Lesson 1: Soil

When you ask someone to describe a soil, it does not require any deep
knowledge for them to be able to give an answer. People can just state the
soil’s color, texture, permeability, and other tangible characteristics. However, when
you ask them, “do you have an idea how soil is being formed?” They might not
give you a quick and accurate answer since it is hard to observe the entire
process of soil formation due to time constraints. What are the factors that aid
in soil formation?
Learn about It

Soil
Soil is unconsolidated regolith modified over time by water, air, and organic
material. This is the layer that supports the growth of plants. Regoliths are the
fragments of rock or mineral fragments. This layer of material is considered as
an interface where different systems interact. It lies atop the bedrock, which, by
contrast, consists of solid consolidated rocks. Soil forms where the four subsystems
of the planet meet.

Fig. 2. A soil is formed from fragments of minerals called regolith.

A soil with 45% minerals, 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic materials is
believed to be in good condition for plant growth. The mineral content of soil is
usually greater than the other components. Humus , or the partially-decayed organic
matter, is an important component of soil as it provides nutrients for plants and
enhances the ability of soil to retain water. Soil also has pore spaces where
water and air circulate.
Fig. 3. A fertile soil is usually composed of minerals, air, water and organic matter.

Soil Science
Soil science or the study of soil is concerned with soil characterization,
classification, mapping, physical, chemical, hydrologic, mineralogical analysis, soil
assessment, and evaluation. Soil science has two divisions—edaphology and
pedology.

Edaphology
Edaphology comes from the Greek word “ edaphos, ” which means ground.
Therefore, it is the study of soil as a habitat for living organisms. This division
is concerned with how soil influences organisms especially plants.

Pedology
Pedology comes from the Greek word “ pedon, ” which means soil. This division
involves the study of soil as a geologic entity, meaning, its formation,
classification, chemistry, and morphology.

Soil Formation
As shown in Figure 4, the process of soil formation involves four main steps.
The first step is rock disintegration . The forces of wind, rain, freezing and
thawing water, volcanoes, and earthquakes all work together to slowly break down
rocks into smaller particles that will eventually create soil. The second step is also
termed as the early stage of soil . In this stage, simple organisms thrive such as
lichens. These lichens are especially important because of their ability to trap
water, silt, and dust in the soil. Furthermore, when they die, they increase the
amount of organic matter in the soil. In the third step, the soil slowly develops .
It can now support plants with roots. The final step is where the soil is
developed to support thick vegetation .
 Fig. 4. The process of soil formation which involves breaking down rocks into small
pieces.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation

The formation of soil is strongly influenced by a number of factors. Parent
material, time, climate, plants and animals, and topography interplay to form soil.

Parent Material
Parent material is the source of regolith. Parent material undergoes physical and
chemical changes during the process of soil formation. When the resulting soil is
found in the same place as the parent material, it is called residual soil. When
the source of material is coming from unconsolidated deposits transported by
different media, the soil formed is called transported soil.
Parent material affects the rate of soil erosion as different rocks have different
rates of erosion. The parent material also dictates the chemical properties of the
resulting soil to a large degree.

Time
Time is an important factor in soil formation. Soil that has undergone more time
of weathering may appear distinct from those that have been formed in a short
time. For soil that has undergone weathering for a short time, the parent
material strongly influences the soil characteristics such as color, size, and texture.
If weathering has taken place for a longer time, the influence of parent rock
may be overshadowed by other factors. As a general rule, the longer the soil
formation, the less the soil resembles the parent material.

Climate
Climate has a huge impact on soil formation. It is considered to be the most
important factor. Temperature and precipitation are the two major climatic
components. The rate of rock and mineral weathering in soil increases with mean
soil temperature. In addition, greater weathering and leaching is evident in areas
with high rainfall rate.

Climatic differences in different areas of the world determine the type of

weathering process that will predominate. Cold and dry climates may produce a
blanket of soil formed from mechanical weathering, while hot and wet climates
may form thick layers of chemically weathered soil.

Plants and Animals

Plants and animals contribute to the organic matter present in the soil. When
organic matter which mainly comes from plants decompose, nutrients are supplied
to the soil. The decay of plants and animals also produce organic acids which
speed up the weathering process. Human activities such as urbanization,
agriculture, grazing, and forestry also affects the soil. Moreover, certain organisms
also mechanically alter soils, and leave behind wastes that contribute to humus
formation.

Topography
Topography or the description of land surface, be it as mountains or hills, basins
or creeks, also affects soil formation. As shown in Fig. 5, the length and
steepness of slopes affect the amount of erosion and water content of soil. In
steep slopes, soils are generally thin as erosion rate is high. In plains and basins,
soils are generally thick and black as a result of accumulation of organic matter.
 Fig. 5. Great forms of soils are formed on flat land due to less erosion and rich water
content deposited on it.

