be seen as a
sign of dishonesty (figure 9). While this isn't always the case, you should still avoid
fiddling with your hair or scratching your nose, so that you convey trustworthiness.
 Smile! Warm, sincere smiles are attractive, reassuring – and infectious!

Figure 6. Figure 7.

Figure 8. Figure 9.
2. Body Language for Effective Public Speaking

Positive body language can help you to engage people, mask any presentation nerves ,
and project confidence when you speak in public. Here are a few tips to help you do this:
 Have a positive posture. Sit or stand upright, with your shoulders back and your arms
unfolded by your sides or in front of you (see figure 10). Don't be tempted to put your
hands in your pockets, or to slouch, as this will make you look disinterested.
 Keep your head up. Your head should be upright and level (figure 11). Leaning too far
forward or backward can make you look aggressive or arrogant.
 Practice and perfect your posture. Stand in a relaxed manner, with your weight
evenly distributed. Keep one foot slightly in front of the other to keep yourself steady
(figure 12).
 Use open hand gestures. Spread your hands apart, in front of you, with your palms
facing slightly toward your audience. This indicates a willingness to communicate and
share ideas (figure 13). Keep your upper arms close to your body. Take care to avoid
overexpression, or people may focus more on your hands than your ideas.
Figure 10. Figure 11.

Figure 12. Figure 13.

3. Body Language for Interviews and Negotiations

Body language can also help you to stay calm in situations where emotions run high, such
as a negotiation, performance review or interview. Follow these suggestions to defuse
tension and show openness:
 Use mirroring. If you can, subtly mirror the body language of the person you're talking
to. This will make them feel more at ease, and can build rapport . But don't copy their
every gesture or you'll make them uncomfortable.
 Relax your body. Maintain the appearance of calm by keeping your hands still and by
breathing slowly.
 Look interested. If you're asked a complex question, it's OK to briefly touch your cheek
or stroke your chin. It shows you're reflecting on your answer (see figure 14).
Figure 14.
Virtual Body Language

You can apply much of the body language guidance above to video calls, too. You'll just
have a little less space – and body – to work with! Here are some ways to show your
enthusiasm, and to help make others feel comfortable and receptive to your ideas:

 Get your camera setup right. This means you're close enough to show interest, but
not too close to invade people's virtual space. Check that your camera is at eye level, so
that your gaze appears natural to others. And leave room to gesture without hitting the
screen!
 Maintain eye contact. Look into the camera as if you're looking into someone's eyes. If
it's a group call, looking around the participants will let you watch without staring.
 Use facial expressions. Your face is front and center on a video call, so maintain a
slight smile throughout. Raise your eyebrows to show engagement, and avoid frowning.

How Do You Use Your Body Language?

The tips given in this article are a good general guide for interpreting body language, but
they won't apply to everyone.

For example, people may have a different cultural background from you, and positive
gestures in one country can be negative in others.
So, reflect on how you use your body language, and avoid making assumptions. If you're
getting mixed signs from someone, ask them what they're thinking. After all, interpreting
body language should be a complement to talking and listening attentively, not a
replacement for it.

Key Points
Body language is a range of nonverbal signals that you can use to communicate your
feelings and intentions. These include your posture, facial expressions, and hand gestures.

Your ability to understand and interpret other people's body language can help you to
pick up on unspoken issues or feelings.

You can also use body language in a positive way to add strength to your own verbal
messages – both in person and on screen. This is particularly important when you’re
meeting people for the first time, speaking in public, or taking part in interviews or
negotiations.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Barriers to effective communication can result in confusion which can lead to incorrect
information being conveyed or miscommunication which can lead to loss of business.
1. Semantic barriers
2. Psychological barriers
3. Organisational barriers
4. Cultural barriers
5. Physical barriers
6. Physiological barriers

Semantic barriers: Semantic barriers are also known as language barriers. These
barriers are caused due to improper communication between the sender and the receiver.
The following instances of semantic barriers can be witnessed in communication.
 Poor quality of message: Message when communicated should be precise and easy
to understand, that makes it easy for the receiver to grasp the information
conveyed.
 Sometimes, due to the lack of clarity or complexity of the way of providing
information from the sender, there can be a case of semantic barriers.
 A manager is conversing in English to a group of workers who understand and
speak Bengali. It will create confusion among workers as they will not be able to
understand what is being conveyed by the manager.
 Technical language: Language barriers also arise when the sender of the message is
speaking in technical terms while the receiver is unaware of the terms. It creates
confusion and misunderstanding between the sender and receiver by acting as a
barrier to effective communication.
Psychological Barriers: Psychological barriers play an important role in interpersonal
communication as the state of the mind of the sender or the receiver can make it difficult
to understand the information that is conveyed, which often leads to misunderstanding.
 Premature evaluation of information by the receiver even before it is transmitted
can lead to barriers in communication, as it will create premature conclusion to the
message, which withholds the original message.
 Inadequate attention from the receiver’s end at the time of communication can lead
to barriers of communication as the information conveyed by the sender is not
properly received by the receiver.
  When information is passed within multiple sources, the final information is
distorted as the receivers of the message are not able to retain everything that was
conveyed. This can cause communication barriers.
Organisational Barriers: Organisational barriers are those barriers that are caused due
to the structure, rules and regulations present in the organisation. The various types of
barriers that can be encountered due to superior subordinate relationships where the free
flow of communication is not possible.
 Sometimes the complexity of organisational structure and multiple managers make
it difficult to convey information properly, and the information gets distorted
leading to miscommunication.
Cultural Barriers: Cultural barriers are those that arise due to lack of similarities among
the different cultures across the world. A term that can be harmless in one culture can be
regarded as a slang in another culture. Moreover, various beliefs can differ from one
culture to another.
Physical Barriers: Physical barriers to communication are those that arise due to certain
factors like faulty equipment, noise, closed doors and cabins that cause the information
sent from sender to receiver to become distorted, which results in improper
communication.
Physiological Barriers: Physiological barriers arise when a sender or the receiver of the
communication is not in a position to express or receive the message with clarity due to
some physiological issues like dyslexia, or nerve disorders that interfere with speech or
hearing.

