BASIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

There are six primary instruments in aircraft. They are;

1 Altimeter,
2 Airspeed Indicator ASI),
3 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI).
4 Turn and bank indicator,
5 Attitude Indicator (AI) or Artificial Horizon,
6 Directional Gyro or Heading Indicator (HI).
The basic instruments are classified into;

1 Gyroscopic instruments
2 Pitot-static instruments

Gyroscopic Instruments
A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity. It is
a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself.

The gyroscopic instruments use a mechanical gyroscope that is either pneumatically (vacuum) or
electrically driven. The gyroscope consists of a spinning disc that rotates freely around specific
axes, depending on the instrument.
In an electrically driven gyroscope (such as in the turn coordinator), the spinning disc is rotated by
an electric motor. In a vacuum system, a vacuum pump driven by the engine reduces the pressure

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inside the instrument case. Filtered air is then directed into the case at high speed over the disc,
which causes it to rotate at high speed.
The principle that makes a gyroscope suitable for use in aircraft instruments are;
1 Rigidity in Space
2 Precession

Rigidity in Space
Rigidity in space (also known as gyroscopic inertia) is caused by the spinning disc inside the
mechanical gyro. This spinning disc will maintain a constant attitude as long as no external forces
act upon it. The stability of the spinning disc increases with an increase in mass or speed of the
disc. The discs inside the mechanical gyros of aircraft instruments are constructed of heavy-duty
materials to allow the disc to spin at very high speeds. The gyroscopes inside these instruments
spin at around 10,000 Revolutions per Minute (RPM).
Because the spinning disc maintains a constant position in space, it can be used to determine the
aircraft’s attitude relative to the spinning disc. The aircraft effectively moves around this spinning
disc as the gimbals (the frames around the spinning disc) move freely.
Precession
In addition to rigidity in space, a gyroscope experiences another phenomenon called precession.
When a force is applied to a gyroscope (a spinning disc), the force will not act in the position that
the force is applied but will precess at 90 degrees in the direction of rotation of the spinning disc
and act through there. In other words, if a force is applied to a spinning disc, it will “tilt” or “turn”.
Precession is primarily caused by the friction inside a gyroscope and forces experienced during
maneuvers such as acceleration or deceleration.
Due to this precession, gyroscopic instruments suffer from “drift”, causing incorrect readings.
Pilots must therefore constantly crosscheck gyroscopic instruments, and their indications must be
adjusted accordingly.

The Attitude Indicator

The Attitude Indicator (AI), sometimes referred to as the Artificial Horizon (AH), is the primary
attitude instrument in the aircraft.
The AI provides the pilot with information on the aircraft’s bank angle and pitch angle in relation
to the horizon. This allows the pilot to interpret the attitude of the aircraft and adjust accordingly.
The AI forms the basis of the instrument scan, as the AI is a good indication of what the other
instruments will indicate. For example, if the AI indicates a bank angle other than the wings level,
there is a good chance that the heading indicator will indicate a turn in the direction of the bank.
The AI is particularly effective during Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight, where the outside
horizon may not be available.

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The AI displays specific markings that allow the pilot to determine the pitch and bank angle the
aircraft is experiencing with great accuracy.
Vacuum-driven attitude indicators are typically limited to 100 degrees of bank angle and 60
degrees of pitch angle. If these limits are exceeded, the attitude indicator will “topple” until the
aircraft returns its pitch and bank angle within limits and the AI regains a correct position. It may
take a few seconds to several minutes for the gyroscope inside the AI to stabilize and the instrument
to indicate correctly.

The Heading Indicator

The Heading Indicator (HI), also referred to as the Direction Indicator (DI) or Directional Gyro
(DG), is the primary horizontal direction indicator in the aircraft.
The HI suffers from drift errors and needs to be periodically corrected to the correct heading by
using the magnetic compass.
Some heading indicators have a heading bug feature, which allows the pilot to move a colored
marking to any heading on the HI for reference.
The Heading Indicator should not be confused with the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), which
is an evolution of the Heading Indicator that includes VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) and
Instrument Landing System (ILS) indications.

