Geometry: Some Definitions and Basic Information

Angle: Two straight lines drawn from the same point, and diverging from each other, form an
opening called an angle. An angle can be expressed by three letters with the middle letter
representing the vertex, or point of divergence. A single letter corresponding to the vertex can
also express an angle, or a letter placed within the angle such as “x” or, frequently a Greek letter
can serve the same purpose. The magnitude of an angle does not depend upon the length of
the lines forming the angle, rather it depends upon the distance between them, that is, the
amount of divergence separating one line from the other. The number of degrees of arc that the
sides of the angle intersect, assuming the center of the arc is placed at the vertex of the angle,
measures the magnitude of an angle. Angles are of three varieties: A right angle is an angle
where the two lines are perpendicular, or 90º, an obtuse angle contains more than 90º and an
acute angle contains less than 90º. An angle whose vertex is at the center of a circle is called a
central angle. An angle drawn within a circle whose vertex fall on the circles circumference is
called an inscribed angle.

Perpendicular: One line is perpendicular to another when the two angles formed by the two
lines are equal in magnitude. When using the sexigesimal system of circle measurement if
follows that the measure of the angles so formed would be 90º.

Parallel: Two lines are parallel if all perpendiculars drawn from one line to the other are equal in
length. It follows that if all perpendiculars drawn from one line to another line are equal in
length the two lines must be perpendicular.

Two geometric figures are said to be equal if they enclose an equal amount of space, or area. A
circle and triangle, for example will be equal if the area enclosed by each is the same.

Two geometric figures are said to be identical, or congruent, if they are equal in all their
respective parts, that is all angles and sides are equal in measure and they enclose exactly the
same area. Two identical figures will exactly superimpose with perfect coverage of one
over the other. Identical geometric figures are both the same size and the same
shape.

Two geometric figures are said to be similar if they are of the same shape but different size, that
is, all the angles of one are equal to all the corresponding angles of the other.

A triangle is a figure composed of three straight lines. If all three lines are the same length the
triangle is said to be equilateral. If two sides are the same length and the third side different the
triangle is called isosceles. If all three sides are of different length the triangle is said to be
scalene. A triangle with a right angle is called a right triangle. A right triangle can be either
isosceles or scalene.
It is common practice to draw a triangle with one side horizontal, as side AB in the triangle
above. This side, which is below the rest of the triangle, is called its base. The vertex opposite
the base is called the apex of the triangle. Also in the above triangle the side CD, drawn
perpendicular to the base up to the apex, is called the altitude. The length of this line is
frequently thought of as the height of the triangle. Of course any side of the triangle can serve
as the base. That being the case a triangle can have three possible altitudes. A general definition
for altitude would then be: An altitude of a triangle is a line drawn from any vertex
perpendicular to the opposite side.

A circle can be thought of as the set (or locus) of points equidistant from a fixed point called the
center. The set of points so designated is called the circumference of the circle. Any line
connecting the center of the circle to its circumference is called a radius of the circle. By
definition, all radii of a given circle must be equal in length. A circle can have an infinite number
of radii. Any line passing through the center of a circle that is terminated by the circumference is
termed a diameter of the circle. A diameter of a circle must necessarily be twice the length of
its radius. A circle can have an infinite number of diameters.

A quadrilateral is any figure composed of four straight lines called its sides.

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral that has both pairs of opposite sides parallel.

A rectangle is a quadrilateral where all four angles are right angles.

A square is a quadrilateral with four right angles and all four sides equal in length.

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral figure with one pair of opposite sides parallel. The
two parallel sides are referred to as the bases of the trapezoid.

A trapezium is a term for any quadrilateral that has no sides parallel.