Effective Listening

The importance of listening

Communication takes place along four modalities: speaking, writing, listening, and
reading. It is common for instructors to teach speaking, writing, and reading skills, and
yet, listening is at once the least understood and most important of these competencies.

Listening is an important communication competence that includes complex cognitive

processes like understanding and interpreting messages, affective processes like being
motivated to pay attention, and behavioral processes like responding with both verbal and
nonverbal feedback. In other words, to be an effective listener, the listener has to take
into consideration what he or she is thinking about the communication being received,
what he or she is feeling about the communication and also the context of the
conversation, and what he or she will do in the process and as a result of the
communication.
The characteristics of effective listening thus range across these cognitive, affective,
and behavioral frames.

 Cognitive characteristics of effective listening

 Probing
 Paraphrasing
 Summarizing

Asking questions to follow up or for clarification, paraphrasing the individual

communications, and summarizing the conversation are all activities that show the
listener’s cognitive engagement in the conversation, indicating his or her attempts to fully
understand and correctly interpret the messages being relayed.

 Affective characteristics of effective listening

 Focusing of attention
 Acceptance
 Empathy

The effective listener can also signal his or her affective engagement in the conversation
by making it the sole focus of attention, and by receiving communications with acceptance
and empathy. Receiving communications with empathy requires that the listener try to
avoid projecting his or her own opinions, feelings or prejudices onto the speaker, and that
the listener accept the speaker’s communications without simultaneously trying to craft a
response.

Behavioral characteristics of effective listening

 Non-verbal behavior
 Advice

Action is also part of effective listening. The listener should communicate his or her
attention through non-verbal means like eye contact, erect posture, nodding, and other
positive body language. The listener can also demonstrate engagement by broadening the
range of the conversation, such as by inquiring about or suggesting alternatives to the
topic or conclusions at hand.

Teaching effective listening

In a dynamic classroom, both the instructor and the students need to be effective listeners.
Perfecting listening skills will foster learning in the classroom by helping students master
the content of the course, ask incisive questions, and learn to think critically about the
content of the course. Listening skills also play a crucial role in personal and professional
success and are especially important to master for students for whom the language of
instruction is not their first language. Because listening is such a complex activity, or a
broad field of activities, inculcating good listening habits in students requires the
instructor to address each of these types of listening processes.
External Listening Barriers

External listening barriers are easier to manage than internal barriers. They include a
variety of environmental distractions that can usually be avoided or minimized with
simple corrections, like removing yourself from the interfering barrier or removing the
issue from the area that you are in. External barriers include:

 Noise. Any external noise can be a barrier, like the sound of equipment running,
phones ringing, or other people having conversations.
 Visual distractions. Visual distractions can be as simple as the scene outside a
window or the goings-on just beyond the glass walls of a nearby office.
 Physical setting. An uncomfortable temperature, poor or nonexistent seating, bad
odors, or distance between the listener and speaker can be an issue.
 Objects. Items like pocket change, pens, and jewelry are often fidgeted with while
listening.
 The person speaking. The person listening may become distracted by the other
person’s personal appearance, mannerisms, voice, or gestures.

Internal Listening Barriers

Internal listening barriers are more difficult to manage, as they reside inside the mind of
the listener. Internal barriers’ elimination relies on a high level of self-awareness and
discipline on the part of the listener, like catching oneself before the mind starts to wander
and bringing full attention back to the speaker. Internal barriers include:

 Anxiety. Anxiety can take place from competing personal worries and concerns.
 Self-centeredness. This causes the listener to focus on his or her own thoughts
rather than the speaker’s words.
 Mental laziness. Laziness creates an unwillingness to listen to complex or detailed
information.
 Boredom. Boredom stems from a lack of interest in the speaker’s subject matter.
 Sense of superiority. This leads the listener to believe they have nothing to learn
from the speaker.
 Cognitive dissonance. The listener hears only what he or she expects or molds the
speaker’s message to conform with their own beliefs.
 Impatience. A listener can become impatient with a speaker who talks slowly or
draws out the message.

