Managerial Skills for Schools: Sustainable Investment or a

Waste of Money?
N. McFarlane and J. Vermeulen: Unit for Lifelong Learning, Vaal Triangle
Technikon

INTRODUCTION
The Unit for Lifelong Learning at the Vaal Triangle Technikon, situated in Vanderbijlpark
(Gauteng, South Africa), has been involved in various training and developmental
activities since 1991. The mission of the Unit is to offer affordable training and
development programs, based on fitness for purpose.

The Unit also offers in-house training on request from industry, commerce and the
community. It is ever-striving towards excellent quality training and development
programs that are up-to-date and relevant to clients’ needs. The Unit prides itself on
offering courses that transfer directly usable skills.

In June 2000 a management development program, “Managerial Skills Course for

Schools”, sponsored by the DG Murray Trust, was initiated by the Unit for Lifelong
Learning, Vaal Triangle Technikon, in conjunction with the Sasolburg and
Vanderbijlpark-North & South School Districts. (These districts have since changed to
Sedibeng-East and Sedibeng-West School Districts.) The program was presented to
members of 12 School Management Teams within these districts over a 7-day period in
the July 2000 school holidays.

During January 2001, written feedback with regard to the impact of the “Managerial
Skills Course for Schools” was received from Mr HM Mthombeni, District Manager,
Sasolburg Education District. (see Appendix 1). As a result of this feedback the
researchers initiated an investigation into the impact of the “Managerial Skills Course for
Schools” program on all schools that were invited to attend the program.

BACKGROUND
Many countries, whether industrially developed or newly industrialised, recognise the
crucial role of an effective system of education as part of their national plan for social
and economic development (Van Dyk, Nel, Van Z Loedolff & Haasbroek, 1999:4).

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Winning nations seem to focus their educational systems on the development of the
whole person, not only on skills development but also on cultural values and a work ethic
(Lindeque & Verster, 1992:23).

With the promulgation of the Skills Development Act of 1998 (South Africa, 1998:8) the
need has arisen, within the South African context, to increase the levels of investment of
education and training in the labour market and to thus improve the return on
investment. Two of the main purposes of the Skills Development Act are, (a) to develop
the skills of the South African workforce in order to improve the delivery of social
services and (b) to provide employees with the opportunities to acquire new skills.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The importance of education, training and development of managers in South Africa
cannot be over-emphasised, as the primary task of management is to manage so that
the organisation is effective and successful (Van Dyk et al, 1999:376).

A manager is defined as an individual who achieves goals through other people.

Managers make decisions, allocate resources and direct the activities of others to attain
goals. Managers do their work in an organisation, which is a consciously co-ordinated
social unit, composed of two or more people that function on a relatively continuous
basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. On the basis of this definition,
manufacturing and service firms are organisations and so too are schools, hospitals,
churches, military units, retail stores and local and government agencies (Robbins,
1998:2 and Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001:6).

The researchers therefore agree that in the school context, the principal fulfils the same
role and duties as that of a manager of an organisation. The principal must also achieve
goals through collaboration with other people, decision-making, allocation of resources
and directing the activities of others. In this context other people are seen as the School
Management Team, which consists of the principal, deputy principals, heads of
departments and senior teachers.

A team is defined as a small group with complementary skills who hold themselves
mutually accountable for common purpose, goals and approach (Kreitner & Kinicki,

2
2001:414). Robbins (1998:286) defines a team as a group of people who generate
positive synergy through co-ordinated effort. A School Management Team is therefore
described by the researchers as that group of people responsible for the achievement of
positive outcomes with regard to the school’s goals, in line with those of the Department
of Education.

According to Oswald (1995:1) School-Based Management (SBM) is defined as the

decentralisation of decision-making authority to the school site. Oswald (1995:1) further
cites three advantages of SBM which include: (a) better programmes for students
because resources are available to directly match students needs, (b) ensures higher
quality decisions because these are made by groups instead of individuals, and (c)
increases communication among stakeholders.

The challenge facing schools today, is that until consistent, targeted, goal-directed and
goal-achieving action can be guaranteed, our efforts with regard to the transformation of
the South African education system will not be successful (Asmal, 2000a:3).

Comprehensive reform, whole-school reform, school-wide change, regardless of which

name is used to refer to it, this type of reform seeks to improve school performance by
simultaneously aligning all aspects of a schools’ environment with a central guiding
vision. These school-wide programs can produce compelling results such as substantial
gains in student achievement. There is however a catch, in that the designs must be
well implemented and this is where many schools and school districts have encountered
problems (Hertling, 1999:1).

