Material Science

Hardness, Ductility, Malleability, Melting

Point
Units - 2.1 to 2.7
 Introduction

• Iron ores are the basic material used in the

manufacture of the various steels and irons in
present use in marine installations. In its natural
state iron ore contains many impurities and there is
considerable variation in iron content from one ore
to the other.
• Production of steel and other finished products of
iron which may be used in construction of marine
engines or ships takes place in a blast furnace
where the ore is melted and purified to produce
what is known as Pig Iron.
• Pig Iron is very brittle is of little commercial use,
hence this is again subjected to a process of melting
and oxidation with appropriate additives to
produce the steel or steel alloys with specific
properties that are useful to the marine industry.
 Material properties

• The choice of a material for use as an engineering

component depends on the conditions under which

it is employed. These conditions could be simple or

complex but in either case the choice of the right

material has to be made.

As a guide to help in choosing, the various

mechanical properties of the material are studied.

Some of these properties are : Ductility; Brittleness;

Malleability; Elasticity; Plasticity; Hardness;

Strength; Toughness; Corrosion resistance;

Electrical conductivity; Thermal conductivity etc.

A knowledge of the properties of a material is

essential to every engineer. This enables suitable

material choice for a particular application,

appropriate design of the components or parts,

and their protection, where necessary, from

corrosion or damage.
 Ductility – Brittleness - Malleability

• Ductility is that property of a material which

enables it to be drawn easily into wire form. The

percentage elongation and contraction of area, as

determined from a tensile test are a good practical

measure of ductility.
A ductile material maybe drawn out under tension
without rupture. Generally measured by %
elongation

It is the property that enables a material to stretch,

bend, or twist without cracking or breaking.

This property makes it possible for a material to be

drawn out into a thin wire.
Brittleness is a property which could be defined as
the lack of Ductility of the material. In other words,
Brittleness could be considered opposite of
ductility.
A brittle material breaks with very little
permanent distortion. Meaning such a fracture
can occur without warning and can be quite
sudden. Hence knowledge of this property is
crucial during operation.
Malleability is a property similar to Ductility. If a

material can be easily beaten or rolled into

plate form it is said to be malleable. These

material are most suited to the manufacture of

components that go through the forging process.

 Elasticity - Plasticity
• If all the strain in a stressed material disappears

upon removal of the stress, the material is said to

be elastic.

• Therefore Elasticity can be defined as a property of

a material to return to its original shape after

deformation due to a force.

If none of the strain in a stressed material

disappears upon removal of the stress the

material is said to be plastic

Plasticity is the state reached when permanent

distortion takes place i.e., when a material is

stressed beyond its elastic limit.

 Hardness – Strength - Toughness

• A material’s resistance to erosion or wear will

indicate its hardness.

• The hardness test measures a material's resistance

to indentation.
A hardened steel ball or a diamond point is pressed

onto the material surface for a given time with a

given load. The hardness number is a function of

the load and the area of the indentation. The value

may be given as a Brinell number or Vickers

Pyramid number, depending upon the machine

used.
Strength is indicated by the ability of the

component to withstand load. The greater the

load the greater the strength of the material.

The strength of a material is the ability to resist

the application of force without rupture. The

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) is a measure of

this property.
Toughness – a material’s ability to sustain variable

load conditions without failure is a measure of a

material’s toughness or tenacity. Materials could

be strong and yet brittle, but a material which is

tough has strength and resilience.

 Other properties
• Corrosion resistant is a property most sought after in

the maritime atmosphere. This is due to the fact that

ships are always in an atmosphere where oxidation or

corrosion is a constant threat due to the presence of

conditions that promote this activity - Salty air, wind,

sea, and heat.

Electrical conductivity is a property much sought

after in the assembly of electrical equipments,

Contactors, circuit breakers etc. Therefore materials

and alloys used for these components are ones with

a high degree of conductivity, e.g. silver, brass, etc.

Thermal conductivity is another desirable property

for marine usage as the ship has extensive usage of

heat transfer systems which depend on conduction

for the transfer of heat from one medium to the

other for smooth operations of machinery. In such

components the material used must have very good

thermal conductivity.
 Ceramics

• A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-

resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by
shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic
material, such as clay, at a high temperature.
• Common examples are earthenware, porcelain,
and brick.
Ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic oxide,
nitride, or carbide material. Some elements, such
as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics.
Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in
compression, and weak in shearing and tension. They
withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other
materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments.
Ceramics generally can withstand very high
temperatures, ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C.
The primary objective of the application of

ceramic materials for military engineering is to

guarantee precision in the reconnaissance and

combatting of military targets as well as in safety

and personal protection to preserve resources on

the highest possible technical level.

