FCE 432: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TIMBER

1. TIMBER AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

1.1 Types
Hardwoods (e.g. Mvuli, Meru Oak, Mahogany, Eucalyptus)
 Difficult to work because of hardness and may require pre-drilled holes for jointing with
nails.
 Useful for severe environmental exposure conditions (resistance to wear, insect and
fungal attack better than softwoods).
 Useful for aesthetics.
Softwoods (e.g. Cedar, Podo, Pine, Cypress, Grivellea Robusta)
 Some commonly available in stockyards and cheaper than hardwoods.
 Preferred in construction because easier to work and joint with nails.
 Have straighter grains than hardwoods.
 More liable to insect and fungal attack than hardwoods and require intensive treatment for
preservation.
Available sizes generally in multiples of 25mm up to 300mm size. E.g. 100 x 50, 150 x 50,
100 x 100, 200 x 50mm, etc.
1.2 Advantages Over Other Construction Materials
 High strength / weight ratio
 Some softwoods commonly available locally
 Construction time faster and structure can be loaded immediately after assembly
 Aesthetically appealing as a natural material
 Useful for temporary construction – easily dismantled and re-usable if care taken.
1.3 Disadvantages Over Other Construction Materials
 Cost and availability of hardwood especially.
 Less durable than concrete or steel if not well preserved.
 Combustible.
 Liable to natural and seasoning defects which make strength and quality highly variable.
 May require specialized skills in joinery.

2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TIMBER (BS 5268 – 2 : 2002) [TDM Ch 1]

2.1 Strength Properties
2.1.1 Grading
Visual stress grading (BS EN 518:1995 & KS02 – 771: 1999)
The following features are assessed in individual timber pieces:
 Knot area – as a percentage of the cross-section area and location in the cross section.
 Fissures and resin pockets – location and size of fissure in relation to cross-section
dimensions.
 Slope of grain – relative to member longitudinal axis.
 Wane – size and location of wane in cross-section of member.
 Rate of growth – as indicated by spacing of growth rings (wider in softwoods).
 Distortion – generally due to poor seasoning and storage. Measured as amount of bow,
cup, spring or twist.
 Decay / insect and fungal infestation.
The grade of an individual piece is decided by the lowest grade achieved in the assessment of
all of the above features. Two grades are given with specified acceptable limits for the above
defects: general structural grade (GS) and special structural grade (SS).
Machine Stress Grading (BS EN 519:1995 & KS 02 – 771: 1999)
Machine grading makes use of the relationship (determined experimentally) between stiffness
and strength, which varies according to species. Machine graded timber is assigned to a
strength class (Table 8) or specialised strength grade (Tables 10 to 15) depending on :
bending strength (modulus of rapture MOR); the mean young’s modulus E; and density (see
BS EN 338:1995). BS 5268 – 2: 2002 groups timber in 15 strength classes (Table 8), each
class representing grade stresses independent of species, for service class 1 and 2 (seasoned,
dry timber with moisture contents not exceeding 12% and 20%, respectively). For each
strength class, grade stresses are given for bending, compression & shear and the mean and
minimum E values. (A grade stress is that stress that can be safely and permanently sustained
by timber of a specified section size and of a particular strength class or species or grade).
The grade stresses are basically the maximum permissible stresses (within elastic limits) for
serviceability limit state loads that have been experimentally and statistically derived for
given strength classes or species or grades (See Timber Designers Manual, Ch 2)
2.1.2 Factors Affecting Design Strength
Moisture Content
Moisture causes swelling and softening of timber fibres and effects durability in the long
term. If wet timber (class 3, MC > 20%) is used for structural timber, the grade stresses and
moduli should be modified for wetness by multiplying with a wetness factor K2 (Table 16 –
value depends on mode of stress).
Load Duration
Timber can sustain greater stresses for short durations than over the long-term. Table 8 grade
stresses are for long-term loading and should be modified by load duration factor K3 for
shorter durations (Table 17).
Direction of load application
Timber is strongest when load is compressive in the direction of grain, and weakest when
load is perpendicular to grain. If the direction of load is inclined to the grains, the grade
stresses of Table 8 must be modified accordingly (Cl 2.7).
Load Sharing
Where four or more timber elements are spaced ≤ 610mm apart and are interconnected so as
to support a common load, the grade stresses of Table 8 are increased by 10% (load sharing
factor K8=1.1). The mean E should also be used for calculation of deflections under dead and
imposed loads, except where the imposed load may have dynamic or vibration effects (e.g.
gym, dance hall, mechanical plant, etc), where min E should be used.

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2.2 DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (BEAMS AND JOISTS) [TDM Ch 4 - 12]
2.2.1 Bending Stresses.
Grade bending stresses depend on species or strength class of timber.
Grade stresses are given for members of 300mm depth. Values must be modified by
multiplying with depth factor K7 for members of shallower depth, where

for 72mm < h < 300mm.

Lateral buckling is prevented when floor boards are nailed or screwed to the beam or joist.
Table 19 gives recommended values of for various degrees of end restraint in order to
limit lateral buckling. Generally is adopted where the compression edge is held in
line by boarding, joists or other elements.
Notations
σm,a,ll applied elastic bending stress parallel to grain
σm,g,ll grade bending stress parallel to grain (Table 8 or similar)
σm,adm,ll admissible bending stress parallel to grain = σm,g,ll x K2 x K3 x K7 x K8, as
appropriate.
For safe design σm,a,ll ≤ σm,adm,ll at the critical section, usually the location of maximum
bending moment along the beam.
2.2.2 Shear Stresses
Generally maximum shear occurs at supports or at locations of concentrated loads along the
beam.
Generally not critical, except where beam or joist is notched for joinery. Where depth is
reduced by notch, the grade shear stress should be multiplied by a notch factor K5, where

, where he is the reduced effective depth at the notch location.