A rhombus is a parallelogram with two adjacent sides equal, which, by

implication, means that all sides must be equal, making the figure equilateral.
All of the figures below are quadrilaterals
 The Propositions of Euclidian Geometry
1. All radii of the same circle are equal.
2. The construction of the equilateral triangle by means of the vesica.
3. Triangles which have two sides and the angle contained by them equal are
identical. (SAS)
4. In an isosceles triangle the angles at the base are equal.
5. Triangles which have all three sides equal are identical. (SSS)
6. To divide a straight line into two equal parts.
7. From a given point not on a straight line to draw a perpendicular to that line.
8. From a given point on a straight line to draw a perpendicular to that line.
9. The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into two equal parts.
10. A straight line which meets another straight-line forms with it two angles which
together are equal to two right angles.
11. A straight line drawn perpendicular to another straight line makes right angles
with it.
12. If two straight lines intersect the vertical, or opposite, angles are equal.
13. If a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, it is also perpendicular to
the other.
14. If one line is perpendicular to two other lines, these two lines are parallel.
15. The opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel.
16. The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.
17. A straight line falling upon parallel lines makes the alternate angles equal.
Corollary: In identical triangles the equal angles are always opposite equal
sides.
18. If one straight line falling upon two other lines makes the alternate angles
equal, these two lines are parallel.
19. If one line falls upon two parallel lines, it makes the interior angle equal to the
exterior.

20. If one line falling upon two other lines makes the internal angle equal to the
external, those two lines are parallel.
21. Through a given point to draw a parallel to a given line.

22. The three angles of a triangle taken together are equal to two right angles.
Corollary: If two angles of any triangle are known, the third is also known, for
it is that which the other two together require to be equal to two right angles.

23. If two triangles have two angles equal, they have also the third angle equal.

24. The exterior angle of any triangle is equal to the two interior and opposite
angles taken together.

25. Triangles which have two angles and the side which lies between them equal
are identical. (ASA)

26. If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite to those angles are
equal.

27. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

28. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have the same base,
are equal.

29. If a triangle and a parallelogram are upon the same base, and between the same
parallels, the triangle is equal to half the parallelogram

30. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have equal bases are
equal.

31. Triangles which are between the same parallels, and have equal bases, are
equal.

32. In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides. (The Pythagorean Theorem)

33. To draw the circumference of a circle through three given points.

34. If the radius of a circle bisects a chord, it is perpendicular to that chord.

Corollary: The two radii intersecting the endpoints of the chord, form with the given radius
two central angles which are also equal.

35. To find the center of a circle

36. To find the center of an arc of a circle.

37. If three equal lines meet in the same point within a circle, and are terminated at that point,
they are radii of that circle.

38. If the radius of a circle is perpendicular to a chord, the radius bisects both the chord and the
arc of the chord.

39. A straight line perpendicular to the extremity of a radius is a tangent to the circle.
Corollary: A perpendicular is the shortest line that can be drawn from any point to a given
line.

40. If a straight line is drawn touching a circumference, a radius drawn to the point of contact
will be perpendicular to the tangent.

41. The angle formed by a tangent and a chord is measured by half the arc of that chord.

42. An angle at the circumference of a circle is measured by half the arc which it contains (or, by
which it is subtended.)

43. The angle at the center of a circle is double the angle at the circumference.

44. Upon a given line, to describe a segment of a circle containing a given angle.

45. In every triangle the greater side is opposite to the greater angle, and the greater angle to
the greater side.

46. Two parallel chords intercept equal arcs.

47. If a tangent and a chord are parallel to each other, they intercept equal arcs.

48. The angle formed by the intersection of two chords is measured by half the arcs intercepted
by the two chords.

49. The angle formed by two secants is measured by half the difference of the two intercepted
arcs.

50. The angle formed by two tangents is measured by half the difference of the two intercepted
arcs.
Corollary: By the same logic it can be demonstrated that the angle formed by a tangent and
a secant meeting in the same point outside the circle, is measured by half the difference of
the two intercepted arcs.

51. To raise a perpendicular at the end of a given line segment.

52. From any point outside of a circle to draw a tangent to that circle.
53. The surface area of a rectangle is equal to the product of its two sides.

54. The surface area of a triangle is equal to half the product of its altitude and its base.

55. To measure the surface of any rectilinear figure.

56. The area of a circle is equal to half the product of its radius and circumference.

57. To draw a triangle equal to a given circle.

58. The area of parallelograms which are between the same parallel lines are to one another as
their bases.

59. Triangles which are between the same parallels are to one another as their bases.

60. If a line is drawn in a triangle parallel to one of its sides, it will cut the other two sides
proportionately.

61. Equiangular triangles have their homologous (or corresponding) sides proportional.

62. Triangles which have their sides proportional are equiangular. (or similar)

63. Triangles which have an angle in one equal to an angle in the other, and the sides adjacent
to these angles proportional, are equiangular. (similar)

64. A straight line which bisects any angle of a triangle divides the side opposite to the bisected
angle into two segments, which are proportional to the other two sides.