Working through these barriers are crucial for better listening. If a listener can remove
these barriers, they will find that they can gain better understanding of the tasks at hand,
communicate more effectively, and achieve greater success in the workplace.
UNIT-IV

(VOCABULARY- CONFUSION) Top 30 Commonly Confused Words in English

 Advice/Advise Advice is a noun: Chester gave Posey good advice. Advise is a verb:
Chester advised Posey to avoid the questionable chicken salad.

 Affect/Effect Affect is usually a verb: Chester’s humming affected Posey’s ability

to concentrate. Effect is usually a noun: Chester was sorry for the effect his
humming had. If you find yourself stumped about which one to use in a sentence,
try substituting the word “alter” or “result.” If “alter” fits (Chester’s humming
altered Posey’s ability to concentrate), use affect. If “result” fits (Chester was
sorry for the result his humming had), use effect.

 Among/Amongst Among is the preferred and most common variant of this word
in American English. Amongst is more common in British English. Neither
version is wrong, but amongst may seem fussy to American readers.

 Among/Between Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of several

items: Chester found a letter hidden among the papers on the desk. Between
expresses the relationship of one thing to another thing or to many other things:
Posey spent all day carrying messages between Chester and the other students.
The idea that between can be used only when talking about two things is a myth—
it’s perfectly correct to use between if you are talking about multiple binary
relationships.

 Assure/Ensure/Insure Assure means to tell someone that something will

definitely happen or is definitely true: Posey assured Chester that no one would
cheat at Bingo. Ensure means to guarantee or make sure of something: Posey
took steps to ensure that no one cheated at Bingo. Insure means to take out an
insurance policy: Posey was glad the Bingo hall was insured against damage
caused by rowdy Bingo players.
 Breath/Breathe Breath is a noun; it’s the air that goes in and out of your lungs:
Chester held his breath while Posey skateboarded down the stairs. Breathe is a
verb; it means to exhale or inhale: After Posey’s spectacular landing, Chester had
to remind himself to breathe again.

 Capital/Capitol Capital has several meanings. It can refer to an uppercase letter,

money, or a city where a seat of government is located: Chester visited Brasίlia,
the capital of Brazil. Capitol means the building where a legislature meets: Posey
visited the cafe in the basement of the capitol after watching a bill become a law.

 Complement/Compliment A complement is something that completes something

else. It’s often used to describe things that go well together: Chester’s lime green
boots were a perfect complement to his jacket. A compliment is a nice thing to
say: Posey received many compliments on her purple fedora.

 Disinterested/Uninterested Disinterested means impartial: A panel of

disinterested judges who had never met the contestants before judged the singing
contest. Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with something:
Posey was uninterested in attending Chester’s singing class.

 Defence/Defense Defense is standard in American English. Defence is found

mainly in British English.
 Emigrate/Immigrate Emigrate means to move away from a city or country to live
somewhere else: Chester’s grandfather emigrated from Canada sixty years ago.
Immigrate means to move into a country from somewhere else: Posey’s sister
immigrated to Ireland in 2004.

 E.g./I.e. These two Latin abbreviations are often mixed up, but e.g. means “for
example,” while i.e. means “that is.”

 Empathy/Sympathy Empathy is the ability to understand another person’s

perspective or feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of sorrow for someone else’s
suffering. A sympathizer is someone who agrees with a particular ideal or cause.

 Farther/Further Farther refers to physical distance: Posey can run farther than
Chester. Further refers to metaphorical distance: Chester is further away from
finishing his project than Posey is.

 Flaunt/Flout Flaunt means to show off: Chester flaunted his stylish new outfit.
Flout means to defy, especially in a way that shows scorn: Posey flouted the
business-casual dress code by wearing a tiara and flip-flops.

 Gaff/Gaffe A gaff is a type of spear or hook with a long handle: Chester completed
his sailor costume with a gaff borrowed from his uncle’s fishing boat. A gaffe is a
faux pas or social misstep: Posey made a gaffe when she accidentally called
Chester by the wrong name.
 Gray/Grey Gray is the standard American English spelling. Grey is the standard
British English spelling.

 Historic/Historical Historic means famous, important, and influential: Chester

visited the beach in Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historic
first airplane flight. Historical means related to history: Posey donned a historical
bonnet for the renaissance fair.

 Imply/Infer Imply means to hint at something without saying it directly: Chester

implied that Posey was in trouble, but he wouldn’t tell her why. Infer means to
deduce something that hasn’t been stated directly: Posey inferred that Chester
was nervous about something from the way he kept looking over his shoulder.

 It’s/Its It’s is a contraction of “it is”: Posey needs to pack for her trip because it’s
only two days away. Its is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to it”:
Chester is obsessed with both the book and its author.

 Lay/Lie To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is that there is
an a in both to lay and to place: Posey will lay out her outfit before she goes to
bed. To lie means to recline. One way to remember this is that there is an e in
both to lie and to recline: Chester will lie down for a nap. Be careful, though. The
past tense of to lay is laid: Posey laid out her outfit. The past tense of to lie is lay:
Chester lay down for a nap over an hour ago.
 Lead/Led Lead, when it rhymes with “bed,” refers to a type of metal: Posey wore
a lead apron while the dentist X-rayed her teeth. Led is the past tense of the verb
to lead, which means to guide or to be first: Chester led the way.