Kader Asmal, Minister of Education (Asmal, 2000b:11) has called upon the Council of
Education Ministers (CEM) as well as the Heads of Education Departments Committee
(HEDCOM) to formulate a response to the need to improve capacity for the
management and administration of schools.

The idea that organisations (thus schools) should have a sense of direction is a relatively
new concept. Most large organisations have been concerned historically with
maintenance and stability, not with adaptation or direction. As schools are among the
least able to adapt to this challenge, educators in particular need to be held more

3
accountable for systematic improvement of schooling, through emphasising the need to
think about schools as learning organisations that continually encourage their members
to perceive themselves as participants in a “learning community” (Conley, 2001:iv). A
learning community can only function effectively if there is a clear vision amongst its
members and if its members are motivated (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001:677).

Motivation is a quality that students, teachers, parents, school administrators and other
members of the community should have if our education system is to prepare for the
challenges and demands of the future (Piele, 1992: iii). If school leaders are equipped
with the wisdom that comes from the way that motivation functions in their own lives, it
will probably be much easier for them to find ways to motivate their students (Renchler,
1992:2). The literature on school culture makes it clear that effective schools have a
culture characterised by a well-defined set of goals that all members of the school value
and promote (Renchler, 1992:4). In South Africa today, emphasis is placed at mobilising
all stakeholders in education in order to turn our schools from dysfunctional states into
centres of excellence (Mushwana, 2000:1).

Highly effective principals appear to understand that the goals of the school will only
direct the actions of staff, students and others to the extent that these people also adopt
them as their own. People will not be motivated unless they believe in the value of
acting to achieve a particular goal (Leithwood and Montgomery, 1994:51).

Tolo (2000:3) states that the professional quality of our teaching corps must be
constantly improved and upgraded. This will enhance educator morale within the
system. The South African Schools Act, (South Africa, 2000/1:3), provides for –
amongst other things – governance and management of public schools and the election
of governing bodies and their functions.

Coupled with the effective governance of schools is the effective management of

schools (Tolo, 2000:6). The successful implementation and achievement of whole
school reform depends on effective management and governance of the school.
Leadership and management in schools will ensure that learning and teaching are
promoted (Tolo, 2000:3).

4
However, serious challenges remain and the Department of Education will intensify
training programmes for the development of School Management Teams. The outcome
of such efforts must be a culture that promotes equity, that sets high standards for
learners and educators and that creates a climate, which is conducive to learning and
professional growth. This can only happen if there is a clear sense of accountability on
the part of school principals and their management teams (Tolo, 2000:6). To this end
Education Management and Development (EMD) Programs are in progress for School
Management Teams and for School Governing Bodies (SGB) (Tolo, 2000:3).

Innovative and promising strategies are being implemented in various provinces, aimed
at addressing the very basic problems that contribute to making schools dysfunctional.
Some of these strategies relate to ensuring that effective management of schools takes
place (Asmal, 2000b:2). Indications are that the present short-comings in school
management result in accumulated backlogs, which in turn, place additional pressure on
already weak school-system performance (Asmal, 2000b:4)

Current projects that are underway, supported by the Department of Education, include
strategies aimed at school improvement, educator professional development and
community involvement. Efforts are focused on developing the competency of
educators in facilitating learning, the competency of SGB’s and the provision of
adequate support services for schools (Asmal, 2000b:5).

There is however, a continuing tendency to use discretionary funding for projects that
are not adequately conceived, planned and implemented. There is an over-reliance on
workshops and consultants that respond to quick and ill-conceived briefs. Although
there is very little hard data available, evidence suggests that the impact of these
projects is less than satisfactory so far in South Africa (Asmal, 2000b:5). According to
Middleton, Zaiderman & Adams (1993:83) the result of much of the investment in skills
training has been disappointing in several other countries as well.

The researchers feel however that an investment to procure effective management

teams plays a greater role in school success than previously thought. A strong
management team is an essential contributor to a school’s return on investment and
growth in investment (Anon, 1998:1).

5
In South Africa today the emphasis is on changes in school governance, towards that of
a self-managed entity (Mkise, 2000). This implies that South African schools should be
managed along the same principles as those of an organisation. In other words, the
School Management Team is held accountable, to a large extent, for making decisions,
allocating resources and directing the activities of others, in order to achieve the goals of
the school.