65. To find a fourth proportional to three given lines.

66. To find a third proportional to two given lines.

67. If four lines be proportional, the rectangle, or product of the extremes is equal to the
rectangle or product of the means.

68. Four lines which have the rectangle or product of the extremes equal to the rectangle or
product of the means are proportional.

69. If four lines are proportional, they are also proportional alternately.

70. If four lines are proportional, they will be proportional by composition. (Or addition)

71. If four lines be proportional, they will also be proportional by division.

72. If three lines are proportional, the first is to the third as the square of the first is to the
square of the second.

73. If two chords in a circle cut each other, the rectangle of the segments of one is equal to the
rectangle of the segments of the other.

74. To find a mean proportional between two given lines.

75. The bases and altitudes of equal triangles are in reciprocal or inverse ratio.

76. Triangles which have the bases and altitudes in reciprocal or inverse ratio are equal.

77. Two secants drawn from the same point to a circle are in the inverse ratio of the parts
which lie outside the circle.

78. The tangent to a circle is a mean proportional between the secant and the part of the
secant which lies outside of the circle.

79. To divide a line in extreme and mean ratio: The Golden Mean.
 Proposition 4
In an isosceles triangle the angles at the base are equal.

B D C

Draw any isosceles triangle such as ABC above. Drawing a central

angle such that sides AB and AC are radii of the circle will
automatically create an isosceles triangle when points B and C are
connected. Side BC will then be considered the base of the triangle. If
D is the midpoint of side BC then line AD creates two angles BAD
and DAC, which are equal. It is clear that triangles BAD and DAC
must be identical because side BA equals side AC, (since they are
both radii of the same circle), side AD is common to both triangles
and angles BAD and DAC being equal we have satisfied the criterion
of Proposition III, the Side-Angle-Side proposition. Therefore,
triangles BAD and DAC must be identical, and that being the case the
angle at B must be equal to the angle at C.
 Propositions 3, 5 and 25
Triangle Congruency Propositions

In working with and understanding geometric figures it is very important to have a thorough
knowledge of the properties of triangles. Most complex figures can be decomposed into a
number of triangles whose separate properties can aid in understanding the properties of the
whole figure.
There are three propositions that can be employed to prove that two or more triangles are
congruent, or identical. Recall that each triangle can be thought of as consisting of 6 parts— 3
sides and 3 angles. Let’s consider the two triangles below.

A D In either triangle it is enough to show that

if 3 parts of one correspond to 3 parts of
the other the triangles will be identical
(with two exceptions). For example, if the
side AB in the triangle ABC equals in
length the side DE in the triangle DEF, and
side AC in the first equals in length the
B C E F side DF of the second, and the angle at A
equals in measure the angle at D, then
triangle ABC will exactly superimpose
onto triangle DEF with a perfect fit. Side BC will exactly cover side EF, angle B will exactly equal
angle E and angle C will exactly equal angle F. This proposition is typically known as the Side-
Angle-Side Proposition or S.A.S. for short. The Side-Angle-Side Proposition is used in the next
proposition to prove an important property of isosceles triangles.

Proposition 3: Triangles which have two sides and the angle contained by them equal are
identical.

Also, it should be obvious without a lengthy, formal discussion that if the three sides of one
triangle equal in length the three sides of the other, the triangles are identical, that is, if side AB
equals side DE, side AC equals side DF and side BC equals side EF there can be no other
outcome than perfect congruency between the two triangles. This proposition, numbered 5 in
our sequence, is known as the Side-Side-Side Proposition, or S.S.S. for short.

Proposition 5: Triangles which have their three sides equal are identical.

Finally, if any two angles of one triangle equal corresponding angles in the other, and the
sides contained between them are equal in length, the two triangles must be identical. For
example, in the triangles above, if angle A equals angle D and angle B equals angle E, and the
sides AB and DE are equal in length, then all the rest of the parts must coincide and the two
triangles are identical. This is the Angle-Side-Angle Proposition (A.S.A.) and is numbered 25 in
our sequence.
Proposition 25: Triangles which have two angles and the side which lies between them equal
are identical.