 Learned/Learnt Learned is standard in American English. Learnt is standard in

British English.

 Loose/Lose Loose is usually an adjective: Posey discovered that the cows were
loose. Lose is always a verb. It means to misplace something or to be unvictorious
in a game or contest: Chester was careful not to lose his ticket.

 Principal/Principle Principal can be a noun or adjective. As a noun, it refers to

the person in charge of a school or organization: Posey was called into the
principal’s office. As an adjective, it means most important: The principal reason
for this meeting is to brainstorm ideas for the theme of Chester’s birthday party.
A principle (always a noun) is a firmly held belief or ideal: Posey doesn’t like
surprise parties as a matter of principle.

 Inquiry/Enquiry Inquiry and enquiry both mean “a request for information.”

Inquiry is the standard American English spelling. Enquiry is the British spelling.

 Stationary/Stationery Stationary means unmoving: The revolving door remained

stationary because Posey was pushing on it the wrong way. Stationery refers to
letter writing materials and especially to high quality paper: Chester printed his
résumé on his best stationery.
  Than/Then Than is used for comparisons: Posey runs faster than Chester. Then is
used to indicate time or sequence: Posey took off running, and then Chester came
along and finished her breakfast.

 Their/There/They’re Their is the possessive form of “they”: Chester and Posey

took their time. There indicates a place: It took them an hour to get there. They’re
is a contraction of “they are”: Are Chester and Posey coming? They’re almost
here.

 To/Too To is a preposition that can indicate direction: Posey walked to school.

She said hello to Chester when she saw him. To is also used in the infinitive form
of verbs: Chester waited until the last minute to do his homework. Too is used as
an intensifier, and also means “also”: Posey waited too long to do her homework,
too.

 Toward/Towards Toward is standard in American English. Towards is standard

in British English.

 Who’s/Whose Who’s is a contraction of “who is”: Who’s calling Chester at this

hour? Whose is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to [someone]”:
Chester, whose phone hadn’t stopped ringing all morning, barely ate anything for
breakfast.

Memorandum

A memorandum is a written message that is typically used in a professional setting.

Commonly abbreviated "memo," these messages are usually brief and are designed to be
easily and quickly understood. Memos can thus communicate important information
efficiently in order to make dynamic and effective changes.

What Is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)?

A memorandum of understanding is an agreement between two or more parties outlined

in a formal document. It is not legally binding but signals the willingness of the parties to
move forward with a contract.

The MOU can be seen as the starting point for negotiations as it defines the scope and
purpose of the talks. Such memoranda are most often seen in international treaty
negotiations but also may be used in high-stakes business dealings such as merger talks.

An MOU is an expression of agreement to proceed. It indicates that the parties have

reached an understanding and are moving forward. Although it is not legally binding, it is
a serious declaration that a contract is imminent.

The term Memorandum of Understanding is commonly used for a non-binding contract,

that describes the intention of 2 people or businesses to work in consensus. An MoU
in India is, therefore, also known as the Letter of Intent.

KEY POINTS

 A memorandum of understanding (MOU) is a document that describes the broad

outlines of an agreement that two or more parties have reached.
 MOUs communicate the mutually accepted expectations of all of the parties involved
in a negotiation.
 While not legally binding, the MOU signals that a binding contract is imminent.
 The MOU is most often found in international relations.

However, simply calling an agreement a Memorandum of Understanding does not

automatically denote that a contract is non-binding. In the Indian legal scenario,
nomenclature of an agreement is irrelevant. The Supreme Court of India, in case of State of
Orissa & Others v. Titagar Paper Mills Company Ltd. & Another, has laid down that:

‘It is true that the nomenclature and description given to a contract are not determinative
of the real nature of the document or of the transaction thereunder. These, however, have
to be determined from all the terms and MOU clause of the document and all the rights
and results flowing therefrom and not by picking and choosing certain clauses.'

In essence, a Memorandum of Understanding embodies the understanding of parties with

respect to a particular transaction or a project which they wish to undertake. However,
the mere existence of a document with respect to an understanding reached between the
parties does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that such document is a contract.

As per the Indian Contract Act 1872, every agreement is not a contract. Only those
agreements which are legally binding are contracts which are enforceable by the court of
law. Hence, the question which arises is that is MOU legally binding in India?

Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 lay down the essential requirements of a
legally binding agreement or contract:

 There must be an offer made by one party and accepted by another

 The consent of the parties must be free and not affected by fraud, coercion, or undue
influence
 The parties must be competent to enter into a contract. This means that they must
be more than 18 years old, must be of sane mind, and not considered as
insolvent/bankrupt
 There must be a lawful consideration
 There must be a lawful object
 There must be an intention to create legal relations

MOU validity in India might fulfill the first-five requirements mentioned above. However,
if it lacks the intention to create legal relations, it is not a contract and is incapable of
specific performance.

Memorandum of Association – MoA Format

An organization is created when a group of individuals band together to accomplish a

common goal. This is normally for a commercial reason. Companies are typically created
to benefit from their operations. A business must be incorporated by applying with the
Registrar of Companies (ROC).