It is thus recommended that by zeroing in on this often-neglected level of governance

that is, the School Management Team, improved performance at the school and in the
classroom will be indirectly stimulated. The implication is that poor school performance
will not be adequately addressed until teachers, principals and SGB’s work together as a
team (Renchler, 2000:2).

In contrast, Mr ZP Tolo, MEC of Education, North West Province, challenged the

perception that Grade 12 results constitute the overall performance of the education
system. Summers and Johnsen (Oswal, 1995:1) concur that there is “virtually no
evidence that School Based Management translates into improved student
performance.” Tolo (2000:1) however, also states that the distribution of resources
should be aimed at stabilising the entire school system.

Craig Padayachee (2000:1), Minister of Education, Mpumalanga, states that School

Management Teams should require exceptional leadership qualities as a prerequisite for
the enhancement of quality public education in our schools.

One of the main tasks of a manager (principal) is to acquire new business skills, which
includes the refinement of the way in which interpersonal relationships are handled and
which are aimed at improving team effectiveness (Erasmus & van Dyk, 1999:210).
Sound interpersonal relationships form the basis of any well-functioning work team
within an organisation.

Kreitner and Kinicki (2001:418) and Robbins (1998:301) describe the characteristics of
an effective team as containing people with three different types of skills namely:
business, problem solving and interpersonal skills. The teams should have a common

6
purpose, establish specific goals and have the leadership and structure to provide focus
and goal direction.

According to Mitchell (1995:83) the general areas of training demanded, broadly fall into
the following categories: (a) basic general academic skills; (b) social and interpersonal
skills; (c) intellectual skills and (d) business and entrepreneurial skills.

With regard to teams the type of training required falls into the categories of social and
interpersonal skills, as well as business and entrepreneurial skills (Kreitner & Kinicki,
2001:420). Social and interpersonal skills consist of motivation, decision-making skills,
ability to work in a team and willingness to cooperate (Van Dyk et al., 1999:11).
Business and entrepreneurial skills consist of, amongst others, assessing opportunities,
planning, organising and financing of business plans (Van Dyk et al., 1999:491).

As the principal is seen in the context of a team leader, he/she, is thus held accountable
for team effectiveness through consultation with all stakeholders. Oswal (1995:1)
supports this by stating that for School Based Management (SBM) to work successfully,
the principal must use a team approach to make the system work effectively and
principals thus benefit by receiving input from other stakeholders. The stakeholders
include the School Management Team, SGB’s, Local School District Offices and the
Department of Education.

Leithwood and Montgomery (1994:51) describe 3 stages that principals go through in the
process of becoming more and more effective as school leaders. Firstly, as an
administrator that is characterised by the principal’s desire to run “a smooth ship”.
Secondly, as a humanitarian where the principal focuses primarily on goals that cultivate
good interpersonal relations especially among staff members and thirdly, as a program
manager whereby principals perceive interpersonal relations as an avenue for achieving
goals that stress educational achievement. Thus, principals require management
training to ensure School Management Team effectiveness.

Management training tends to be specific and short-term. It is primarily concerned with

teaching managers the skills required to perform their jobs more effectively. For
example, managers will attend short courses during their careers on a whole range of

7
business topics such as time management, financial skills, communication skills and so
forth (Beardwell and Holden, 1994:375).

The researchers however, feel that the emphasis should lie with management
development as Beardwell and Holden (1994:375) define management development as
an attempt to improve managerial effectiveness through a planned and deliberate
process. Management development is therefore seen as an ongoing, long-term
process.

Skinner and Ivancevich (1992:283) state that management development is a process of

developing and educating selected personnel in the knowledge, skills and attitudes
needed to manage in their positions. Thus, they view education and development as
one and the same.

PURPOSE
As the researchers feel that improved managerial skills carry far-reaching benefits, not
only to the schools involved but also to the community, the purpose of this research is to
investigate the impact of the “Managerial Skills Course for Schools” on the development
of School Management Teams as well as the impact thereof on overall school
performance.

METHODOLOGY
Target population and selection of the sample
The sample consisted of 22 principals, deputy principals and heads of departments, from
Secondary Schools, within the Sedibeng-East & Sedibeng-West School Districts.
Purposive sampling was used as the School District Offices were requested by the Unit
for Lifelong Learning to nominate the trainees.

The composition of the sample was as follows:

Table 1: Composition of the sample group
Gender No. of No. of No. of deputy No. of head Total
schools principals principals of
departments
12
Female - - 1 6 7
Male - 3 3 9 15
22

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Research design
A one group pre-test post-test design was used based on the availability of the 1999 and
2000 Grade 12 results from the participating schools. It was decided to use Grade 12
results as a measure of the effectiveness of the training program as the researchers felt
that the Grade 12 results reflected the overall performance of the school and thus the
success of the School Management Team.