Weathering
The final process that results in soil formation is weathering. Weathering is the
combination of processes that physically, chemically, or organically break rocks
down into sediments. Weathering may be accelerated by the action of plants and
animals.

Soil Horizon
Soil-forming processes operate downward, and at different depths. This results in
the formation of various layers of soil and each layer is called a soil horizon .
Soil profile is the vertical sequence of all the soil horizons. A typical soil profile
has O, A, E, B, and C horizons. Note that not all horizons are present in all soil
profiles.

Table 1. The composition of different soil horizons.

 Soil Horizon Composition Description

O It is composed of organic This horizon is a habitat to

(humus or organic) materials such as plant many microorganisms such
litter and loose leaves on as bacteria, algae, and fungi.
top and decomposed or It may be thin, thick, or
humus layer at the bottom. absent in some soils.

A It is the layer composed of This horizon, together with

(topsoil) mineral matter mixed with up the O horizon, makes up the
to 30% humus. topsoil. This is where plants
and other organisms live.

E Clay, minerals, and organic This is the zone of

(eluviated) matter have leached. A eluviation. Eluviation is the
concentration of sand, silt process of washing out of soil
particles of quartz or other particles by the
resistant minerals remained. downward percolation of
water. This downward
percolation of water
dissolves soluble
components, which are
carried to deeper zones,
along with finer sediments.
This process is called
leaching.

B It is composed of This layer is often referred to

(subsoil) accumulation of leached as the zone of accumulation.
materials from the upper
horizons.

C It is characterized as Little or no sign of soil

(parent material) partially altered bedrock. formation is evident in this
Parent material can be easily layer.
identified in this layer.
Figure 6 below shows the relative position and the major composition of each of
the soil layers. Solum (plural, sola) is the soil layer consisting of horizons that
have undergone the same soil forming processes. It primarily consists of layers
from the O horizon down to the B horizon or subsoil layer.

Fig. 6. The differences of each soil horizon are based on their composition and
position relative to the other layers of the soil.
 Key Points

● Edaphology is concerned with how soil influences organisms especially plants.

● Pedology involves the study of soil as a geologic entity, meaning, its
formation, classification, chemistry, and morphology.
● Soil is unconsolidated regolith modified over time by water, air, and organic
material.
● The formation of soil is strongly influenced by a number of factors such
as parent material, time, climate, plants and animals, and topography.
● Soil profile is the vertical sequence of all the soil horizons. A typical soil
profile has O, A, E, B, and C horizons.
Conserving and Protecting the Soil

One major problem that soils experience on a global scale is soil degradation.
Soil degradation is defined as the change in soil health, which results in
decreased capacity of soil to support organisms. In a statement by a United
Nations official, it was stated that if the current rates of soil degradation
continue, all of the world’s topsoil will be gone in 60 years.

Causes of Soil Degradation

Natural Activities
● Physical factors that contribute to soil degradation include rainfall, runoff,
floods, wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements. All these factors result
in soil erosion, which wears away the top layer of the soil, together with
organic matter present. These factors lead to the decrease of soil fertility
and changes in the soil structure and composition.
● Biological factors are those activities by organisms and humans that
degrade the soil. Overgrowth of bacteria and fungi in an area may result
in reduced crop yield and suitability of the soil. Poor farming practices
deplete soil nutrients diminishing soil fertility.
● Chemical factors are those that involve reduction of soil quality due to
changes in alkalinity and acidity of water. Salt build-up and leaching of
nutrients create undesirable changes in the soil properties.
Fig. 14. Activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, and overexploitation for fuelwood
causes the soil to degrade.

Anthropogenic Activities
● Deforestation or the cutting down of trees hasten soil erosion. This
practice exposes soil and affects water retention. Included in this factor
are logging and slash-and-burn techniques. Plants also bind the soil
together. Thus, their loss leads to faster rates of erosion.
● Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides results in the decrease of
organisms that bind soil together. These chemicals kill beneficial bacteria
and microorganisms that help in soil formation.
● Soil pollution caused by industrial and mining activities also degrades soil
quality. Substandard and unregulated mining activities require removal of
vegetation and introduce toxic substances, such as mercury, to the soil.
Industrial processes release material wastes and toxic effluents into air,
water, and land, which all pollute the soil.
● Improper cultivation practices , like tillage, break up soil into finer
particles. These result in faster erosion rates. New practices, like deep
plowing and reduction of plant cover, also contribute to increased erosion of
soil.
● Urbanization introduces more pollutants to the soil. It also requires
removal of vegetation in large areas. Urbanization results in amplified
surface runoffs, eventually leading to the removal of the topsoil.
 Fig. 15. Urbanization of an environment often results in soil degradation.

