Contents

1 Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis 2

1.3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Measures of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 General Types of Statistical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Probability 8
2.1 Sample Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Counting Sample Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Probability of an Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Additive Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Conditional Probability, Independence, and the Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Bayes’ Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Random Variable and Probability Distribution 26

3.1 Concepts of a Random Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Discrete Probability Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Continuous Probability Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Joint Probability Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4 Mathematical Expectation 39
Chapter 1 Section 1.3

1 Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis

Chapter 1: List of selected problems:

1, 2 (Page 13), 7, 8 (Page 17), 13, 14, 24, 25 (Page 30-32).

1.3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median

1. The following measurements were recorded for the drying time, in hours, of a certain brand of latex paint.

3.4 2.5 4.8 2.9 3.6

2.8 3.3 5.6 3.7 2.8
4.4 4.0 5.2 3.0 4.8

Assume that the measurements are a simple random sample.

(a) What is the sample size for the above sample?
(b) Calculate the sample mean for these data.
(c) Calculate the sample median.
(d) Plot the data by way of a dot plot.
(e) Compute the 20% trimmed mean for the above data set.
(f) Is the sample mean for these data more or less descriptive as a center of location than the trimmed mean?

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

2.5, 2.8, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 4.0, 4.4, 4.8, 4.8, 5.2, 5.6.

(a) Sample size, n = 15.

15
1 X 56.8
(b) Sample mean, x = xi = ≈ 3.7867.
15 15
i=1

(c) Sample median, x̃ = x(8) = 3.6.

(d) Dot plot:

× ×
× ××× ×× ×× × × × × ×
2.5

2.8
2.9
3.0

3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7

4.0

4.4

4.8

5.2

5.6

34.7
(e) 20% trimmed mean, xtr(20) = ≈ 3.8556.
9
(f) For theses data, the sample mean is more descriptive as a center of location than the trimmed mean
as the sample mean is located nearer to the sample median.

2. According to the journal Chemical Engineering, an important property of a fiber is its water absorbency. A
random sample of 20 pieces of cotton fiber was taken and the absorbency on each piece was measured. The
following are the absorbency values:

Page 2
Chapter 1 Section 1.3

18.71 21.41 20.72 21.81 19.29 22.43 20.17

23.71 19.44 20.50 18.92 20.33 23.00 22.85
19.25 21.77 22.11 19.77 18.04 21.12

(a) Calculate the sample mean and median for the above sample values.
(b) Compute the 10% trimmed mean.
(c) Do a dot plot of the absorbency data.
(d) Using only the values of the mean, median, and trimmed mean, do you have evidence of outliers in the
data?

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

18.04, 18.71, 18.92, 19.25, 19.29, 19.44, 19.77, 20.17, 20.33, 20.50, 20.72,
21.12, 21.41, 21.77, 21.81, 22.11, 22.43, 22.85, 23.00, 23.71.

20
1 X 415.35
(a) Sample mean, x = xi = = 20.7675.
20 20
i=1
1
20.5 + 20.72
Sample median, x̃ = x(10) + x(11) = = 20.61.
2 2
331.89
(b) 10% trimmed mean, xtr(10) = = 20.74313.
16
(c) Dot plot:
median
mean

× × × ×
×× × ×× × × × × ×
× × × ×× ×
18.04

18.71

18.92

19.25
19.29
19.44

19.77

20.17
20.33
20.50

20.72

21.12

21.41

21.77
21.81

22.11

22.43

22.85
23.00

23.71

(d) Yes, the two observations, 18.04 and 23.71 can be identified as outliers in the data.

Page 3
Chapter 1 Section 1.4

1.4 Measures of Variability

7. With reference to problem 1, consider the drying time data. Compute the sample variance and sample standard
deviation.

15
1 X 13.1973
Solution: Sample variance, S2= (xi − x)2 = ≈ 0.9427.
14 14
√ i=1
Sample standard deviation S = 0.9427 ≈ 0.9709.

8. With reference to problem 2, consider the water absorbency data. Compute the sample variance and sample
standard deviation.

20
1 X 48.1254
Solution: Sample variance, S2= (xi − x)2 = ≈ 2.5329.
19 19
√ i=1
Sample standard deviation S = 2.5329 ≈ 1.5915.

Page 4
Chapter 1 Section 1.7

1.7 General Types of Statistical Studies

13. A manufacturer of electronic components is interested in determining the lifetime of a certain type of battery.
A sample, in hours of life, is as follows:
123, 116, 122, 110, 175, 126, 125, 111, 118, 117.

(a) Find the sample mean and median.

(b) What feature in this data set is responsible for the substantial difference between the two?

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

110, 111, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 125, 126, 175.

10
1 X 1243
(a) Sample mean, x = xi = = 124.3.
10 10
i=1
1
118 + 122
Sample median, x̃ = x(5) + x(6) = = 120.
2 2
(b) The given data has an outliers in it, i.e. 175. That is the reason for the sample mean moving away
towards right from the median.

14. A tire manufacturer wants to determine the inner diameter of a certain grade of tire. Ideally, the diameter
would be 570 mm. The data are as follows:
572, 572, 573, 568, 569, 575, 565, 570.

(a) Find the sample mean and median.

(b) Find the sample variance, standard deviation, and range.
(c) Using the calculated statistics in parts (a) and (b), can you comment on the quality of the tires?

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

565, 568, 569, 570, 572, 572, 573, 575.

8
1X 4564
(a) Sample mean, x = xi = = 570.5.
8 10
i=1
1
570 + 572
Sample median, x̃ = x(4) + x(5) = = 571.
2 2
8
1X 70
(b) Sample variance, S 2 = (xi − x)2 = = 10.
7 7
i=1 √
Sample standard deviation S = 10 ≈ 3.1623.

(c) There is no substantial difference between the mean and the median. Also the standard deviation is
moderate. Therefore, there is consistency in the quality of the tires.

24. The following are historical data on staff salaries (dollars per pupil) for 30 schools sampled in the eastern part
of the United States in the early 1970s.

Page 5
Chapter 1 Section 1.7

3.79 2.99 2.77 2.91 3.10 1.84 2.52 3.22 2.45 2.14
2.67 2.52 2.71 2.75 3.57 3.85 3.36 2.05 2.89 2.83
3.13 2.44 2.10 3.71 3.14 3.54 2.37 2.68 3.51 3.37

(a) Compute the sample mean and sample standard deviation.

(b) Construct a relative frequency histogram of the data.
(c) Construct a stem-and-leaf display of the data.

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

1.84, 2.05, 2.10, 2.14, 2.37, 2.44, 2.45, 2.52, 2.52, 2.67, 2.68, 2.71, 2.75, 2.77, 2.83,
2.89, 2.91, 2.99, 3.10, 3.13, 3.14, 3.22, 3.36, 3.37, 3.51, 3.54, 3.57, 3.71, 3.79, 3.85.

30
1 X 86.92
(a) Sample mean, x = xi = ≈ 2.8973.
30 30
i=1
30
1 X 8.504
Sample variance, S 2 = (xi − x)2 = = 0.2932.
30 − 1 29
i=1
√
Sample standard deviation S = 0.2932 ≈ 0.5415.

(b) Relative frequency histogram of staff salaries:

Class Class freq- Relative 0.367

interval average uency freq.