This submission must be accompanied by a variety of papers. The MoA [full form
Memorandum of Association] is one of the most important papers that must be presented
with the incorporation application.

What is MoA?

MOA full form – Memorandum of Association is a legal document that explains why the
organization was founded. It establishes the company’s authority and the terms under
which it works. It is a manual that includes all of a company’s laws and regulations for its
interactions with the outside world.
Any business must have a Memorandum of Association that specifies the extent of its
activities. The organization cannot work outside the limits of the document until it has
been prepared. If the corporation goes beyond its authority, the activity would be deemed
supra vires and therefore null.

It is the cornerstone upon which the business is built. The Memorandum of Association
lays out the company’s entire organization.

The memorandum is open to the media. Thus, all that is expected of an individual who
wishes to enter into contracts with the corporation is to pay the required fees to the
Registrar of Companies and receive the Memorandum of Association. He will learn all of
the company’s information from the Memorandum of Association.

It is the responsibility of everyone who does business with the firm to be aware of its
memorandum.

MoA Format:

A memorandum may take any of the forms mentioned in Tables A, B, C, D, and E of

Schedule 1 under Section 4(5) of the Companies Act. Because of the various types of
businesses, the tables are of various types.

Table A – It applies to a corporation with a share capital.

Table B – It applies to a limited-by-guarantee corporation that does not have a share

capital.

Table C – It applies to a company with a share capital that is protected by a guarantee.

Table D – It can be used by any unrestricted corporation that does not have a share
capital.

Table E – It can be used by any unrestricted company with a share capital.

The company memorandum should be typed, counted, and broken down into chapters. It
can also be signed by the company’s customers

Objectives in Registering MOA:

The Memorandum of Association is a crucial document that includes much of the

company’s information. It controls the company’s interaction with its stakeholders.
Section 3 of the Companies Act of 2013 states that a memorandum is required for
the registration of a corporation.

1. Seven or more employees are expected in the case of a public company.

 2. Two or more people are expected in the case of a private company.
3. Only one person is expected in the case of a one-person business.

Before registering the corporation with the Registrar, the involved parties may first agree
to a memorandum.

As a result, a Memorandum of Association is required for company registration. According

to Section 7(1)(a) of the Act, a company’s Memorandum of Association and Articles of
Association must be properly signed by the subscribers and registered with the Registrar
to be incorporated.

In addition to this, a memorandum contains other things. There are the following:

1. It helps shareholders to learn more about the business before purchasing stock. This
aids shareholders in determining how much money they can put into the venture.
2. It informs all partners that are interested in collaborating with the firm in some
way.

Clauses of the Memorandum of Association:

Contents of MOA

1. Name Clause
2. Registered Office Clause
3. Object Clause
4. Liability Clause
5. Capital Clause

Here, all five of the clauses are mentioned and explained below:

Name Clause: This section determines the company’s name. The company’s name should
not be the same as that of another business. Even, since it is a private
entity, the term “Private Limited” should be included at the top.

In the case of a public corporation, the term “Limited” should be added to

the end of its name.
Registered The name of the state in which the company’s registered office is located is
Office Clause: specified in this clause. This aids in determining the Registrar of
Companies’ authority.

Within 30 days of the company’s incorporation or commencement, the

company must notify the Registrar of Companies of the site of its
registered office.

Object This clause specifies the purpose for which the corporation was formed.
Clause: The following three subcategories can be included under the objectives:

Main Objective – States the main business of the company

Incidental Objective – These are the objects that aren’t directly related to
the company’s core goals.

Other objectives – Any other goals that the organization may achieve that
aren’t covered in (a) and (b) above (b)

Liability It specifies the company’s members’ responsibility. In an unrestricted

Clause: company, the members’ liability is unlimited, while in a company limited
by shares, the members’ liability is limited by the balance outstanding on
their share.

The members’ responsibility in a corporation limited by guarantee is

limited by the amount each partner has agreed to pay.

Capital This provision specifies the overall amount of capital that a corporation
Clause: can obtain, also known as the authorized/nominal capital.

This also illustrates how such a large sum of money is divided into a set
number of shares.

Notice: Notice is the legal concept describing a requirement that a party be aware of legal
process affecting their rights, obligations or duties. There are several types of notice:
public notice, actual notice, constructive notice, and implied notice.

Agenda: An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be taken
up, beginning with the call to order and ending with adjournment. It usually includes one
or more specific items of business to be acted upon. It may, but is not required to, include
specific times for one or more activities.

Minutes: Minutes, also known as minutes of meeting, protocols or, informally, notes, are
the instant written record of a meeting or hearing.

Writing a Job Application Letter: A job application letter (also known as a cover letter)
is a letter you send with your resume to provide information on your skills and
experience.1 This letter is your chance to “sell” yourself to an employer, explaining why
you are an ideal candidate for a position.

Writing a Job Application Letter – What Recruiters Expect?

Every individual needs a job that pays them well so as to be able to live a comfortable life.
In this competitive world, people find it really hard to get themselves placed in a good
company due to the little things they thought were not that important and did not take
into consideration. According to many, how you perform at the interview is all that
matters, but that is not true. The employer builds an opinion about you from the very
beginning. From the time you send in your job application, or your profile gets noticed on
an online platform, the employer notices each and every little detail. Your job application
letter is one of the first things that creates an impression about you in the eyes of the
recruiter, so it is vital that you understand how to write a job application letter and draft a
good one.