The investigation was conducted as follows: (1) data pertaining to the 1999 Grade 12
results was collected (2) the training intervention, namely the “Managerial Skills Course
for Schools” was presented and (3) data pertaining to the 2000 Grade 12 results was
collected.

Program content
The Sedibeng-East and Sedibeng-West School Districts approached the Unit For
Lifelong Learning with a request for managerial skills training during the first half of 2000.
In response, the Unit developed a “Managerial Skills Course for Schools” in the form of a
workshop. The workshop consisted of seven modules, which were presented from the
26th of June to the 4th of July 2000. The eight modules are outlined in Table 2.

Table 2: Module outline

Module Duration Topic Content
1 4 hrs Business  Business correspondence
Communication Skills  Meeting procedures
 Oral communication
 Listening skills
2 2 hrs Time Management  What is time management
 Danger signals of poor time
management
 Time management techniques
3 6 hrs Conflict Management  Understanding conflict
 Using conflict resolution strategies
 Negotiating to solve thee problem
4 6 hrs Strategic Planning  The planning process
 Implementation strategies
5 6 hrs Negotiation Skills  Skills required of a negotiator
 Negotiation strategies
6 6 hrs Financial  What is financial management
Management  The elements of financial
statements
 Recording techniques for schools
 Budgets
7 6 hrs Stress Management  What is stress
 Stress management techniques
8 6 hrs Team Building  Team building processes
 Implementation of team building
techniques

9
Measuring instruments
Trainees were subjected to a written examination, which covered each of the modules
presented. The examination consisted of multiple-choice questions as well as
application questions pertaining to the module content. The duration of the examination
was 3 hours and the total of the paper was 100 marks. This examination was conducted
approximately 2 months after completion of the workshop, during September 2000.

In addition, written feedback was received from the District Manager of the Sasolburg
Education District as well as the 1999 and 2000 Grade 12 results for the participating
schools.

Procedure
Step 1 The sample (n=22), made up of principals, deputy principles and heads of
departments, was purposively selected from the target population (N) of all
Secondary Schools within the Sedibeng-East and Sedibeng-West school
districts.

Step 2 The “Managerial Skills Course for Schools” was presented to the sample
group over a seven-day period during the July 2000 school holidays.

Step 3 On completion of the workshop the trainees were subjected to a written

examination that covered the content of each of the 7 modules. This
examination was conducted during September 2000, approximately 2 months
after the completion of the workshop.

Step 4 Data was gathered pertaining to the 1999 Grade 12 results as well as the
2000 Grade 12 results of those schools involved in the “Managerial Skills
Course for Schools” program.

Step 5 Data regarding individual results and whole-school performance were then
analysed.

Step 6 Based on the analysis of the results, conclusions were drawn and
recommendations made.

Analysis of results
(i) Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the composition of the sample group.
(ii) The average results, based on individual performance in the written examination,
were then calculated for each school.
(iii) The mean difference between the 1999 Grade 12 results and the 2000 Grade 12
results of each of the participating schools was calculated.

10
(iv) Values were assigned to each trainee in terms of their representative post-level
and an attendance index was then calculated.
(v) These results were then compared and conclusions were drawn.

FINDINGS
The average results, based on individual performance in the written examination, are
shown in Table 3. As can be seen from Table 3, it appears that learning with regard to
the module content did occur as the examination was conducted two months after the
trainees attended the workshop. The overall average of all individual results was 69%

Table 3: Average results as per individual performance

School No. of trainees Average results
1 1 74%
2 2 77%
3 1 68%
4 1 71%
5 3 73%
6 1 79%
7 1 77%
8 2 23%
9 6 72%
10 1 73%
11 1 77%
12 1 65%
Please note: To protect the identity of each of the schools involved a number
between 1 and 12 was assigned to each school.

In Table 4, the mean difference between the 1999 Grade 12 results and the 2000 Grade
12 results of each of the participating schools was calculated.

Values were assigned to each participant in terms of their representative post-level. The
values were assigned as follows: (a) a value of 3 was assigned to each Principal that
attended, (b) a value of 2 was assigned to each Deputy-Principal that attended and (c) a
value of 1 for each Head of Department that attended. These values are indicated in the
Index column of Table 4.