1.50-1.99 1.75 1 1/30
2.00-2.49 2.25 6 1/5 0.200

2.50-2.99 2.75 11 11/30

3.00-3.49 3.25 6 1/5
0.033
3.50-3.99 3.75 6 1/5
1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Total = 30

(c) Stem-and-Leaf Plot of the staff salaries data:

Stem Leaf Frequency

1 84 1
2 05 10 14 37 44 45 52 52 67 68 71 75 77 83 89 91 99 17
3 10 13 14 22 36 37 51 54 57 71 79 85 12

25. The following data set is related to that in Exercise 24. It gives the percentages of the families that are in the
upper income level, for the same individual schools in the same order as in Exercise 24.

72.2 31.9 26.5 29.1 27.3 8.6 22.3 26.5 20.4 12.8
25.1 19.2 24.1 58.2 68.1 89.2 55.1 9.4 14.5 13.9
20.7 17.9 8.5 55.4 38.1 54.2 21.5 26.2 59.1 43.3

(a) Calculate the sample mean.

Page 6
Chapter 1 Section 1.7

(b) Calculate the sample median.

(c) Construct a relative frequency histogram of the data.
(d) Compute the 10% trimmed mean. Compare with the results in (a) and (b) and comment.

Solution: The sample, when sorted in ascending order, becomes

8.5 8.6 9.4 12.8 13.9 14.5 17.9 19.2 20.4 20.7 21.5 22.3 24.1 25.1 26.2
26.5 26.5 27.3 29.1 31.9 38.1 43.3 54.2 55.1 55.4 58.2 59.1 68.1 72.2 89.2

30
1 X 999.3
(a) Sample mean, x = xi = ≈ 33.31.
30 30
i=1

1
26.2 + 26.5
(b) Sample median, x̃ = x(15) + x(16) = = 26.35.
2 2
(c) Relative frequency histogram of upper income families:

Class Class freq- Relative

interval average uency freq.
0.0-9.9 05 3 1/10
0.367
10-19.9 15 5 1/6
20-29.9 25 11 11/30
30-39.9 35 2 1/15 0.167

0.100
40-49.9 45 1 1/30 0.067
0.033
50-59.9 55 5 1/6
00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80
60-69.9 65 1 1/30
70-79.9 75 1 1/30
80-89.9 85 1 1/30

743.3
(d) 10% trimmed mean, xtr(10) = ≈ 30.9708.
24
There is significant difference between the mean and the median here. The trimmed mean is relatively
closer to the median, indicating the existence of outliers.

Page 7
Chapter 2 Section 2.2

2 Probability

2.1 Sample Space

2.2 Events

Chapter 2: List of selected problems:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9 (Page 42-43).

1. List the elements of each of the following sample spaces:

(a) the set of integers between 1 and 50 divisible by 8;

(b) the set S = {x|x2 + 4x − 5 = 0};
(c) the set of outcomes when a coin is tossed until a tail or three heads appear;
(d) the set S = {x|x is a continent};
(e) the set S = {x|2x − 4 ≥ 0 and x < 1}.

Solution:

(a) S = {8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48}.

(b) S = {−1, 5}

(c) S = {T, HT, HHT, HHH}

(d) S = {Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Oceania, Antarctica}.

(e) S = ∅ (emptyset).

2. Use the rule method to describe the sample space S consisting of all points in the first quadrant inside a circle
of radius 3 with center at the origin.

Solution: S = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 9, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0}.

3. Which of the following events are equal?

(a) A = {1, 3};

(b) B = {x|x is a number on a die};
(c) C = {x|x2 − 4x + 3 = 0};
(d) D = {x|x is the number of heads when six coins are tossed}.

Page 8
Chapter 2 Section 2.2

Solution: The elements in the sets are given by

(a) A = {1, 3};

(b) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};

(c) C = {1, 3};

(d) D = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Therefore A and C are equal.

4. An experiment involves tossing a pair of dice, one green and one red, and recording the numbers that come
up. If x equals the outcome on the green die and y the outcome on the red die, describe the sample space S.

(a) by listing the elements (x, y);

(b) by using the rule method.

Solution: The sample space S can be expressed as

 


(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)


 
(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)

 

 


 

(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)
(a) List method: S = .


(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)


 
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)

 

 


 

(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)

(b) Rule method: S = {(x, y) : 1 ≤ x ≤ 6, 1 ≤ y ≤ 6, x, y ∈ N}.

5. An experiment consists of tossing a die and then flipping a coin once if the number on the die is even. If the
number on the die is odd, the coin is flipped twice. Construct a tree diagram to show the 18 elements of the
sample space S.

Solution: We list Outcome 1, Outcome 2, Outcome 3, and Sample Points as in the figure below:
H = 1HH H = 3HH H = 5HH
H H H
T = 1HT T = 3HT T = 5HT
1 3 5
H = 1TH H = 3TH H = 5TH
T T T
T = 1TT T = 3TT T = 5TT
H = 2H H = 4H H = 6H
2 4 6
T = 2T T = 4T T = 6T

Page 9
Chapter 2 Section 2.2

7. Four students are selected at random from a chemistry class and classified as male or female. List the elements
of the sample space S1 , using the letter M for male and F for female. Define a second sample space S2 where
the elements represent the number of females selected.

Solution:

■ S1 = {M M M M, M M M F, M M F M, M F M M, F M M M, M M F F, M F M F, M F F M,
F M M F, F M F M, F F M M, M F F F, F M F F, F F M F, F F F M, F F F F }

■ S2 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

8. With reference to the sample space of Exercise 2.4,

(a) list the elements corresponding to the event A that the sum is greater than 8;
(b) list the elements corresponding to the event B that a 2 occurs on either die;
(c) list the elements corresponding to the event C that a number greater than 4 comes up on the green die;
(d) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∩ C;
(e) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∩ B;
(f) list the elements corresponding to the event B ∩ C;
(g) construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the intersections and unions of the events A, B, and C.

Solution:

(a) A = {(3, 6), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.

(b) B = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2)}.

(c) C = {(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.

(d) A ∩ C = {(5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.

(e) A ∩ B = ∅ (empty set).

(f) B ∩ C = {(5, 2), (6, 2)}

(g) Venn diagram to illustrate the intersections and unions of the events A, B, and C:

Page 10
Chapter 2 Section 2.2

A
B

B
A∩C

∩
C
C

9. With reference to the sample space of Exercise 2.5,

(a) list the elements corresponding to the event A that a number less than 3 occurs on the die;
(b) list the elements corresponding to the event B that two tails occur;
(c) list the elements corresponding to the event A′ ;
(d) list the elements corresponding to the event A′ ∩ B;
(e) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∪ B.

Solution:

(a) A = { 1HH, 1HT, 1TH, 1TT, 2H, 2T}.

(b) B = { 1TT, 3TT, 5TT}.

(c) A′ = { 3HH, 3HT, 3TH, 3TT, 4H, 4T, 5HH, 5HT, 5TH, 5TT, 6H, 6T}.

(d) A′ ∩ B = { 3TT, 5TT}.

(e) A ∪ B = { 1HH, 1HT, 1TH, 1TT, 2H, 2T, 3TT, 5TT}.

11. The resumes of two male applicants for a college teaching position in chemistry are placed in the same file as
the resumes of two female applicants. Two positions become available, and the first, at the rank of assistant
professor, is filled by selecting one of the four applicants at random. The second position, at the rank of
instructor, is then filled by selecting at random one of the remaining three applicants. Using the notation
M2 F1 , for example, to denote the simple event that the first position is filled by the second male applicant
and the second position is then filled by the first female applicant,

(a) list the elements of a sample space S;

(b) list the elements of S corresponding to event A that the position of assistant professor is filled by a male
applicant;

Page 11
Chapter 2 Section 2.2

(c) list the elements of S corresponding to event B that exactly one of the two positions is filled by a male
applicant;
(d) list the elements of S corresponding to event C that neither position is filled by a male applicant;
(e) list the elements of S corresponding to the event A ∩ B;
(f) list the elements of S corresponding to the event A ∪ C;
(g) construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the intersections and unions of the events A, B, and C.