There are a few main aspects that recruiters look for when going through a job application
letter. They try to analyse how passionate you are about taking up the particular job.
Being genuine is one of the qualities that they look for in a potential candidate. How your
skills and experience would add value to the company or organisation is one of the most
important pointers they would be interested to know. You have got to convince the
recruiter that you are the right person for the job in the way you present the job
application letter.

Sample Job Application Letters

When you start writing your job application letter, keep in mind that a job application
letter is not something casual. It has to be written in the format of a formal letter. Know
how exactly you should write a job application letter by going through the sample job
application letters given below.

Formal Letter of Job Application for the Position of Cryptographer

589/22, Srilakshmi Nagar Block 3

Subbanna Palya Extension

Banaswadi, Bangalore North

560023

January 7, 2022

The HR Manager

Anton Technologies

Electronic City

Bangalore – 560012

Subject: Job application letter for the position of Cryptographer

Respected Sir,

This is with reference to the job posting on LinkedIn for the position of Cryptographer in
your esteemed organisation. I have carefully read the job description. I have also browsed
through your official website to understand the kind of work you do, and I am interested
in working with you.

I am an MSc Electronics graduate, and I have completed multiple diploma courses in Cyber
Security. I have hands-on experience of working in the field of cyber security for five
years. Planning and executing various security means, analysing and documenting
security systems, rebuilding and making arrangements for the safety of the security
system, writing and developing security codes are some of the areas I have good
experience with. I believe that I will be a good fit for the role in your company and that I
can do justice to the responsibilities I will have to take up.

I have enclosed my resume and work samples for your kind review.

Thank you for your time and consideration. Hoping to hear from you.

Yours sincerely,

Signature

Resume Writing
• Step 1. Choose a resume format

• Chronological Resume

This is the most popular resume format, especially for job seekers with lots of relevant
experience. This format lists your work history in reverse chronological order, with your
most recent jobs listed first. It’s ideal for:

 Job seekers with a lot of professional work experience.

 People with no employment gaps.
 Those who want to showcase their career progression over time.

• Functional Resume (also known as a Skills-Based Resume)

The functional resume is organized around your transferable skills and abilities rather
than your work history. It helps you downplay your lack of experience in a particular field.
While it is helpful for certain situations, it’s not always the best. Recruiters sometimes
don’t like the functional resume format because it can make it seem like you’re trying to
conceal something. So be wary of that.

Under each skill you list, try to add bullet points that provide specific examples of times
when you’ve used that skill. This format is ideal for:

 Recent graduates
 Entry-level job seekers
 Career changers
 Those with gaps in their employment history

• Hybrid Resume (also known as a Combination Resume)

A hybrid resume can be a great way to showcase both your work history and your skills.
For many job seekers, it’s the best resume format. With this format, you would begin with
a brief overview of your skills and accomplishments, followed by a chronological listing of
your employment history. This format is ideal for:

 Mid level job seekers with some experience in their field.

 Career changers who need to highlight transferable skills.
 People reentering the workforce.

• Step 2. Add your contact information and personal details

Name

Phone number
Location (City, State, Zip Code)

Email Address

LinkedIn profile URL

Do's

 Include your full name, including your middle initial if you have one. This will help
ensure that you’re easily found in online searches.
 If you have an unusual name or a name that could be easily mispronounced,
consider including a phonetic spelling to avoid confusion.
 You don’t need to include your full address but do add your city, state, and zip code.
Recruiters often search for local candidates first.
 Include a link to your professional website or online portfolio, if you have one.
 Create a strong LinkedIn profile and be sure to include the URL on your resume
(make sure it’s up to date).

Don'ts

 Never include a work phone number, only a personal number.

 Don’t include more than one phone number or email address. This will only confuse
hiring managers.
 Unless required, don’t include your date of birth. Employers may unknowingly
discriminate against older job seekers. It can also make it easier for identity thieves
to commit fraud.
 Don’t use a quirky or unprofessional email address. Instead create a new
professional sounding address just for your job search. Research has shown that
formal email addresses perform better on resumes than informal ones.
 Unless required, a headshot is unnecessary. How you look isn’t important, and a
photo takes up valuable space on your resume.
 If you use an outdated email service like Hotmail or AOL, consider creating a free
Gmail account for your job search.

• Step 3. Write a standout resume headline

Example: Teaching Professional with 10 years of experience.

Do's

 Always tailor your headline to each job you apply for.

 Use title case (capitalize the first letter of each word) and use a bold or slightly
larger font so the headline stands out visually.
  Position yourself as an expert in your field. This can help to set you apart from other
candidates who may not be as confident in their abilities.
 Use numbers and statistics to back up your claims. The applicant in the example
above uses “5 years experience” to highlight their expertise.
 Use attention-grabbing action verbs. The example above uses the verb “leading,”
which quickly tells employers what the applicant has accomplished.
 Be specific. Generic phrases such as “hard worker” or “team player” are nice, but
they don’t really tell employers anything. If you can, include a specific
accomplishment or skill that makes you stand out from the rest.