 The products made of oxide and non-oxide ceramic
materials and composites have the following
properties that are essential for such purposes:

• Low weight
• High mechanical and thermochemical strength
• High hardness
• High rigidity
• High wear resistance
• Low thermal expansion

• High electrical insulating capacity

• Non-magnetizability

• Ability to fabricate high-vacuum-tight ceramic-

ceramic and ceramic-metal composites

• Resistance to sea water

• Suitability in compliance with necessary standards

Uses of ceramics in marine engineering
Electronic components
Bearings
Boat Hulls
Mechanical Seals
Hydraulic system components
PVC pipes for sewage systems
Composite materials
Adhesive Compounds
3D Printing
 Steel Metallurgy

• The production of steel starts with the smelting of

iron and the making of “Pig Iron”.
• Pig iron is 92-97% iron, the remaining being carbon,
silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. In the
subsequent manufacture of steels this pig iron is
refined, in other words the non-metallic content is
reduced.
• Steels may be broadly considered to be alloys of
iron and carbon, the carbon percentage varying
from 0.1-0.2% in mild steel to about 1.8% in harder
steels
• The properties of steel may be altered greatly by
the heat treatment they are subjected to after
initial production. These treatments bring about a
change in the mechanical properties principally by
modifying the steel’s structure.
• Ship-building steels are made by the open-hearth,
electric furnace, or the oxygen process, and can be
subjected to heat treatments such as annealing,
normalizing, quenching, and tempering.
• Mild steel with a carbon content of 0.15-0.23%, a
reasonably high manganese content and a
minimum of sulphur and phosphorus, is primarily
used for welding ship construction purposes.
• There are 5 grades of steel, A to E, used in ship
building, the grades varying according to the
alloying elements. Grades A and B are ordinary
mild steel, while Grades C, D, and E are tougher
steels.
• Classification rules specify the grade to be used,
where thicker plates having higher strengths are
desirable.
• For example, for a 250m ship or less in length the
sheer strake over 40% of the length amidships is to
be; Grade A if less than 15mm, Grade B 15-20mm,
Grade D 25-40mm, and Grade E above 40mm.
• In large oil tanker, ore-carriers etc., high tensile
steels are used. These steels with a higher strength
than mild steel permit a reduction in the thickness of
the deck, bottom-shell, and longitudinal framing
over the midship portion with a subsequent saving
in weight.
• Because of the lesser thickness the hull may be
subject to greater deflection and the effects of
corrosion require more vigilant inspections.
• Both mild steel and high-tensile steels are to be
produced at works approved by the classification
society. During production the steel must be
subject to analysis for content and the end
product must undergo various tests to ensure
compliance with the society rules.
 Steel Production

Two major commercial processes for making steel,

namely basic oxygen steelmaking, which has liquid pig-
iron from the blast furnace and scrap steel as the main
feed materials, and electric arc furnace (EAF)
steelmaking, which uses scrap steel or direct reduced
iron (DRI) as the main feed materials.
Oxygen steelmaking is fueled predominantly by the
exothermic (where heat is produced) nature of the
reactions inside the vessel; in contrast, in EAF
steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the solid
scrap and/or DRI materials.

In recent times, EAF steelmaking technology has

evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more
chemical energy is introduced into the process.
Steelmaking is one of the most carbon
emission intensive industries in the world. As
of 2020, steelmaking is estimated to be
responsible for 7 to 9 per cent of all direct
fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions. In order
to mitigate global warming, the industry will
need to find reductions in emissions.
Steelmaking is the process of producing steel from iron
ore and/or scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such
as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and
excess carbon (the most important impurity) are
removed from the sourced iron, and alloying elements
such as manganese, nickel, chromium, carbon
and vanadium are added to produce different grades of
steel.
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of primary

steelmaking in which carbon-rich pig iron is

melted and converted into steel. Blowing oxygen

through molten pig iron converts some of the

carbon in the iron into carbon monoxide, and this

carbon monoxide produces the steel.