Solution:

(a) S = {M1 M2 , M1 F2 , F1 M2 , F1 F2 } (g) Venn diagram of intersections and unions:

(b) A = {M1 M2 , M1 F2 }

(c) B = {M1 F2 , F1 M2 } A

(d) C = {F1 F2 } C

(e) A ∩ B = {M1 F2 } B

(f) A ∪ C = {M1 M2 , M1 F2 , F1 F2 } S

Page 12
Chapter 2 Section 2.3

2.3 Counting Sample Points

21. Registrants at a large convention are offered 6 sightseeing tours on each of 3 days. In how many ways can a
person arrange to go on a sightseeing tour planned by this convention?

Solution: The number of ways a person can arrange to go on a sightseeing tour planned by this convention
is    
3 6
= × = 18.
1 1

23. If an experiment consists of throwing a die and then drawing a letter at random from the English alphabet,
how many points are there in the sample space?

Solution: The number of points in the sample space is

   
6 26
= × = 156.
1 1

30. In how many different ways can a true-false test consisting of 9 questions be answered?

Solution: Each question can be answered in exactly two ways. Therefore the required number is

9
= |2 × 2 ×
{z· · · × 2} = 2 = 512 ways .
9 times

34. (a) How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word COLUMNS?
(b) How many of these permutations start with the letter M?

Solution: All seven letters in the word ‘COLUMNS’ are distinct. Therefore,

(a) the number of distinct permutations of the letters of the word COLUMNS is = 7! = 5040 .

(b) the number of distinct permutations of the letters of the word COLUMNS which starts with M is
= 6! = 720 .

36. (a) How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 if each digit can be
used only once?
(b) How many of these are odd numbers?

Page 13
Chapter 2 Section 2.3

(c) How many are greater than 330?

Solution:

(a) In a three-digit number the first one must be non-zero. Therefore the required number is

= 6 × 6 × 5 = 180 .

(b) An odd three-digit number from the above collection must have 1,3, or 5 at its units place.
Thus the total count of such numbers is

= 3 × 5 × 5 = 75 .

(c) The total count of numbers greater than 330 and starting with 3 is = 3 × 5 = 15, and
the total count of numbers greater than 330 and not starting with 3 is = 3 × 6 × 5 = 90.
Therefore, the required number is, 15 + 90 = 105 .

Page 14
Chapter 2 Section 2.5

2.4 Probability of an Event

2.5 Additive Rules

Chapter 2: List of selected problems:

50, 53, 58, 59, 64, 65, 68, 72 (Page 59-62).

50. Suppose a green and a red die are rolled together and the outcomes are recorded as x, y respectively. Assuming
that all elements of S are equally likely to occur, find
(a) the probability of event A that sum is greater than 8;
(b) the probability of event C that a number greater than 4 comes up on the green die;
(c) the probability of event A ∩ C.

Solution: The sample space is S = {(x, y) : x, y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

(a) A = {(3, 6), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6)}. Therefore,

n(A) 7
P (A) = = .
n(S) 36

(b) C = {(x, y) : x = 5, 6; y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Therefore,

n(C) 12 1
P (C) = = = .
n(S) 36 3

(c) A ∩ C = {(5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6)}. Therefore,

n(A ∩ C) 4 1
P (A ∩ C) = = = .
n(S) 36 9

53. The probability that an American industry will locate in Shanghai, China, is 0.7, the probability that it will
locate in Beijing, China, is 0.4, and the probability that it will locate in either Shanghai or Beijing or both is
0.8. What is the probability that the industry will locate
(a) in both cities?
(b) in neither city?

Solution: Let us describe the events as below:

A: an industry is located at Shanghai, China
B: an industry is located at Beijing, China.
Therefore from the given data we have,

P (A) = 0.7, P (B) = 0.4, and P (A ∪ B) = 0.8.

Thus the required probabilities are,

Page 15
Chapter 2 Section 2.5

(a) P (A ∩ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∪ B) = 0.7 + 0.4 − 0.8 = 0.3.

(b) P [(A ∪ B)′ ] = 1 − P (A ∪ B) = 1 − 0.8 = 0.2.

58. A pair of fair dice is tossed. Find the probability of getting

(a) a total of 8;
(b) at most a total of 5.

Solution:

(a) Favourable outcomes = {(2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2)}. Therefore
5
P (Sum = 8) = .
36

(b) Favourable outcomes = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)}. There-
fore
10 5
P (Sum ≤ 5) = = .
36 18

59. In a poker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the probability of holding

(a) 3 aces;
(b) 4 hearts and 1 club.

Solution: The required probabilities are,

4 48 13 13





3 94 143
(a) P (3 aces) = 52

2 = . (b) P (4 hearts, 1 club) = 4
52

1
= .
5
10829 5
999600

64. Interest centers around the life of an electronic component. Suppose it is known that the probability that the
component survives for more than 6000 hours is 0.42. Suppose also that the probability that the component
survives no longer than 4000 hours is 0.04.
(a) What is the probability that the life of the component is less than or equal to 6000 hours?
(b) What is the probability that the life is greater than 4000 hours?

Solution: Let X denote the amount of hours the component survives. Then from the given data we have
P (X > 6000) = 0.42, and P (X ≤ 4000) = 0.04. Therefore, we have

(a) P (X ≤ 6000) = 1 − P (X > 6000) = 1 − 0.42 = 0.58.

(b) P (X > 4000) = 1 − P (X ≤ 4000) = 1 − 0.04 = 0.96.

Page 16
Chapter 2 Section 2.5

65. Consider the situation of Exercise 64. Let A be the event that the component fails a particular test and B be
the event that the component displays strain but does not actually fail. Event A occurs with probability 0.20,
and event B occurs with probability 0.35.

(a) What is the probability that the component does not fail the test?
(b) What is the probability that the component works perfectly well (i.e., neither displays strain nor fails the
test)?
(c) What is the probability that the component either fails or shows strain in the test?

Solution: Given P (A) = 0.20 and P (B) = 0.35. Therefore,

(a) P (A′ ) = 1 − P (A) = 1 − 0.20 = 0.8.

(b) P [(A ∪ B)′ ] = 1 − P (A) − P (B) = 1 − 0.55 = 0.45. (∵ A and B are exclusive)

(c) P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) = 0.55.

68. Interest centers around the nature of an oven purchased at a particular department store. It can be either a
gas or an electric oven. Consider the decisions made by six distinct customers.

(a) Suppose that the probability is 0.40 that at most two of these individuals purchase an electric oven. What
is the probability that at least three purchase the electric oven?
(b) Suppose it is known that the probability that all six purchase the electric oven is 0.007 while 0.104 is the
probability that all six purchase the gas oven. What is the probability that at least one of each type is
purchased?

Solution: Let X denote the number of customers opting for an electric oven. Then
(a) given P (X ≤ 2) = 0.40. Therefore, P (X ≥ 3) = 1 − P (X ≤ 2) = 1 − 0.40 = 0.60 .

(b) Now, given P (X = 6) = 0.007 and P (X = 0) = 0.104. Therefore,

P (1 ≤ X ≤ 5) = 1 − P (X = 0) − P (X = 6) = 1 − (0.104 + 0.007) = 1 − 0.111 = 0.889 .