Notations

τa,ll applied maximum elastic shear stress parallel to grain

τg,ll grade shear stress parallel to grain (Table 8 or similar)
τadm,ll admissible shear stress parallel to grain = τg,ll x K2 x K3 x K5 x K8, as
appropriate.
For safe design τa,ll ≤ τadm,ll at the critical section
2.2.3 Bearing Stresses.
Maximum applied bearing stresses occur at similar locations as for shear.
Generally not critical, but should be checked where beam is supported on narrower bearers.
For bearing length bʹ < 150mm located ≥ 75mm from the end of a beam / joist, the grade
stress should be multiplied with a bearing factor K4 (Table 18).

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Notations

σc,a,┴ applied elastic compression stress perpendicular to grain

σc,g,┴ grade compression stress perpendicular to grain (Table 8 or similar)
σc,adm,┴ admissible compression stress perpendicular to grain = σc,g,┴ x K2 x K3 x K4 x
K8, as appropriate.
For safe design σc,a,┴ ≤ σc,adm,┴ at the critical section
2.2.4 Deflections
Maximum bending and shear deflections should be checked at critical locations along the
beam. For the common case of a distributed load w kN/m on a simply supported span l,

(bending and shear deflection at mid-span), where for timber.

In calculations for deflections, the mean E should be used for a load-sharing system. The
minimum E is used where a beam or joist acts alone or where dynamic or impact loads are
likely.
The deflection is calculated on the basis of the total service load for ordinary timber beams.
For glue-laminated timber, the dead load deflection may be taken care of by providing a pre-
camber to the beam.
The maximum allowable deflection or 14mm, whichever is lower.
2.3 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS (STRUTS, COLS) [TDM Ch 14-17]
Compressive strength depends on cross-section area and the slenderness ratio λ, where
. is the effective length and the radius of gyration about the critical axis of
buckling (usually the minor axis of the cross-section Y-Y).
depends on the end restraint conditions of the column or strut (see Table 21. e.g. for a
fixed-ended strut =0.7L; pin-ended strut =1.0L ). For a rectangular section, the
slenderness ratio may be represented by , where b is the least dimension of the cross-
section.
Generally for struts under dead and imposed load combination. for tension
members or members subject to stress reversals due to wind loads.
Straightness of a strut is critical in buckling resistance and the ‘bow’ or ‘spring’ of a strut
should not exceed .
2.3.1 Members Subject to Axial Compression Only
If , then permissible compressive stress parallel to grain σc,adm,ll = σc,g,ll x K2 x K3 x K8,
as appropriate, where σc,g,ll is grade compressive stress parallel to grain (Table 8 or similar).
If , then σc,adm,ll = σc,g,ll x K2 x K3 x K8 x K12, as appropriate, where K12 is slenderness
modification factor from Table 22.

The factor K12 depends on and the ratio . The value of E used in Table 22 is the
minimum value, irrespective of whether the member is part of a load-sharing system. is

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the grade compression stress parallel to grain modified only for moisture content (K2)
when necessary and load duration (K3).
For safe design σc,a,ll ≤ σc,adm,ll , where σc,a,ll = (applied compressive stress parallel to grain).
2.3.2 Members Subject to Axial Compression and Bending
For a strut subject to combined action (e.g. the rafter of a roof truss), the following interaction
equation must be satisfied for safe design;

Where the Euler critical stress . The radius of gyration

2.3.3 Struts in Trussed Frames

For continuous struts (e.g. truss rafters), the effective length may be taken as:
for buckling in the plane of truss, where L is distance between nodes with nailed
connections.
for buckling in the plane of the roof, where L is distance between purlins or tile
battens.
For discontinuous struts (e.g. internal struts of truss), the effective length may be taken as:
for single-bolted ends, where L is distance between nodes.
for gusseted nailed connections.
For compound / spaced columns see Cls. 2.11.8 & 2.11.9 and TDM.
2.4 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS (TIES) [TDM Ch 13]
2.4.1 Members Subject to Axial Tension Only.
Where nails of up to 5mm dia are used in connections, no reduction in cross-section area of
members need be considered.
The grade tensile stresses of Table 8 and similar are based on member width of 300mm. For
smaller sizes, the grade stress is multiplied with a width factor K14 which has similar values
as the depth factor K7 considered for bending.
The permissible tensile stress parallel to grain σt,adm,ll = σt,g,ll x K2 x K3 x K8 x K14 as
appropriate, where σt,g,ll is the grade tensile stress parallel to grain (Table 8, etc).
For safe design σt,a,ll ≤ σt,adm,ll at the critical section, where σt,a,ll = (applied tensile stress
parallel to grain).
2.4.2 Members Subject to Axial Tension and Bending.
For a tie subject to combined action, the following interaction equation must be satisfied for
safe design;

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3 DESIGN OF JOINTS (TDM Ch 18)
See Section 6 BS 5268 - 2:2002 and TDM.
References:
1. BS 5268 - 2: 2002 - Structural Use of Timber; Code of Practice for Permissible Stress
Design, Materials and Workmanship.
2. Ozelton E C & Baird J A - Timber Designer’s Manual, 3rd Edition, 2006.
3. Mettem C J - Structural Timber Design and Technology.
4. Timber Research and Development Authority (TRADA, UK) - Timber in Construction.
5. TRADA GD1 (1994) - An Introduction to Eurocode 5 - Design of Timber Structures
6. BS.EN.1995.1.1.2004 (2008) - Design of Timber Structures-General Rules for Buildings
7. TRADA GD7 (1999) - Multiple Fastener Timber Joints to BS 5268-2 & Eurocode 5

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