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 The Turn Coordinator
The Turn Coordinator, also known as the turn and bank indicator, is a further development of the
turn and slip indicator that provides information relating to the angle of the bank and coordination
of the aircraft.
The aircraft is in coordinated flight when the rudder input prevents the aircraft from slipping or
skidding in a turn (similar to a car) or when its tailplane is aligned with its flight path during
straight flight.
This information is displayed by a “ball” in the instrument itself. This ball is located in a tube filled
with fluid and can move freely to the right and left. For example, when the ball is displaced to the
left, this informs the pilot that left rudder input is required.
The bank angle information is provided either by a miniature aircraft or a vertical line that rotates
in the direction of the bank. The turn coordinator has four white demarcations. These demarcations
indicate a wings-level position and the bank angle required for a standard rate turn (sometimes
referred to as a “rate one turn”). A standard rate turn is at 3 degrees per second and is the preferred
rate of turn during Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) operations.

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 Pitot-Static Instruments
The instruments that use the pitot-static system are;
1 airspeed indicator,
2 altimeter and
3 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI).
The pitot-static system is used to measure the static and dynamic pressure of the air during flight.
This information is used to determine altitude, rate of climb or descent (i.e., vertical speed), and
airspeed.
The pitot-static system consists of one or more pitot tubes and static ports. Usually, on general
aviation aircraft, only one of each is required.
The pitot tube is a tube that is positioned into the relative airflow during flight. Ram air pressure
(Nearly equal to total air pressure) is measured by allowing air to enter the tube through a small
hole at the front. The air pressure measured by the pitot tube is sometimes referred to as pitot
pressure to avoid confusion between ram and total air pressure.
The static ports are usually mounted on the fuselage of the aircraft and measure static pressure.
Often multiple static ports are mounted around the aircraft for greater accuracy.
A pitot-static tube is a variation of the regular pitot tube with a static port incorporated into its
design. This is achieved through holes around the probe that are not affected by the airflow directly.

The Airspeed Indicator

The airspeed indicator, as the name would suggest, measures the aircraft’s airspeed. Airspeed is a
critical metric during flight, and the airspeed indicator is a vital piece of equipment. An aircraft’s

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airspeed determines its performance, and many systems, such as the flaps and landing gear, have
limitations based on airspeed.
The airspeed indicator uses both the static ports and pitot tubes to determine dynamic pressure.
Static pressure from the static ports is “subtracted” from the total pressure measured by the pitot
tube, which provides dynamic pressure (which is a measure of airspeed). The airspeed indicator is
the only pitot-static instrument that uses both the static ports and pitot tubes.
The airspeed indicator consists of colored rings within the dial. These colored rings indicate
different speed ranges of the aircraft. The green ring denotes the normal operating speed (𝑉𝑁𝑂 )
range, while the white arc denotes the flap operating speed or flap extended speed (𝑉𝐹𝐸 ). The
yellow arc represents the caution range and should only be entered in calm air, while the red arc
marks the never exceed speed (𝑉𝑁𝐸 ).

Altimeter
When adjusted to the correct barometric pressure setting, the altimeter (also referred to as an
altitude meter) indicates the aircraft’s altitude above Mean Sea Level (MSL).
The altimeter uses information from the static ports of the aircraft to determine the static pressure.
Aneroid capsules inside the altimeter expand or contract based on the static pressure experienced,
which moves a series of gears and linkages that display altitude information.
The altimeter has two needles, one long and one short. The altimeter is read like a clock, where
the short needle indicates thousands of feet, and the long needle indicates hundreds of feet.

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 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) is an instrument that displays rate of climb and descent of the
aircraft by measuring rate-of-pressure changes
This information helps the pilot determine the aircraft's trend and reacts before changes in the
altimeter is sensed allowing the pilot to be alerted quicker
Calibrated differently depending on the country and its use as:Feet Per Minute (FPM), Meters Per
Second (MPS) and Nautical Miles Per Hour (Knots)
The VSI is sometimes referred to as a variometer or vertical velocity indicator (VVI) or rate of
climb and descent indicator (RCDI)
Like the altimeter, the aneroid capsule inside the VSI expands and contracts based on the change
in altitude, and the rate of change of pressure is measured and displayed on the VSI as a Rate of
Climb or Descent (ROC/D).

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