Don'ts

 Don’t make your headline too long or it will lose the reader’s attention. Keep your
headline under ten words to make sure it packs a punch.
 Avoid using jargon. Stick to language that can be easily understood by everyone.
 Don’t be too salesy. A resume headline is not the place to make a hard sell; instead,
focus on giving a snapshot of your skills and experience.
 Steer clear of clichés. With so many resumes to sift through, recruiters will
appreciate a fresh, original headline that cuts to the chase.

• Step 4. Add your resume summary statement or resume objective

Do's

 Keep it brief – no more than a few sentences or bullet points.

 Look for patterns in your work history – anything that you can point to and say “this
is what I do, and I’m good at it.”
 Focus only on your most relevant skills and experience.
 Use numbers and specifics to show that you are a results-oriented individual who is
able to produce tangible outcomes.
 Incorporate keywords from the job description whenever possible.
 Tailor your summary statement to each job you apply for.

Don'ts

 Don’t make bold claims that cannot be backed up.

 Don’t just list your job duties; instead focus on your accomplishments.
 Don’t include personal information unrelated to the job.
 Avoid using personal pronouns (I, me, or my).

• Step 5. Add keywords and skills.

• Step 6. Detail your work experience

  Company name and location – Include the full name of the company you worked
for followed by the city and state of its location.
 Job title – Be as specific as possible to ensure that employers know exactly what
your role was within the company.
 Start and end dates – Include the month and year for each position. If you only list
the year, it may appear as though you are omitting information.
 Achievements and responsibilities – These can be listed using bullet points.
Include hard numbers and metrics wherever possible.

• Step 7. Showcase your skills

• Step 8. Add your education and certifications

• Step 9. Additional resume sections (optional)

• Step 10. Format your resume so it can be easily read.

• Step 11. Add a cover letter

Different Types Of Presentations

1) Informative Presentations: An informative presentation is educational, concise,

and to the point. While other presentations may entertain or inspire, the main goal
of an informative presentation is to share information.
2) Instructive Presentations: A presentation that teaches something is similar to an
informative presentation, but it goes beyond sharing facts. It also instructs the
audience on a specific topic. People attend or view an instructive presentation with
the intention to learn, and they leave with a better understanding of the topic of the
presentation.
3) Persuasive Presentations: Many presentations hope to sell something or persuade
the audience to take certain actions. Persuasive presentations often present a
problem and explain their solution using data. Examples of persuasive presentations
include business pitches or sales proposals.
4) Motivational Presentations: One of the most prominent examples of inspiring
presentations? TED Talks. Many motivational speakers use TED Talks to inspire
people to think or change their behavior.
5) Decision Making Presentations: Need to make a decision within the company? A
presentation that shares a problem, solution options, and their outcomes can help
speed along the process. Decision making presentations might be found in business
meetings, government meetings, or all-hands meetings.
6) Progress Presentations: Imagine our hypothetical company decided on a
marketing strategy to meet their goals. Now that they have a campaign in place, they
need to report on the progress of said campaign. This sixth presentation type shares
 status updates, progress towards deadlines, collected data so far, any obstacles
popping up, and tasks that need to be added or adjusted.

Different Types of Interviews

 Telephonic Interview: This usually takes place with either the HR or recruitment
to assess the candidate in general. This may include asking interview questions
based on the resume, roles and responsibilities of the job profile. In most cases,
telephonic interviews are the first and last stage of the interview.
 Face-to-Face Interview: Once the candidate’s basic profile is screened and
shortlisted, it is processed further. The candidate and interviewer meet in person to
discuss your profile. This may include the employer, someone from Human
Resources or a recruitment consultant. Based on the interview round, you will
either be assessed in general or on technical grounds.

 Video Interview: These can be considered the substitute for the face-to-face
interview since it has a similar purpose. Video interviews happen in case of remote
positions or in situations when meeting the candidate is not possible. Video
interviewers were the most feasible type of interviews during the peak of COVID-19.
 Panel Interview: In this type of interview, there are multiple interviewers who
assess the candidate. All types of questions from expertise to future aspirations may
be covered in these interviews. These may include different professionals from the
team who assess the candidate on different grounds. The decision in such
interviews is collective. In such interviews, the candidate is keenly observed based
on their skill set and body language.
 Structured Interview: In such interviews, interviewers ask the same set of
questions from all candidates. These can be open-ended or close-ended questions. If
it is an open-ended question, then there can be multiple answers for a single
question. If it is a close-ended question, there will only be a single answer. In this
type of interview, the interviewer compares candidates based on their responses to
these questions.
 Unstructured Interview: Here, interviewers change questions based on the
candidate’s response to the previous questions. There is no set format and there can
be all types of interview questions that you may not predict. The interviewer may
already have questions or they might base them on the interview progress.
  Stress Interview: These are challenging in nature since the interview assesses your
response to stressful situations. Interviewers want to ensure that your response will
be constructive for the company. Such types of interview are common for high-
stress job profiles.
 Case Interview: Here, the interviewer gives you a situation and the associated
problem. This may be an imaginary or a real-life problem. They then ask for a
solution to the problem. The aim is to assess how good you are at problem-solving.
 Off-site Interview: These are informal interviews where the candidate and
interviewer meet at a place other than the office. The interviewer may invite the
candidate over lunch. The aim of such interviews is to assess your personality
outside the workplace.
 Individual Interviews: These interviews are one-on-one interviews that are
conducted between the interviewer and candidate. Such interviews help in a
detailed assessment of the candidate. This helps in a more accurate judgment of the
candidate.
 Group Interviews: Such types of interviews are conducted when there are multiple
candidates for a job opening. This helps in expediting the screening and recruitment
process. The candidates are screened and filtered out which ultimately leads to an
individual interview with the prospective employee.