Refractories—calcium oxide and magnesium

oxide—line the smelting vessel to withstand the

high temperature and corrosive nature of the

molten metal and slag. The chemistry of the

process is controlled to ensure that impurities

such as silicon and phosphorus are removed from

the metal.
The modern process was developed in 1948, as a
refinement of the Bessemer converter that replaced air
with more efficient oxygen. It reduced the capital cost of
the plants and smelting time, and increased labor
productivity. Between 1920 and 2000, labour requirements
in the industry decreased by a factor of 1000, to just 0.003
man-hours per ton in 2013, 70% of global steel output was
produced using the basic oxygen furnace. Furnaces can
convert up to 350 tons of iron into steel in less than 40
minutes compared to 10–12 hours in an open hearth
furnace.
Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three

steps: primary, secondary and tertiary.

Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel.

Secondary steelmaking involves adding or removing other

elements such as alloying agents and dissolved gases.

Tertiary steelmaking involves casting into sheets, rolls or

other forms. Multiple techniques are available for each step.

Electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of

steel from scrap or direct reduced iron melted

by electric arcs. In an electric arc furnace, a batch

(called “heat”) of iron is loaded into the furnace,

sometimes with a "hot heel" (molten steel from a

previous heat). Gas burners may be used to assist with

the melt.
As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are also

added to protect the lining of the vessel and help

improve the removal of impurities. Electric arc

furnace steelmaking typically uses furnaces of

capacity around 100 tonnes that produce steel

every 40 to 50 minutes. This process allows larger

alloy additions than the basic oxygen method.

Blast furnace
To make pure steel, iron and carbon are needed. On its
own, iron is not very strong, but a low concentration of
carbon - less than 1 percent, depending on the kind of
steel, gives the steel its important properties. The carbon
in steel is obtained from coal and the iron from iron ore.
However, iron ore is a mixture of iron and oxygen, and
other trace elements. To make steel, the iron needs to be
separated from the oxygen and a tiny amount of carbon
needs to be added.
Both are accomplished by melting the iron ore at a
very high temperature (1,700 degrees Celsius) in the
presence of oxygen (from the air) and a type of coal
called coke. At those temperatures, the iron ore
releases its oxygen, which is carried away by the
carbon from the coke in the form of carbon dioxide.

Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)

The reaction occurs due to the lower (favorable)
energy state of carbon dioxide compared to iron
oxide, and the high temperatures are needed to
achieve the activation energy for this reaction. A
small amount of carbon bonds with the iron,
forming pig iron, which is an intermediary before
steel, as it has carbon content that is too high -
around 4%.
 Types of Steel & Uses

• Steel can be broadly categorized into four groups

based on their chemical compositions:
1. Carbon Steels

2. Alloy Steels

3. Stainless Steels

4. Tool Steels
In essence, steel is composed of iron and carbon,
although it is the amount of carbon, as well as the
level of impurities and additional alloying elements
that determine the properties of each steel grade.

Different types of steel are produced according to

the properties required for their application, and
various grading systems are used to distinguish
steels based on these properties.
Carbon Steels

Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying

elements and account for 90% of total steel

production. Carbon steels can be further categorized

into three groups depending on their carbon content:

• Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3%
carbon
• Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3-0.6% carbon
(gears)
• High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6%
carbon (Knives, hack saw blades, chisels,
hammers, drills, dies, machine tool cutters,
punches,
• Uses: Fences, Chain-links, Knives
Alloy Steels
Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g.
manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper,
chromium, and aluminum) in varying proportions in
order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as its
hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength,
formability, weldability or ductility. Applications for
alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts,
transformers, power generators and electric motors.
Uses: Turbine Blades, Electric Motors
Stainless Steels

Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20%

chromium as the main alloying element and are
valued for high corrosion resistance. With over
11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more
resistant to corrosion than mild steel.
Uses: Kitchen Utensiles, Razor blades
Tool Steels

Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum,

cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them
ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.
Uses: Cutting, Welding, Drilling tools.
General uses of steel in the Marine Industry:

• Construction of superstructure
• Tools
• Ships
• Automobiles
• Machines & appliances
• Machine steel
• Spring steel
• Boiler steel
 Heat Treatment of steels

• Heat treatment involves the controlled heating and

cooling of metals to alter their physical and
mechanical properties without changing the product
shape.
• Steels are particularly suited to heat treatment, since
they respond well to the process, and the commercial
uses of steel far exceeds that of any other material.
• Generally, heat treatment uses phase
transformation during heating and cooling to
change a microstructure in a solid state.
• In heat treatment the process is entirely
thermal and modifies only the structure.
• Various types of heat treatment processes are used
to modify the following properties or condition of
the steel:
• Increase Toughness, Hardness, and Ductility
• Improve Machinability
• Refine the grain structure
• Remove residual stresses
• Improve wear resistance.
 Treatment of Metals

Metals used in marine construction are treated to

give them properties that are desirable for their

continued operation in service.