Overgrazing occurs when more animals are eating grass in an area for a long
period. It contributes to high rates of soil erosion. Overgrazing removes crop
cover and breaks down soil particles. Soil quality and productivity are greatly
affected.

Fig. 16. Animals consumed almost all the grass in the area.

Soil degradation results in the loss of arable lands and drought and aridity.
Degradation also takes away the soil’s ability to hold water which results in
increased flooding. Polluted soil affects water quality as toxic substances in the
soil are eventually discharged in waterways. Around 40% of soil used in
agriculture worldwide are identified as degraded or seriously degraded.

Fig. 17. A color coded map showing areas affected by soil degradation. Organizations
Involving Soil Conservation
Many organizations are involved in soil conservation such as Food and
Agriculture
Organization, The Asia Soil Conservation Network for the Humid Tropics, The
British Society of Soil Science, The Land Institute, and Soil Conservation and
Management Division.

Food and Agricultural Organization

One of the goals of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations is to make agriculture productive and sustainable. They implement
activities, which increase resource use efficiency to achieve higher productivity.

The Asia Soil Conservation Network for the Humid Tropics

The Asia Soil Conservation Network for the Humid Tropics (ASOCON) works to
disseminate soil conservation practices for small-scale farmers. They help farmers
through conduct of seminars and workshops.
The British Society of Soil Science
The British Society of Soil Science studies soils and encourages participants who
are interested in soil utilization. This organization serves as an avenue for the
exchange of ideas for soil improvement.

The Land Institute

The Land Institute is a science-based non-profit research organization that aims
to end soil erosion, do away with the use of chemical inputs for agriculture,
and restore soil health.

Soil Conservation and Management Division

In the Philippines, the Soil Conservation and Management Division (SCMD), a
technical division of the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM), plays
a role in the implementation of sustainable land management to address land
degradation. The BSWM, through the SCMD, participated in the deliberation of
House Bill 4468. The said HB aims to promote conservation technologies for
water and soil.

Activities to Prevent Soil Degradation

In order to prevent further degradation of soil resources, a number of activities
may be done.
● Reducing deforestation will have a huge impact on preventing soil
degradation.
● Individuals should be educated on how important trees and vegetation
covers are.
● Reforestation efforts must also be done.
● Land reclamation, which encompasses activities that aim to restore previous
organic matter and important minerals in soils, may also be done.
● Plant residues may be added to the degraded soil to enrich it with nutrients.
● Soils with high amounts of salts may be restored by salt level correction
and salinity control.
● Proper tillage methods should be done by farmers. Conservation tillage or
tillage mechanisms that make minimal changes to the natural condition of
the soil can be done, instead of deep plowing.
● Leaving previous crop residues on the surface may help shield the soil
from erosion. These residues can also provide nutrients in the soil as
they decompose.
 Key Points

● Soil degradation is defined as the change in soil health which results in

decreased capacity of soil to support organisms.
● The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has
the objectives to make agriculture productive and sustainable in various
nations.
● The Asia Soil Conservation Network for the Humid Tropics (ASOCON)
works to disseminate soil conservation practices for small-scale farmers.
● The British Society of Soil Science studies soils and encourages
participants who are interested in soil utilization.
● The Land Institute is a science-based and non-profit research organization
that aims to end soil erosion, do away with the use of chemical inputs
for agriculture, and restore soil health.
● Soil Conservation and Management Division (SCMD) plays a role in the
implementation of sustainable land management to address land
degradation.

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the soil horizon being described in each item. Write the numbers only
based on the diagram above.
1. It is composed of organic materials such as plant litter and loose leaves.
2. This is the zone of eluviation.
3. This horizon is a habitat to many microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, and
fungi.
4. Clay, minerals, and organic matter have leached in this horizon.
5. It is composed of accumulation of leached materials from the upper horizons.
6. It is composed of mineral matter mixed with up to 30% humus.
7. This layer is often referred to as the zone of accumulation.
8. Little or no sign of soil formation is evident in this layer.
9. This horizon makes up the topsoil.
10. Parent material can be easily identified in this layer.
 B. Identify the advocacies of the following organizations involving soil conservation.

Organization Advocacy

● Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO)

● The Asia Soil

Conservation
Network for the Humid
Tropics (ASOCON)
● The British Society of
Soil
Science

The Land Institute

●

● Soil Conservation and

Management Division
(SCMD)

Challenge Yourself
Answer the following questions. Limit your answer to 2 to 3 sentences.
1. What is the relationship between topography and soil formation?
2. Soil is important in agriculture. However, could agricultural practices affect
the soil negatively? Explain.
3. As a student, what can you contribute in preventing soil degradation?