11
 Table 4: Results as per overall school performance
School 1999 2000 Mean No. of Trainees: Trainees: Trainees: Index
Grade 12 Grade 12 difference trainees Post-level Post-level Post-level
results results 1 2 3
(% pass-rate) (% pass-rate)

1 65.7 83.33 17.63 1 - 1 - 2

2 53.34 79.37 26.03 2 1 - 1 4
3 24.62 41.18 16.56 1 - - 1 1
4 76.47 63.73 -12.74 1 - - 1 1
5 13.64 77.78 64.14 3 - 1 2 4
6 41.29 59.27 17.98 2 - 1 1 3
7 7.83 22.73 14.9 2 - - 2 2
8 51 28.7 -22.3 1 - - 1 1
9 49.6 69.5 19.9 6 1 2 3 10
10 10.1 22.5 12.4 1 - - 1 1
11 13.9 19.6 5.7 1 - - 1 1
12 20.7 41.5 20.28 1 - - 1 1

Overall performance of schools in terms of

1999 and 2000 Grade 12 results.
Difference between 2000

80 12
Attendence index
and 1999 results

60 10
40 8
20 6
0 4
-20 2
-40 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 -30 -10 10 30 50 70
School Difference between 2000 and 1999 results

As can be seen from the above Histogram As can be seen from the above scatter plot
ten of the twelve schools involved showed a ten of the twelve schools involved showed a
positive increase in their Grade 12 results positive increase in their Grade 12 results
from 1999 to 2000. The increase is shown from 1999 to 2000. The increase is shown
by a mean difference of between 5.7 and by a mean difference of between 5.7 and
64.1. 64.1.

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 Table 5: Summary of findings
School Average Mean difference Principal Deputy- HOD Index
individual in Grade 12 attended principal attended
performance (%) results attended
1 74 17.63 1 - - 2
2 77 26.03 1 - 1 4
3 68 16.56 - - 1 1
4 71 -12.74 - - 1 1
5 73 64.14 - 1 2 4
6 79 17.98 - 1 1 3
7 77 14.9 - - 2 2
8 23 -22.3 - - 1 1
9 72 19.9 1 2 3 10
10 73 12.4 - - 1 1
11 77 5.7 - - 1 1
12 65 20.8 - - 1 1

Based on Table 5, the findings are as follows:

(i) 10 of the 12 schools showed an improvement in Grade 12 results.
(ii) Apart from schools which showed a mean difference of 64.14 between 1999 and
2000 Grade 12 results, all other schools that showed an improvement in results,
fall into the 5 – 26 mean difference range.
(iii) 6 of the 10 schools that showed an improvement had an index value of > 2. This
index value indicates that either a senior member or more than one member of
the School Management Team attended the training.
(iv) The average individual performance of each of the 10 schools that showed an
improvement was > than 65%
(v) 2 schools (8 & 4) did not show an improvement.
(vi) At school 8 the average individual performance was 23 %
(vii) At school 4, the HOD that attended, was acting in that position at the time.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings above the researchers concluded that:
(i) The program had a positive impact on overall school performance in the form of
the 2000 Grade 12 results.
(ii) The more senior the post-level of the trainee and thus the more senior a member
of the School Management Team, the greater the likelihood that school
performance improved.
(iii) The more members of the School Management Team that attended the greater
the likelihood that school performance improved.

13
(iv) Trainees that passed the written examination utilised the knowledge and skill
acquired during training and thus had a positive impact on over-all school
performance.
(v) A relationship thus exists between the effective functioning of the School
Management Team and overall school performance in the form of the 2000
Grade 12 results.

LIMITATIONS
The researchers are aware that other variables such as levels of motivation, skill
acquisition through other sources, redeployment of funds, increase in teacher support,
infrastructure, School Governing Bodies, the Department of Education, school and
government policies amongst others, could also have had an impact on overall school
performance.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The researchers recommend the following:
(i) The “Managerial Skills Course for Schools” should continue and be extended to
other schools.
(ii) Pre- and post tests, with regard to levels of knowledge and skills, prior to and
after the training intervention, should be conducted on the School Management
Teams of future participating schools.
(iii) Surveys regarding the implementation of skills acquired through the program
should be conducted on the School Management Teams and schools, which
have already completed the program.
(iv) The future implementation of the “Managerial Skills Course for Schools” program
should involve more members of the attending schools’ School Management
Teams.
(v) Follow-up training interventions with regard to ongoing skill implementation
should be developed by the Unit for Lifelong Learning and presented to the
schools, which have already completed the “Managerial Skills Course for
Schools”.

14
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