72. Prove that

P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = 1 + P (A ∩ B) − P (A) − P (B).

Solution: P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = P [(A ∪ B)′ ] = 1 − P (A ∪ B) = 1 + P (A ∩ B) − P (A) − P (B).

Page 17
Chapter 2 Section 2.6

2.6 Conditional Probability, Independence, and the Product Rule

Chapter 2: List of selected problems:

74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 85, 89, 90 (Page 69-71).

74. A class in advanced physics is composed of 10 juniors, 30 seniors, and 10 graduate students. The final grades
show that 3 of the juniors, 10 of the seniors, and 5 of the graduate students received an A for the course. If a
student is chosen at random from this class and is found to have earned an A, what is the probability that he
or she is a senior?

Solution: Let A1 , A2 , and A3 denote the events that a randomly selected student is a junior, a senior, or
a graduate respectively. Also let E denote the event that a randomly selected student has received an A
grade.
1 3 1 3 1 1
Given that, P (A1 ) = , P (A2 ) = , P (A3 ) = , and P (E|A1 ) = , P (E|A2 ) = , and P (E|A3 ) = .
5 5 5 10 3 2
Therefore the required probability is

(3/5) × (1/3) 1/5 5

P (A2 |E) = = = .
(1/5) × (3/10) + (3/5) × (1/3) + (1/5) × (1/2) 3/50 + 1/5 + 1/10 9

75. A random sample of 200 adults are classified below by sex and their level of education attained. If a person is
picked at random from this group, find the probability that

Education Male Female

Elementary 38 45
Secondary 28 50
College 22 17

(a) the person is a male, given that the person has a secondary education;
(b) the person does not have a college degree, given that the person is a female.

Solution: Let E, S, and C denote the events that a randomly selected adult has the education level
Elementary, Secondary, or College respectively. Also let M and F denote the events that a randomly
selected adult is a male, and a female respectively. Therefore,

P (M ∩ S) 28/200 14
(a) P (M |S) = = = .
P (S) 78/200 39
P (C ′ ∩ F ) 95/200 95
(b) P (C ′ |F ) = = = .
P (F ) 112/200 112

77. In the senior year of a high school graduating class of 100 students, 42 studied mathematics, 68 studied
psychology, 54 studied history, 22 studied both mathematics and history, 25 studied both mathematics and

Page 18
Chapter 2 Section 2.6

psychology, 7 studied history but neither mathematics nor psychology, 10 studied all three subjects, and 8 did
not take any of the three. Randomly select a student from the class and find the probabilities of the following
events.

(a) A person enrolled in psychology takes all three subjects.

(b) A person not taking psychology is taking both history and mathematics.

Solution: Suppose M , P , and H denote the events that a randomly selected graduating student have
studied mathematics, psychology, and history respectively. Therefore,

5
P (M ∩ H ∩ P ) 10/100 5 M 15 P
(a) P (M ∩ H|P ) = = = .
P (P ) 68/100 34 10 18

P (M ∩ H ∩ P ′ ) 12/100 3 12 25
(b) P (M ∩ H|P ′ ) = ′
= = .
P (P ) 32/100 8 8
H
100 7

78. A manufacturer of a flu vaccine is concerned about the quality of its flu serum. Batches of serum are processed
by three different departments having rejection rates of 0.10, 0.08, and 0.12, respectively. The inspections by
the three departments are sequential and independent.

(a) What is the probability that a batch of serum survives the first departmental inspection but is rejected
by the second department?
(b) What is the probability that a batch of serum is rejected by the third department?

Solution: Let A, B, and C denote the event that a batch of serum is rejected by the first, second, and
third department respectively. Therefore,

(a) P (A′ ∩ B) = P (A′ )P (B) = (1 − 0.10) × 0.08 = 0.072.

(b) P (A′ ∩ B ′ ∩ C) = 0.90 × 0.92 × 0.12 = 0.09936.

80. The probability that an automobile being filled with gasoline also needs an oil change is 0.25; the probability
that it needs a new oil filter is 0.40; and the probability that both the oil and the filter need changing is 0.14.

(a) If the oil has to be changed, what is the probability that a new oil filter is needed?
(b) If a new oil filter is needed, what is the probability that the oil has to be changed?

Solution: Let A and B denote the events that oil change needed, and oil filter change needed respectively.
Therefore, given that P (A) = 0.25, P (B) = 0.40, and P (A ∩ B) = 0.14. Required probabilities are given
by,

Page 19
Chapter 2 Section 2.6

P (A ∩ B) 0.14
(a) P (B|A) = = = 0.56.
P (A) 0.25
P (A ∩ B) 0.14
(b) P (A|B) = = = 0.35.
P (B) 0.40

85. The probability that a doctor correctly diagnoses a particular illness is 0.7. Given that the doctor makes an
incorrect diagnosis, the probability that the patient files a lawsuit is 0.9. What is the probability that the
doctor makes an incorrect diagnosis and the patient sues?

Solution: Let A and B denote the events that the doctor make a correct diagnosis, and a patient files
a lawsuit respectively. Therefore, from the given data we have, P (A) = 0.7 and P (B|A′ ) = 0.9. The
required probability is
P (A′ ∩ B) = P (B|A′ )P (A′ ) = 0.9(1 − 0.7) = 0.27.

89. A town has two fire engines operating independently. The probability that a specific engine is available when
needed is 0.96.

(a) What is the probability that neither is available when needed?

(b) What is the probability that a fire engine is available when needed?

Solution: Suppose that Ai denote the events that the ith fire engine is available when needed, for i = 1, 2.
Given that P (Ai ) = 0.96, for i = 1, 2. Now, as A1 , A2 are statistically independent, therefore,
(a) P (A′1 ∩ A′2 ) = P (A′1 ) · P (A′2 ) = (1 − 0.96)(1 − 0.96) = 0.0016.

(b) P (A1 ∪ A2 ) = P (A1 ) + P (A2 ) − P (A1 )P (A2 ) = 0.96 + 0.96 − (0.96)2 = 0.96 × 1.04 = 0.9984.

90. Pollution of the rivers in the United States has been a problem for many years. Consider the following events:

A : the river is polluted,

B : a sample of water tested detects pollution,
C : fishing is permitted.

Assume P (A) = 0.3, P (B|A) = 0.75, P (B|A′ ) = 0.20, P (C|A ∩ B) = 0.20, P (C|A′ ∩ B) = 0.15, P (C|A ∩ B ′ ) =
0.80, and P (C|A′ ∩ B ′ ) = 0.90.

(a) Find P (A ∩ B ∩ C).

(b) Find P (B ′ ∩ C).
(c) Find P (C).
(d) Find the probability that the river is polluted, given that fishing is permitted and the sample tested did
not detect pollution.

Page 20
Chapter 2 Section 2.6

Solution: Here we apply the product rule and get

(a) P (A ∩ B ∩ C) = P (A)P (B|A)P (C|A ∩ B) = 0.3 × 0.75 × 0.2 = 0.0450 .

(b) Note that, B ′ ∩ C = (A ∪ A′ ) ∩ B ′ ∩ C = (A ∩ B ′ ∩ C) ∪ (A′ ∩ B ′ ∩ C) and from the relation that

P (B|A′ ) + P (B ′ |A′ ) = 1, we have P (B ′ |A′ ) = 1 − P (B|A′ ) = 0.8. Similarly P (B ′ |A) = 1 − P (B|A) =
0.25.
P (B ′ ∩ C) = P (A ∩ B ′ ∩ C) + P (A′ ∩ B ′ ∩ C)
= P (A)P (B ′ |A)P (C|A ∩ B ′ ) + P (A′ )P (B ′ |A′ )P (C|A′ ∩ B ′ )
= 0.3 × 0.25 × 0.8 + 0.7 × 0.8 × 0.9 = 0.06 + 0.504 = 0.564 .