The side length in question must lie between the two equal angles to guarantee congruency.
While two sides and one angle, two angles and one side, or three sides equal can prove
congruency of triangles, three angles equal does not mean the triangles are identical, that is,
there is no Angle-Angle-Angle proposition of congruency. Obviously, two identical triangles will
have all corresponding angles equal; however the converse is not true. Two triangles can have
their corresponding angles equal but be of widely different size. For example, a triangle of side
lengths 3, 4 and 5 units will have the same angles as a triangle of side lengths 6, 8 and 10 units.
The triangles will be the same shape, but different size. Triangles that have the same shape but
different size are called similar triangles.
 Proposition 9
The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into two
equal parts

Given any circle such as ADBF shown below. The diameter ACB bisects the
circumference, that is, the diameter divides the circumference into two equal arcs.

C
A B

If we were to fold the circle along diameter ACB we would easily see that arc AFB
exactly superimposes upon arc ADB. Point F must fall directly upon the top of point D
since, by definition, all radii of the same circle are equal. If Point F did not fall upon point
D then clearly, we would not have a circle. Likewise all points of arc AFB will necessarily
fall upon arc ADB. Since the two arcs are exactly equal if follows that the diameter has
divided the circumference into two equal parts, or put another way, it has bisected the
circle.
 Proposition 10
A straight line which meets another straight-line form with it two
angles which together are equal to two right angles.

Below are two lines ACB and DCF which intersect at point C. Circle KLMN is any circle
of convenient size. The Line DC meets the line AB and forms two angles that we call
Angle DCA and Angle DCB. Together these two angles must always equal two right
angles, or 180 degrees. This should be obvious when we consider that ML could be
visualized as a diameter of the circle and therefore it divides the circle in half, that is, the
arc MKL is exactly half the circumference of circle KLMN, or 180°.
 Proposition 11
A straight line drawn perpendicular to another straight line makes right angles
with it.

This is another of those propositions that seem so obvious it isn’t worth stating. But
again, it must be understood that even the most complex geometric figures can be
analyzed and understood as combinations of simpler figures, and those in turn may be
combinations of yet simpler ones, until we arrive at a set of relations that is intuitively
and logically evident. We know from our definition of right angles that if Angle ADC is
equal to and adjacent to Angle CDB, then line CD must be perpendicular to line AB,
from which we conclude that ADC and CDB are right angles.
 Proposition 12
If two straight lines intersect the vertical, or opposite, angles are equal.

Given are two lines AB and DF that intersect each other in point C. We term angles
ACD and BCF vertical, or opposite angles. Likewise angles DCB and ACF are opposite
angles. Visually, it is easy to see that ACD and BCF are equal and that DCB and ACF
are equal. If either line, say for example line AB, were to rotate about point C, let’s say
in a counterclockwise direction, angles ACD and BCF would shrink by an equal amount,
while DCB and ACF would grow by an equal amount, always staying the same size. For
practice let’s analyze the figure with geometric logic. The circle KLMN is centered upon
point C. Notice that the line MCL is a diameter of the circle, therefore arc MKL is half the
circle. Also line KCN can be visualized as a diameter of the circle, hence arc KLN is half
the circle. Since arcs MKL and KLN are each half of the same circle they are equal to
each other. The arc from K to L is common to both MKL and KLN. If we take away this
common arc then what remains are arcs KM and LN, which must be equal since we
have taken the same thing away from equal arcs. Refer to the third axiom of the
General Axioms of Euclidian Geometry: If equals are taken from equals the
remainders are equal. Finally since arcs KM and LN are equal, the angles that contain
them must also be equal, that is, angle ACD = angle BCF, which was to be proven. This
may seem like overkill for something that is so intuitively obvious, but it serves as a
good example of how geometric logic works, which is a method that will prove its value
when dealing with relations that are not intuitively obvious.
 Proposition 17

A straight line falling upon parallel lines makes the alternate

angles equal.

Given parallel lines MN and PQ cut by the transversal GH, forming

points A and B.
H

B
M N

P Q
A

From point A draw a line perpendicular to PQ intersecting line MN in

point B and from point C draw a line perpendicular to line MN
intersecting PQ in point D.