Group Discussions can be divided into 3 types:

TOPICAL GROUP DISCUSSIONS

The matter for these types of Group discussion is based on current affairs or static
matters. Students are advised to be thorough with these and read newspapers daily to be
up to date. Also, these discussions are not time bound.

CASE-STUDIES

In this student are given situations especially out of a business and will be judged on how
they reach a solution to the problem. They will be required to analyse the situation and
give their views.

ABSTRACT GROUP DISCUSSIONS

This kind of discussion gives no outline of the topic, which means no one knows which
direction to take. The participants must use innovative strategies and ideas to steer the
discussion. The topic could be one word or a sentence, but no one usually knows what to
say on that or what the panel might like.

The process of GD Round follows the below-mentioned steps -

Step 1:- The very first stage of any GD is the announcement of the topic. The topic will be
declared by the panelist.

Step 2:- It's a preparation time where all the candidates will be given a time of 2 to 5
minutes for getting their content ready.

Step 3:- Now the discussion is started by one candidate and it can be anyone among the all
participants. After that, each participant gets a chance to speak and present their views in
front of the group.

Step 4: - Participants kept on speaking until the panelist ask them to summarize the
whole discussion. Sometimes panelists are just asked to summarize the topic and anyone
among all participants can summarize the discussion. But sometimes they ask the specific
candidate to summarize mostly the quiet person in the discussion so everyone can get an
equal chance. If they choose you then you make sure that you have heard all the
participants properly and deliver all the relevant points that summarize the topic.

Step 5:- This is the final step in this panelist declare the scores of discussion for each
candidate based on their performance.
UNIT-5

What Is Digital Communication?

Digital communication involves an organization’s online communication efforts. Most

organizations today use a wide range of digital communication channels—from their
website to mobile chat to blogs—to connect with current and prospective customers,
employees, and other stakeholders. They need digital marketing professionals who have a
keen understanding of how to leverage this convergence of technology and messaging to
their advantage. Digital communications professionals are responsible for everything
from creating online brand assets to building an engaged social media audience.

Types of Digital Communication:

• Email
• Instant messaging
• Project management apps
• Video conferencing software
• Audio notes
• Intranet
• Internal social media sites
• Websites
• Blogs
• Social media
• Live chat
• Chatbots
• Video chat
• Web calling
• Press releases
• Display advertising
• Mobile calls
• SMS text messages
• Instant messaging apps like WhatsApp
• Video calls

Nature of Digital Communication

a) Digital communication systems are simpler and cheaper compared to analog

communication systems because of the advances made in IC technologies.
 b) In Digital communication, the speech, video, and other data may be merged and
transmitted over a common channel using multiplexing.
c) Using data encryption, only permitted receivers may be allowed to detect the
transmitted data. This property is of its most important in military applications.
d) Since the transmission is digital and the channel encoding is used, therefore the
noise does not accumulate from repeater to repeater in long-distance
communications.
e) Since the transmitted signal is digital in nature, therefore a large amount of noise
interference may be tolerated.
f) Since in digital communication, channel coding is used, therefore the errors may be
detected and corrected in the receivers.
g) Digital communications are adaptive to other advanced branches of data processing
such as digital signal processing, image processing and data compression, etc.

Scope of Digital Communication

 It is fast and easier.

 No paper is wasted.
 The message can be stored in the device for a longer time, without being damaged,
unlike paper files that easily get damaged.
 Digital communication can be done over large distances through internet and other
things.
 It is comparatively cheaper and the work which requires a lot of time can be made
simple by one person as folders and other facilities can be maintained.
 It provides facilities like video conferencing which saves a lot of time, money and
efforts.
 Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.
 Internet is spread almost in every city and town. The compatibility of digital
communication systems with internet has opened new areas of countries.

USE OF DIGITAL TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR COMMUNICATION

In the 21st century, it would be foolish to assume that digital interactions are unnecessary
or unhelpful, so it’s imperative that organisations take advantage of modern-day
technology and the benefits it presents.
Organisations need to be inclusive and accessible for everyone, not just a select few, and
digital communication is the best way to go about this. Modern age customers, employees,
and stakeholders, all demand better experiences and seamless interactions.

Times are changing and it’s no longer feasible to deny the power of digital communication.
Organisations that bite the bullet and embrace digital communication are the ones
thriving whereas those that don’t keep up with the evolving digital landscape are
ultimately left behind.