(c) Note that, C = (A ∩ B ∩ C) ∪ (A′ ∩ B ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ B ′ ∩ C) ∪ (A′ ∩ B ′ ∩ C). Also by product rule,

P (A ∩ B) = P (A)P (B|A) = 0.3 × 0.75 = 0.225,
P (A′ ∩ B) = P (A′ )P (B|A′ ) = 0.7 × 0.2 = 0.14,
P (A ∩ B ′ ) = P (A)P (B ′ |A) = 0.3 × 0.25 = 0.075,
and P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = P (A′ )P (B ′ |A′ ) = 0.7 × 0.8 = 0.56.

Therefore, the required probability is

P (C) = P (A ∩ B ∩ C) + P (A′ ∩ B ∩ C) + P (A ∩ B ′ ∩ C) + P (A′ ∩ B ′ ∩ C)

= P (A ∩ B)P (C|A ∩ B) + P (A′ ∩ B)P (C|A′ ∩ B) + P (A ∩ B ′ )P (C|A ∩ B ′ )
+P (A′ ∩ B ′ )P (C|A′ ∩ B ′ )
= 0.225 × 0.20 + 0.14 × 0.15 + 0.075 × 0.80 + 0.56 × 0.90 = 0.63 .

(d) The required probability is given by

P (A ∩ B ′ ∩ C) 0.060 5
P (A|B ′ ∩ C) = = = ≈ 0.1064 .
P (B ′ ∩ C) 0.564 47

91. Find the probability of randomly selecting 4 good quarts of milk in succession from a cooler containing 20
quarts of which 5 have spoiled, by using

(a) the first formula of Theorem 2.12 (i.e. product rule) on page 68;
   
n n!
(b) the formulas of Theorem 2.6 the formula = on page 50 and Rule 2.3 (the classical
r r!(n − r)!
definition of probability: P (A) = n(A)/n(S) ) on page 54, respectively.

Solution: Given that, 5 out of 20 quarts of milk are spoiled. Therefore, the probability of a randomly
5 1
selected quart to be spoiled is = .
20 4
Suppose that, Si , for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, denote the event that the ith quart of milk is spoiled.
Therefore, the required probability is,

Page 21
Chapter 2 Section 2.6

(a) by using the product rule of probability,

P (S1′ ∩ S2′ ∩ S3′ ∩ S4′ ) = P (S1′ )P (S2′ |S1′ )P (S3′ |S1′ ∩ S2′ )P (S4′ |S1′ ∩ S2′ ∩ S3′ )
15 14 13 12 91
= × × × = .
20 19 18 17 323
 
n
(b) by using the formula of and the classical definition,
r
 
15
4 15! 4! × 16! 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 91
P (S1′ ∩ S2′ ∩ S3′ ∩ S4′ ) =   = × = = .
20 4! × 11! 20! 20 × 19 × 18 × 17 323
4

Page 22
Chapter 2 Section 2.7

2.7 Bayes’ Rule

Chapter 2: List of selected problems:

95, 96, 97, 98, 101 (Page 76-77, 79).

95. In a certain region of the country it is known from past experience that the probability of selecting an adult
over 40 years of age with cancer is 0.05. If the probability of a doctor correctly diagnosing a person with cancer
as having the disease is 0.78 and the probability of incorrectly diagnosing a person without cancer as having
the disease is 0.06, what is the probability that an adult over 40 years of age is diagnosed as having cancer?

Solution: Let us describe the events as

A: A randomly selected adult over 40 years have cancer,
and B: A doctor diagnose a randomly selected adult over 40 years to have cancer.
then, from given data we have P (A) = 0.05, P (B|A) = 0.78, and P (B|A′ ) = 0.06. Therefore, the required
probability is

P (B) = P (A)P (B|A) + P (A′ )P (B|A′ ) = 0.05 × 0.78 + 0.95 × 0.06 = 0.039 + 0.057 = 0.096 .

96. Police plan to enforce speed limits by using radar traps at four different locations within the city limits. The
radar traps at each of the locations L1 , L2 , L3 , and L4 will be operated 40%, 30%, 20%, and 30% of the
time. If a person who is speeding on her way to work has probabilities of 0.2, 0.1, 0.5, and 0.2, respectively, of
passing through these locations, what is the probability that she will receive a speeding ticket?

Solution: The person will receive a speeding ticket if she is trapped at at least one of the radars at
locations L1 , L2 , L3 , or L4 . Let us describe the events as
Li : The person is passes by the radar at the ith location, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
and B: the person receives a speeding ticket,
then, from given data we have

P (L1 ) = 0.2, P (L2 ) = 0.10, P (L3 ) = 0.50, P (L4 ) = 0.20,

and
P (B|L1 ) = 0.40, P (B|L2 ) = 0.30, P (B|L3 ) = 0.20, P (B|L4 ) = 0.30.

Therefore, by Bayes’ rule, the required probability is

4
X
P (B) = P (Li )P (B|Li ) = 0.2 × 0.4 + 0.1 × 0.3 + 0.5 × 0.2 + 0.2 × 0.3 = 0.27 .
i=1

97. Referring to Exercise 95, what is the probability that a person diagnosed as having cancer actually has the
disease?

Page 23
Chapter 2 Section 2.7

Solution: The required probability is

P (A)P (B|A) 0.05 × 0.78 39 13

P (A|B) = = = = ≈ 0.40625 .
P (B) 0.096 96 32

98. If the person in Exercise 96 received a speeding ticket on her way to work, what is the probability that she
passed through the radar trap located at L2 ?

Solution: The required probability is

P (L2 )P (B|L2 ) 0.1 × 0.3 1

P (L2 |B) = = = .
P (B) 0.27 9

101. A paint-store chain produces and sells latex and semigloss paint. Based on long-range sales, the probability
that a customer will purchase latex paint is 0.75. Of those that purchase latex paint, 60% also purchase rollers.
But only 30% of semigloss paint buyers purchase rollers. A randomly selected buyer purchases a roller and a
can of paint. What is the probability that the paint is latex?

Solution: Let us describe the events as

A: A randomly selected buyer purchases latex paint,
A′ : A randomly selected buyer purchases semigloss paint,
and B: A randomly selected buyer purchases a roller,
then, from given data we have P (A) = 0.75, P (A′ ) = 0.25, P (B|A) = 0.60, and P (B|A′ ) = 0.30. Therefore,
the required probability is

P (A ∩ B) P (A)P (B|A)
P (A|B) = =
P (B) P (A)P (B|A) + P (A′ )P (B|A′ )
0.75 × 0.60 6
= = ≈ 0.857 .
0.75 × 0.60 + 0.25 × 0.30 7

125. A survey of those using a particular statistical software system indicated that 10% were dissatisfied. Half of
those dissatisfied purchased the system from vendor A. It is also known that 20% of those surveyed purchased
from vendor A. Given that the software was purchased from vendor A, what is the probability that that
particular user is dissatisfied?