A few treatment methods are described below:

Hardening: this involves heating the metal to a
temperature between 720 and 900 deg.C (this is
known as the upper critical range) and suddenly
cooling it by immersing the metal in water – this is
called Quenching. This treatment increases the
hardness of the material but also produces internal
stresses and makes it brittle. To relieve these stresses
and restore ductility without loss of hardness or
toughness the material needs to be tempered.
Tempering: This process consists of heating the
material to about 250 deg C, retaining this
temperature for a duration of time depending on
the degree of toughness required and then
quenching or cooling in air.
The combination of Hardening and Tempering is
generally employed with steels and alloy steels to
obtain a wide range of properties.
 .

• Annealing: The object of Annealing is either to

grain refine, induce ductility, stress relieve, or a
combination of these. In this process the metal is
heated to a specific temperature, held at that
temperature and allowed to cool slowly.
• The treatment given to a metal to bring about a
decrease of the hardness and increase the ductility
is known as Annealing.
The benefits of Annealing are:
• Improved Ductility
• Removal of residual stresses that could have
resulted from cold-working or machining
• Improved machinability
• Grain refinement.
Castings, Forgings, Sheets, Wires, and Welded
materials can be subjected to this process. It
consists of heating the material to a pre-
determined temperature, allowing it to stay in
this temperature and cooling at a controlled rate
inside the furnace.
• In Normalizing the metal is heated above the

Upper Critical Temperature, soaking there for

some time and then cooling it in still air outside

the furnace to room temperature.

• The process of full annealing and

normalizing are normally carried out on

castings to give them a uniform grain

structure and increased ductility.

 .

• Case Hardening: This treatment is for gudgeon pins

and other bearing pins to produce a hard outer

case with good wear resistance and a relatively soft

inner core which will retain the ductility and

toughness required for such components.

 Two general processes are used:
1) The chemical composition of the surface is altered,
prior to or after quenching and tempering; the
processes used include carburizing, nitriding,
cyaniding, and carbonitriding.
2) Only the surface layer is hardened by the heating
and quenching process; the most common processes
used for surface hardening are flame hardening and
induction hardening.
Carburizing: Carbon is diffused into the part’s
surface to a controlled depth by heating the part in
a carbonaceous medium, which involves sealing
both the steel and solid carbonaceous material in a
gas-tight container, then heating this combination.
The resulting depth of carburization, commonly
referred to as case depth, depends on the carbon
potential of the medium used and the time and
temperature of the carburizing treatment.
The steels most suitable for carburizing to enhance
toughness are those with sufficiently low carbon
contents, usually below 0.3 percent. Carburizing
temperatures range from 843 to 954°C with the
temperature and time at temperature adjusted to
obtain various case depths. Steel selection,
hardenability, and type of quench are determined by
section size, desired core hardness, and service
requirements.
Nitriding: The steel part is heated to a

temperature of 482 to 621°C in an atmosphere

of ammonia gas and dissociated ammonia for

an extended period of time that depends on the

case depth desired. A thin, very hard case

results from the formation of nitrides.

Strong nitride-forming elements (chromium and

molybdenum) are required to be present in the steel,

and often special nonstandard grades containing

aluminum (a strong nitride former) are used. The

major advantage of this process is that parts can be

quenched and tempered, then machined, prior to

nitriding, because only a little distortion occurs during

nitriding.
Flame Hardening: This is done on highly loaded

components like gear teeth. The process

increases surface hardness which improves its

resistance to wear.
This process involves rapid heating with a direct high-
temperature gas flame, such that the surface layer of
the part is heated above the transformation range,
followed by cooling at a rate that causes the desired
hardening. Steels for flame hardening are usually in
the range of 0.30-0.60 percent carbon, with
hardenability appropriate for the case depth desired
and the quenchant used.