B C
M N

P Q
A

G
Since the line AB is perpendicular to Dthe line PQ it is also perpendicular
to the line MN, which is parallel to PQ. Also, since line CD is
perpendicular to MN it is perpendicular to PQ as well. (Refer to
Proposition 13). The quadrilateral figure ABCD therefore has 4 right
angles and is a rectangle, whence the opposite sides are equal in
length. (Refer to Propositions 15 and 16)
So, in the triangles ABC and CDA the sides BC and AD are equal; the
sides AB and CD are equal; and the side AC is common to both
triangles. Therefore the two triangles ABC and CDA have all their three
sides equal and are identical. (Prop. 5) From this it follows that their
three corresponding angles are equal, and hence, the angle ACB must
equal the angle CAD.
H

B C
M N

P Q
A D

It was the understanding of this relationship between two parallel

lines and a transversal cutting the two lines that made it possible for
Eratosthenes to calculate the circumference and diameter of the
Earth by using a vertical well shaft and a vertical stick to measure the
angles of shadows cast by the Sun at high noon on the day of the
Summer Solstice.
 Proposition 22
The three interior angles of any triangle, when added together are
equal to two right angles, or 180⁰.

Given: Triangle ABC; interior angles x, y and z; parallel lines mn and

pq.

A
m n
r y s

p x z q
B C

First note that angles r, y, and s when added are equal to two right
angles, or 180º.
Second, considering that lines mn and pq are parallel, sides AB and
AC of triangle ABC could be thought of as transversals. This being
the case it is clear, from Proposition 17, that angle r must be equal to
angle x, since they are alternate angles, and, likewise, angle s and
angle z are alternate angles as well and must therefore be equal. So,
since angles r and s added to angle y sums to 180º, the angles x and
z which are their equals, must also, when added to angle y, sum to
180º, which was to be proven.
 Proposition 24

The exterior angle of any triangle is equal to the two interior

and opposite angles added together.

Place any triangle ABC upon a line such as mn below

A
y

m x z w n
B C

Referring to angles z and w it is apparent at once that they are equal

to two right angles, or 180º, when added together. However, it is also
true, from Proposition 22, that angles x and y, when added to angle z
are also equal to 180º. From this it follows that the angle w must be
equal to angles x and y added together.
GEOMETRY: Master Key to penetrating the Wall of Mystery
Atalanta Fugiens – 1617
REBIS: Divine consummation of the Great Work
Occulta Philosophia (1613)
 A SUMMARY OF SOME ANCIENT AND TRADITIONAL UNITS OF MEASURE

Units of Length

SUMERIAN SHUSI - Determined from studies of Gudea's tablet, found in 1881 by de Sarzec while
excavating the ruins of Lagash. The tablet contains the inscribed ground plan of a temple
accompanied by a graduated rule with sixteen equal subdivisions. Additional tablets displayed
the same graduated rule. From the tablets, now in the Louvre the length of the Sumerian foot
and digits were determined. The digit, called a shusi in the cuneiform texts, was found to be equal
in length to .66 inches.

SUMERIAN FOOT - Two versions of the Sumerian foot have been determined, a long and a short
version. The shorter foot is taken to be equal in length to the graduated rule found on Gudea's
and other tablets, that is 16 shusi. The longer version is known from references in the cuneiform
tablets to be equal to 20 shusi. The larger and smaller versions of the foot correspond to a
masculine and feminine foot, respectively.

SUMERIAN CUBIT - From evidence in the cuneiform texts it was determined that there existed in
ancient Sumeria a cubit which was equal in length to 30 shusi.

REMAN - An Egyptian unit of linear measure, analyzed by F. H. Griffith in 1892, and by William
Flinders Petrie and A. E. Berriman. It was considered to be equal to 20 digits or 14.58 inches. A.E.
Berriman in his work, Historical Metrology, refined the length of the Reman to 1.2165 feet.

ROYAL CUBIT - Discovered by Isaac Newton in his analysis of the dimensions of the King's
Chamber of the Great Pyramid which he based upon the survey of astronomer and
mathematician John Greaves in 1637. Also mentioned in the writings of Herodotus in his
description of the city of Babylon. With slight variations the accepted length of the Royal Cubit is
taken as 1.72 feet or 20.6265 inches.