Solution: Let A be the event that a randomly selected system was purchased from vendor A, and B be
the event that the user of a randomly selected system is dissatisfied. Then from the given data, we have
1
P (A) = 0.20, P (B) = 0.10, and P (A ∩ B) = P (B) = 0.05.
2

Page 24
Chapter 2 Section 2.7

Thus the required probability is

P (A ∩ B) 0.05
P (B|A) = = = 0.25 .
P (A) 0.20

127. There is a 50-50 chance that the queen carries the gene of hemophilia. If she is a carrier, then each prince
has a 50-50 chance of having hemophilia independently. If the queen is not a carrier, the prince will not have
the disease. Suppose the queen has had three princes without the disease. What is the probability the queen
is a carrier?

Solution: Let A be the event that the queen is a carrier, and Bi be the event that the ith prince has
hemophilia, for i = 1, 2, 3. Then from the given data, we have
1 1
P (A) = , P (Bi |A) = , and P (Bi |A′ ) = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3.
2 2
 3
1 1
Also given that A ∩ B1 , A ∩ B2 , A ∩ B3 are independent, i.e., P (A ∩ B1 ∩ B2 ∩ B3 ) = = . Again
4 64
1
P (B1 ∩ B2 ∩ B3 ) = . Therefore, the required probability is
8

1/64 1
P (A|B1′ ∩ B2′ ∩ B3′ ) = = .
1/8 8

Page 25
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

3 Random Variable and Probability Distribution

Chapter 3 :

Chapter 3 : List of selected problems: (Sections 3.1-3.3)

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 21, 23, 27, 29, 30, 33, 35 (Page 91-94).

3.1 Concepts of a Random Variable

3.2 Discrete Probability Distribution

3.3 Continuous Probability Distribution

3. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails in three tosses of a coin.
List the elements of the sample space S for the three tosses of the coin and to each sample point assign a value
w of W .

Solution: Sample space S = {HHH, HHT, HT H, T HH, HT T, T HT, T T H, T T T }.

S HHH HHT HTH THH HTT THT TTH TTT

W 3 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -3

4. A coin is flipped until 3 heads in succession occur. List only those elements of the sample space that require
6 or less tosses. Is this a discrete sample space? Explain.

Solution: Let A denote the event that 3 heads in succession occur in at most six tosses. Therefore,

A = {HHH, T HHH, HT HHH, T T HHH, HHT HHH, T HT HHH, T T T HHH, HT T HHH}.

Yes. The sample space being a countable set, it is discrete.

5. Determine the value c so that each of the following functions can serve as a probability distribution of the
discrete random variable X:
(a) f (x) = c(x2 + 4), for x = 0, 1, 2, 3;
(b) f (x) = c x2 3−x

3

, for x = 0, 1, 2.

Solution:
3
X 1
(a) c(x2 + 4) = 1 =⇒ c(4 + 5 + 8 + 13) = 1 =⇒ c = .
30
x=0

2   
X 2 3 1
(b) c = 1 =⇒ c(1 + 6 + 3) = 1 =⇒ c = .
x 3−x 10
x=0

Page 26
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

6. The shelf life, in days, for bottles of a certain prescribed medicine is a random variable having the density
function 
10, 000


3
, x > 0,
f (x) = (x + 100)
0,

elsewhere.
Find the probability that a bottle of this medicine will have a shell life of
(a) at least 200 days;
(b) anywhere from 80 to 120 days.

Solution: Here, X = shelf life, in days, for bottles of a certain prescribed medicine;
Z ∞  ∞
10000 1 10000 1
(a) P (X ≥ 200) = 3
dx = 10000 − 2
= = .
200 (x + 100) 2(x + 100) 200 180000 18
Z 120  120  
10000 10000 1 1
(b) P (80 ≤ X ≤ 120) = dx = − = 5000 × −
80 (x + 100)3 2(x + 100)2 80 1802 2202
400 × 40 5 × 100 × 1 500
= 5000 × = = .
182 2
× 22 × 10000 2
9 × 112 9801

7. The total number of hours, measured in units of 100 hours, that a family runs a vacuum cleaner over a period
of one year is a continuous random variable X that has the density function



 x, 0 < x < 1,

f (x) = 2 − x, 1 ≤ x < 2,



1, x ≥ 2.


Find the probability that over a period of one year, a family runs their vacuum cleaner
(a) less than 120 hours;
(b) between 50 and 100 hours.

Solution: So here X is the units of 100 hours a vacuum cleaner has run over a period of one year. Then,
the required probabilities are
Z 1.2 1 1.2 1 1.2
x2 x2
Z Z  
(a) P (X < 1.2) = f (x)dx = xdx + (2 − x)dx = + 2x −
−∞ 0 1 2 0 2 1
= 0.5 + 0.4 − 0.22 = 0.68.
Z 1  2 1
x 3
(b) P (0.5 < X < 1) = xdx = = .
0.5 2 0.5 8

9. The proportion of people who respond to a certain mail-order solicitation is a continuous random variable X
that has the density function 
 2(x + 2) , 0 < x < 1,

f (x) = 5
0,

elsewhere.

Page 27
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

(a) Show that P (0 < X < 1) = 1.

(b) Find the probability that more than 1/4 but fewer than 1/2 of the people contacted will respond to this
type of solicitation.

Solution:
1 1
2 (x + 2)2

2 9−4
Z
2
(a) LHS = P (0 < X < 1) = (x + 2)dx = = × = 1 = RHS.
0 5 5 2 0 5 2
0.5
2 1/2
  
4.75 × 0.25
Z
1 1 1 2
(b) P <X< = (x + 2)dx = (x + 2) = = 0.2375 .
4 2 5 1/4 5 0.25 5

10. Find a formula for the probability distribution of the random variable X representing the outcome when a
single die is rolled once.

Solution: Assuming the die is fair, the probability distribution of the random variable X is given by the
pmf 1
 , x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
f (x) = 6
0, elsewhere.


11. A shipment of 7 television sets contains 2 defective sets. A hotel makes a random purchase of 3 of the sets. If
x is the number of defective sets purchased by the hotel, find the probability distribution of X. Express the
results graphically as a probability histogram.

2
Solution: The probability that a randomly selected TV from the shipment is defective is . Suppose X
7
is the number of defective sets purchased by the hotel. Therefore,
   
 2 5


 0 3 10 2

   = = , x = 0, f (x)
7



 35 7



 3 



 
2 5 histogram


 1 2 20 4
P (X = x) =   = = , x = 1,

 7 35 7



  3 
2 5






 2 1 5 1 x

   = = , x = 2. 0 1 2
7 35 7





3

12. An investment firm offers its customers municipal bonds that mature after varying numbers of years. Given
that the cumulative distribution function of T , the number of years to maturity for a randomly selected bond,

Page 28
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

is
find


0, t < 1,
(a) P (T = 5);




1/4, 1 ≤ t < 3,





F (t) = 1/2, (b) P (T > 3);
3 ≤ t < 5,





3/4, 5 ≤ t < 7, (c) P (1.4 < T < 6);



t ≥ 7.

1,
(d) P (T ≤ 5|T ≥ 2).

Solution:

(a) P (T = 5) = F (5) − F (3) = 3/4 − 1/2 = 1/4;

(b) P (T > 3) = 1 − P (T ≤ 3) = 1 − F (3) = 1 − 1/2 = 1/2;

(c) P (1.4 < T < 6) = F (5) − F (1.4) = 3/4 − 1/4 = 1/2;

P (2 ≤ T ≤ 5) F (5) − F (2) 3/4 − 1/4 2
(d) P (T ≤ 5|T ≥ 2) = = = = .
P (T ≥ 2) 1 − F (2) 1 − 1/4 3

14. The waiting time, in hours, between successive speeders spotted by a radar unit is a continuous random variable
with cumulative distribution function

0, x < 0,
F (x) =
1 − e−8x , x ≥ 0.

Find the probability of waiting less than 12 minutes between successive speeders

(a) using the cumulative distribution function of X;

(b) using the probability density function of X.

Solution: The required probability is,

(a) P (X < 12) = F (12) = 1 − e−96 .


8e−8x , x > 0,
(b) The pdf of X is f (x) =
0, elsewhere.
Z 12  12
−8x −8x
Therefore, P (X < 12) = 8e dx = − e = 1 − e−96 .
0 0

21. Consider the density function  √

k x, 0 < x < 1,
f (x) =
0, else.
(a) Evaluate k.
(b) Find F (x) and use it to evaluate P (0.3 < X < 0.6).

Page 29
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

Solution:
1
2 3/2 1 2
Z 1
√ √
Z  
1 3
(a) 1 = k xdx =⇒ = xdx = x = =⇒ k = .
0 k 0 3 0 3 2

3 x√ 3 2 3/2 x
Z  
(b) F (x) = tdt = t = x3/2 , 0 < x < 1. Therefore,
2 0 2 3 0

P (0.3 < X < 0.6) = F (0.6) − F (0.3) = (0.6)3/2 − (0.3)3/2 = 0.30044.

23. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails in three tosses of a coin
assuming that the coin is biased so that a head is twice as likely to occur as a tail. Find the cumulative
distribution function of the random variable W . Using F (w), find
(a) P (W > 0);
(b) P (−1 ≤ W < 3).

2 1
Solution: Given that, P (H) = , and P (T ) = . Therefore, the probability distribution of W is given
3 3
by

w -3 -1 1 3
1 6 12 8
f (w)
27 27 27 27

20
(a) P (W > 0) = .
27
18 2
(b) P (−1 ≤ W < 3) = = .
27 3

27. The time to failure in hours of an important piece of electronic equipment used in a manufactured DVD player
has the density function  1
 exp(−x/2000), x ≥ 0,
f (x) = 2000
0, x < 0.


(a) Find F (x).

(b) Determine the probability that the component (and thus the DVD player) lasts more than 1000 hours
before the component needs to be replaced.
(c) Determine the probability that the component fails before 2000 hours.

Solution:
Z x Z x/2000
1
(a) F (x) = P (X ≤ x) = exp(−t/2000)dt = exp(−y)dy (taking y = t/2000)
0 2000 0
 x/2000
= −e −y = 1 − exp(−x/2000), 0 < x < ∞.
0

Page 30
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

(b) Required probability is

1
P (X > 1000) = 1 − P (X ≤ 1000) = 1 − F (1000) = exp(−1/2) = √ .
e

(c) Required probability is

1
P (X < 2000) = F (2000) = exp(−1) = .
e

29. An important factor in solid missile fuel is the particle size distribution. Significant problems occur if the
particle sizes are too large. From production data in the past, it has been determined that the particle size
(in micrometers) distribution is characterized by

3x−4 , x > 1,
f (x) =
0, elsewhere.

(a) Verify that this is a valid density function.

(b) Evaluate F (x).
(c) What is the probability that a random particle from the manufactured fuel exceeds 4 micrometers?

Solution:
Z ∞  ∞ Z ∞
−4 −3
(a) 3x dx = − x = 1. Therefore, f (x) ≥ 0 and f (x)dx = 1.
1 1 −∞
Thus f (x) is indeed a valid density function.
Z x  x
−4 −3 1
(b) F (x) = P (X ≤ x) = 3t dt = − t = 1 − 3.
1 1 x
(c) Required probability is
1 1
P (X > 4) = 1 − P (X ≤ 4) = 1 − F (4) = = .
43 64

30. Measurements of scientific systems are always subject to variation, some more than others. There are many
structures for measurement error, and statisticians spend a great deal of time modeling these errors. Suppose
the measurement error X of a certain physical quantity is decided by the density function

k(3 − x2 ), −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
f (x) =
0, elsewhere.

(a) Determine k that renders f (x) a valid density function.

(b) Find the probability that a random error in measurement is less than 1/2.
(c) For this particular measurement, it is undesirable if the magnitude of the error (i.e., |x|) exceeds 0.8.
What is the probability that this occurs?

Page 31
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

Z 1
Solution: f (x) is a valid density function if f (x) ≥ 0 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and f (x)dx = 1. Thus, we must
−1
have, k > 0, and

1 1 1
x3
Z Z 
2 1 2 16 3
(a) k(3 − x )dx = 1 =⇒ =2 (3 − x )dx = 2 3x − = =⇒ k = .
−1 k 0 3 0 3 16
(b) Now the f (x) is symmetric about x = 0. Therefore, the required probability is
Z 1/2 Z 1/2  
3 1 3 1 3 3 1 99
P (X < 0.5) = (3 − x2 )dx = + (3 − x2 )dx = + − = .
16 −1 2 16 0 2 16 2 24 128

(c) Required probability is

  Z 4/5
4 1 3 1 3 836 41
P (X > 0.8) = 1 − P X≤ =1− − (3 − x2 )dx = − × = ≈ 0.082
5 2 16 0 2 16 375 500

33. Suppose a certain type of small data processing firm is so specialized that some have difficulty making a profit
in their first year of operation. The probability density function that characterizes the proportion Y that make
a profit is given by 
ky 4 (1 − y)3 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1,
f (y) =
0, elsewhere.

(a) What is the value of k that renders the above a valid density function?
(b) Find the probability that at most 50% of the firms make a profit in the first year.
(c) Find the probability that at least 80% of the firms make a profit in the first year.

Z 1
Solution: f (y) is a valid density function if f (y) ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and f (y)dy = 1. Thus, we must
0
have, k > 0, and
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
4 3 1 4 3
y 4 − 3y 5 + 3y 6 − y 7 dy


(a) ky (1 − y) dy = 1 =⇒ = y (1 − y) dy =
0 k 0 0

1 1 3 3 1 22 5 176 − 175 1
=⇒ = − + − = − = = . Therefore, k = 280.
k 5 6 7 8 35 8 280 280
(b) Required probability is
Z 1/2  1/2
1 5 3 6 3 7 1 8 93
P (Y ≤ 0.50) = y 4 (1 − y)3 dy = y − y + y − y = ≈ 0.0013.
0 5 6 7 8 0 71680

(c) Required probability is

(4/5)5 3(4/5)6 3(4/5)7 (4/5)8

 
P (Y ≥ 0.80) = 1 − P (Y ≤ 0.80) = 1 − − + − ≈ 0.8918.
5 6 7 8

Page 32
Chapter 3 Section 3.3

35. Suppose it is known from large amounts of historical data that X, the number of cars that arrive at a specific
intersection during a 20-second time period, is characterized by the following discrete probability function:
6x
f (x) = e−6 , for x = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
x!
(a) Find the probability that in a specific 20-second time period, more than 8 cars arrive at the intersection.
(b) Find the probability that only 2 cars arrive.

Solution:

(a) Required probability is

8
X 6x
P (X > 8) = 1 − P (X ≤ 8) = 1 − e−6
x!
x=0
 
−6 324 324 1944 1458
= 1−e 1 + 6 + 18 + 36 + 54 + + + +
5 5 35 35
1709 −6
= 1− e
5

(b) Required probability is

62
P (X = 2) = e−6 = 18e−6 .
2!

Page 33
Chapter 3 Section 3.4

3.4 Joint Probability Distribution

Chapter 3 : List of selected problems: (Sections 3.4)

38, 42, 43, 44, 49, 50, 56 (Page 91-94).