INDUS INCH - Berriman's analysis of the published excavations of Mohenjo-daro in the Indus
Valley led him to conclude that there was in use in that ancient city a unit of length equal to 1.32
inches, or precisely equivalent to two Sumerian shusi. He found confirmation for the existence
of the Indus inch in the survival into modern times of "Akbar's yard" in India, which was exactly
33 British inches long, making it equal to 25 Indus inches.

SPAN- The distance between the tip of the thumb and the tip of the little finger when the hand
is fully extended, generally taken as 9 inches. The Chinese had an equivalent measure of 9 inches
called the ch'ih. A double span gives the Hebrew cubit of 18 inches.

ASSYRIAN FOOT - Measurements made of Babylonian ruins by Assyriologist Jules Oppert in 1853
disclosed the usage of a unit of length equal to 1.08 modern feet.
PALESTINIAN CUBIT - Knowledge of the Palestinian Cubit survives in the writings of Epiphanius,
a Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus, who wrote a treatise on weights and measures in A.D. 392.
Conforms to the cubit of the altar as mentioned in Ezekiel 43 : 13, that is, the cubit and a
handbreadth. The Palestinian cubit is generally taken as 25.284 inches or 2.107 feet.

GREEK FOOT - Known from measurements of the "pes" on the monument to Statilius Aper in the
Vatican gardens, from ancient writers and from the measure of the Parthenon which was exactly
100 Greek feet in width. It was in relation to the Roman foot the same as 25/24, making the Greek
foot equal to 12.1375 British, or modern, inches. There was also a shorter Greek foot in use which
was equal to 12.096 modern inches. Livio Stecchini gives the length of the Greek foot as
1.0114606 ft. or 12.1375272 inches.

GREEK CUBIT - The Greek cubit was found by Berriman to be equal to 25 digits, or 18.225 inches.

ROMAN DIGIT - Considered by Berriman to be a perpetuation of an Egyptian digit equal to .729

inches. From ancient writers it is known that 16 of these digits were equal to a Roman foot.

ROMAN FOOT - The Roman foot has been determined through measures of extant Roman
architecture, such as the survey of the Parthenon made by Stuart (c. 1750) and by Penrose (c.
1888), and by being precisely represented on certain ancient Roman monuments, such as that
of Statilius Aper's monument, as first recorded by Greaves in 1639, and through the writings of
various ancient authors. The Roman foot consisted of 16 Roman digits, making it 0.972 English
feet, or 11.664 inches.

ROMAN PACE - 1/1000th of the Roman mile equal to 8 stades of 607.5 feet, hence equal to 4.86
feet. This would make the half pace, or stride, equal to 2.43 feet.

MEGALITHIC YARD - Discovered by the Scottish engineer, Alexander Thom, who in the 1960's
and 70's surveyed and analyzed over 500 megalithic remains and stone circles throughout the
British Isles. The megalithic yard was determined by Thom to be equal to 2.72 feet ±0.003 feet.

FATHOM - A unit of length used chiefly in nautical and mining measurements, standardized at 6
feet.

REED- A Hebrew unit of length from the Bible equal to 6 cubits.

POLE- A British unit of length measure equal to 16 1/2 feet. Equivalent to a "rod."

CHAIN- Also called a "Gunter's chain" or a "surveyors chain" used for land measure, consisting of
100 links with a total length of 66 feet.

LINK- One 1/100 of a Gunter's chain.

FURLONG - An ancient British unit of measure equaling one eighth of a mile or 220 yards. The
furlong is still in use today in horse racing.

STADE- An ancient Greek unit of length, whose length varied somewhat depending on location
in Greece, equal at Athens to 607 British feet. The stade was the length of a Greek foot-racing
course, usually semi-circular. From this root word comes the English term stadium. Also called a
stadia.

STATUTE MILE - A traditional British land unit of measure, equal to 5280 feet, derived originally
from 1000 paces with an average length of 5.28 feet. The term mile is from the Latin term milia,
meaning a thousand.

NAUTICAL MILE - A traditional unit of sea measure, now standardized in America at 6080.20 feet
and in Great Britian at 6080 feet.