38. If the joint probability distribution of X and Y is given by

x+y
f (x, y) = , for x = 0, 1, 2, 3; y = 0, 1, 2,
30
then find

(a) P (X ≤ 2, Y = 1); (b) P (X > 2, Y ≤ 1); (c) P (X > Y ); (d) P (X + Y = 4).

Solution: The joint probability distribution table is given by

f (x, y) 0 1 2 3

0 0 1/30 1/15 1/10

Y 1 1/30 1/15 1/10 2/15

2 1/15 1/10 2/15 1/6

2
X 1 2 3 6
(a) P (X ≤ 2, Y = 1) = f (x, 1) = + + = = 0.20.
30 30 30 30
x=0

7
(b) P (X > 2, Y ≤ 1) = f (3, 0) + f (3, 1) = .
30
18 3
(c) P (X > Y ) = f (1, 0) + f (2, 0) + f (3, 0) + f (2, 1) + f (3, 1) + f (3, 2) = = .
30 5
4
(d) P (X + Y = 4) = P (3, 1) + P (2, 2) = .
15

42. Let X and Y denote the lengths of life, in years, of two components in an electronic system. If the joint density
function of these variables is 
e−(x+y) , x > 0, y > 0
f (x, y) =
0, elsewhere,
find P (0 < X < 1|Y = 2).

Solution: The required probability is

Z 1
 1
−(x+2)
e dx e−2 − e−x
P (0 < X < 1, Y = 2) 1
P (0 < X < 1|Y = 2) = = Z 0∞ =  0
∞ = 1− .
P (Y = 2) e
e−(x+2) dx e−2 − e−x
0 0

Page 34
Chapter 3 Section 3.4

43. Let X denote the diameter of an armored electric cable and Y denote the diameter of the ceramic mold that
makes the cable. Both X and Y are scaled so that they range between 0 and 1. Suppose that X and Y have
the joint density 
1
 , 0 < x < y < 1,

f (x, y) = y
0,

elsewhere,

Find P (X + Y > 1/2).

Solution: The required probability is

  Z 1/2 Z y
1 1
P X +Y > = dxdy
2 y=1/4 x=1/2−y y
Z 1 Z y
1
+ dxdy y=1
y=1/2 x=1/2−y y
x+y > 1
Z 1/2
  2
1 1

y
= 2− dy + y = 0.5

=
2y 2

x
y=1/4 y = 0.25

1 1 1 1
= − ln 2 + = 1 − ln 2 . x=1
2 2 2 2

44. Each rear tire on an experimental airplane is supposed to be filled to a pressure of 40 pounds per square inch
(psi). Let X denote the actual air pressure for the right tire and Y denote the actual air pressure for the left
tire. Suppose that X and Y are random variables with the joint density function

k(x2 + y 2 ), 30 ≤ x < 50, 30 ≤ y < 50
f (x, y) =
0, elsewhere,

(a) Find k.
(b) Find P (30 ≤ X ≤ 40 and 40 ≤ Y < 50).
(c) Find the probability that both tires are underfilled.

Solution:
(a) From the properties of a density function we have,
50 Z 50 50  50 50 
y3
Z Z Z 
2 2 1 2 298000
k(x + y )dydx = 1 =⇒ = x y+ dx = 20x + dx
30 30 k 30 3 30 30 3
20 3 98000 50 20
 
1 98000
=⇒ = x + x = × 98000 + × 20
k 3 3 30 3 3
1 1960000 3
=⇒ = =⇒ k = .
k 3 1960000

Page 35
Chapter 3 Section 3.4

(b) The required probability is,

40 Z 50 40  50
y3
Z Z
3 3
P (30 ≤ X ≤ 40, 40 ≤ Y < 50) = (x2 + y 2 )dydx = x2 y + dx
1960000 30 40 1960000 30 3 40
10x3 61000x 40
Z 40    
3 610002 3
= 10x + dx = +
1960000 30 3 1960000 3 3 30
 
3 370000 610000 3 98000 1
= + = × = .
1960000 3 3 1960000 3 2

(c) Tire is underfilled if the pressure is below 40 psi. Therefore, the required probability is,
Z 40 Z 40
3
P (30 ≤ X ≤ 40, 30 ≤ Y < 40) = (x2 + y 2 )dydx
1960000 30 30
Z 40  
3 2 37000
= 10x + dx
1960000 30 3
 
3 370000 370000 37
= + = .
1960000 3 3 98

49. Let X denote the number of times a certain numerical control machine will malfunction: 1, 2, or 3 times on
any given day. Let Y denote the number of times a technician is called on an emergency call. Their joint
probability distribution is given as

x
f (x, y)
1 2 3
1 0.05 0.05 0.10
y 3 0.05 0.10 0.35
5 0.00 0.20 0.10

(a) Evaluate the marginal distribution of X.

(b) Evaluate the marginal distribution of Y .
(c) Find P (Y = 3|X = 2).

Solution:
(a) The marginal distribution of X is given by (b) The marginal distribution of Y is given by
 



 0.10, if x = 1 


 0.2, if y = 1

 

0.35,

if x = 2 0.5, if y = 3

g(x) = h(y) =



 0.55, if x = 3 


 0.3, if y = 5

 

0,

otherwise. 0,

otherwise.

(Recall that, column sums of the above table

f (2, 3) 0.10 2
give the marginal distribution of X.) (c) P (Y = 3|X = 2) = = =
g(2) 0.35 7

Page 36
Chapter 3 Section 3.4

50. Suppose that X and Y have the following joint probability distribution:

x
f (x, y)
2 4
1 0.10 0.15
y 3 0.20 0.30
5 0.10 0.15

(a) Find the marginal distribution of X.

(b) Find the marginal distribution of Y .

Solution:

(a) The marginal distribution of X is given by (b) The marginal distribution of Y is given by



 0.40, if x = 2 

g(x) = 0.60, if x = 4



0.25, if y = 1

 

 0.50,

if y = 3
0, otherwise.

h(y) =
(Recall that, column sums of the above table



0.25, if y = 5


give the marginal distribution of X.) 0,

otherwise.

56. The joint density function of the random variables X and Y is


6x, 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1 − x,
f (x, y) =
0, elsewhere.

(a) Show that X and Y are not independent.

(b) Find P (X > 0.3|Y = 0.5).

Solution: The domain of f (x, y) can be described by the figure

y
(a) X and Y are independent if f (x, y) = g(x)h(y). Here,
Z 1−x
(0,1) g(x) = 6xdy = 6x(1 − x), for 0 < x < 1,
0
y
=

and
1
−

y = 0.5
x

Z 1−y
h(y) = 6xdx = 3(1 − y)2 , for 0 < y < 1,
0

x Therefore, g(x)h(y) = 18x(1 − x)(1 − y)2 ̸= f (x, y),

x = 0.3

(0,0) (1,0)
and thus X and Y are not independent.

Page 37
Chapter 3 Section 3.4

(b) The required probability is,

Z 0.5
6xdx
0.3
P (X > 0.3|Y = 0.5) =
h(0.5)
3[(0.5)2 − (0.3)2 ] 16
= 2
= .
3(0.5) 25

Page 38
Chapter 4 Section 4.0

4 Mathematical Expectation

Section 4.1 : Mean of a Random Variable.

List of selected problems:
4, 7, 10, 12, 20, 23 (Page 117-119).

1. Solution:

Section 4.2: Variance and Covariance of Random Variables

List of selected problems:
34, 35, 50.

Page 39