MEGALITHIC MILE - Deduced by scholar J.F. Neal from an extensive analysis of the intervals
between megalithic sites in Great Britain. Because it bore virtually the same relation to the
statute mile as the Megalithic Yard of Thom bore to the foot, Neal called the unit a Megalithic
Mile. John Michell noted that Neal's Megalithic Mile was identical to the Indo-Chinese Pu,
identified in L. D'A Jackson's Modern Metrology as being equal to 2.727272 Statute miles. Neal
observed that the distance from Stonehenge to Silbury Hill was precisely 6 Megalithic Miles.

LEAGUE - A unit of distance usually taken as three miles. A square league was used as a unit of
land measure.

Square Land Measure

ENGLISH ACRE- The English acre is the same acre as that presently used in the U.S. to measure
land area. The size of an acre has varied somewhat but has been standardized at 1/640 of a
square mile. The term goes back to a Greek word meaning "open land" or "plowed field."
Ultimately the standard for land measure was considered to be the amount a land a yoke of oxen
might plow in one day, that being approximately equal to an acre.

EGYPTIAN AROURA - An Egyptian unit of square land measuring 100 Royal Cubits on each side.

HIDE - An old English measure of land, usually 120 acres, considered adequate to support one
family and dependents.

TOWNSHIP - In U.S. surveys of public land a region of 6 miles square subdivided into 36 sections.
From traditional usage the district of land containing a village or small town.
NIVARTANA - An ancient Hindu unit of land measure equal to 20 x 20 "bamboo poles." A bamboo
pole is equal to 10 cubits of 18 inches which is the same as the modern Hebrew cubit (and the
traditional English cubit.)

ROMAN JUGERUM - A Roman square land measure equal to 165 feet on a side, or 27,225 square
feet.

Weight

GRAIN- The smallest unit of weight measure in most systems, originally determined by the weight
of a plump grain of wheat. There are 7000 grains in the pound avoirdupois.

TALENT - an ancient unit of weight, varying with time and place, the later Attic talent being
estimated at about 58 lbs. avoirdupois, and the Hebrew talent about double this. (Ency.Brit.)
According to the researches of Stecchini the Egyptian talent "brutto" was equal to 27,000 grams
(59.52 lbs.). He also derived the existence of a second talent, the talent "netto" whose weight
was 24/25 that of the brutto.

SHEKEL - an ancient, orig. Babylonian unit of weight, of varying value (taken as equal to the fiftieth
or sixtieth part of a mina — about half an ounce. Also the chief silver coin of the Hebrews. Louis
K. Bell in his studies of ancient and biblical metrology refines the weight of the "shekel of the
sanctuary" as .59246 ounce.

POUND- A unit of mass and weight. The pound commonly used for most purposes in the U.S. and
Britain is the pound avoirdupois divided into 16 ounces. The pound troy is generally used for
measuring/weighing precious metals and is also the basis for apothecaries weight.

OUNCE- A unit of weight equal to 1/16 pound avoirdupois, or 1/12 of a pound troy. In the
troy/apothecaries ounce there are 480 grains. In the avoidupois ounce there are 437.5 grains.

Sources used in compiling the Summary of Some Ancient and Traditional Units of Measure:
(compiled for the Monograph entitled "Sacred Metrology" by R.C.)

Wienke-Lotz, Hildegard (1990) The Origin of Time Measurements: in Full Measure: The Best of
Stonehenge Viewpoint, ed. by Donald L. Cyr

Bell, Louis K. (1990) Quality of Numbers: ibid.

Thom, Alexander (1967) Megalithic Sites in Britain Oxford University Press, Reprinted 1976
Dilke, O.A.W. (1987) Mathematics and Measurement: Reading the Past, University of California
Press/British Museum

Berriman, A.E. (1953) Historical Metrology: A new analysis of the archaeological and the
historical evidence relating to weights and measures: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. London and E.P.
Dutton & Co. N.Y.

Stecchini, Livio Catullo (1971) Notes on the Relation of Ancient Measure to the Great Pyramid:
Appendix to Secrets of the Great Pyramid by Peter Tompkins, Harper Colophon Books, Harper &
Row Publishers, 1971

Encyclopædia Brittannica (1963 ed.) Vol 23 under Weights and Measures

The American College Dictionary (1967 ed.) Random House, N.Y.