DCS - Flying Operations

F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals

CURRENT as of Jun 19, 2023

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 2

This publication is for information purposes only and not suited for real world operations.

This publication was created for use with DCS World or similar flight simulation software ONLY.

The author of this publication used only open source documents to generate this document.

The author did not reference and does not have access to any classified documents on this subject matter.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 12

Chapter 1 - GENERAL INFORMATION 13

1.1 General. 13
1.2. Using This Manual. 13
1.3. Flight Discipline. 13
1.5. Checklist Discipline. 13
1.6. Cockpit/Crew Resource Management (CRM). 14
1.7. Mission Preparation. 14
1.8. Fuel Considerations. 15
1.9. Mission Briefing. 15
1.10. Debrief. 15
1.11. Emergency Procedures. 16

Chapter 2 - AIRCRAFT HANDLING & MANEUVERS 17

2.1. Basic Aircraft Handling Drills 17
2.1.1. Slow Flight 17
2.1.2 360º Degree Turn 18
2.1.3 Wingover 19
2.2. Aerobatics 20
2.2.1. Loop 20
2.2.2. Immelmann 20
2.2.3. Split S 21
2.2.4. Cloverleaf 21
2.2.5. Pitch-back 22
2.2.6. Slice-back 22
2.2.7. Reversals/Rolling Maneuvers Demonstration 23
2.2.8. Vertical Recovery Demonstration 24
2.3. Departure Indicators 25
2.4. Dive Recovery Maneuver 25
2.5. Tactical Recovery Procedure (TRP) 26
2.6. Engine Failure 27
2.6.1 Engine Out Procedures 27
2.6.2 Asymmetric Thrust E ects 28
2.6.3 Single Engine Approach Techniques and Procedures 28

Chapter 3 - FORMATION FLYING 29

3.1 Admin Formation Sight Picture 29
3.2 Two-Ship Tactical Formations 30
3.2.1 Line 30
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 4

3.2.2 Combat Trail 31

3.2.3 Wedge 31
3.3 Four-Ship Tactical Formations 32
3.3.1 Box/O set Box 32
3.3.2 Wedge 33
3.3.3 Fluid Four 34
3.4 Tactical Formation Turns (TACFORM) 35
3.4.1 Turns Into the Wingman 35
3.4.2. Turns Away from the Wingman 35
3.4.3. Check Turns 35

Chapter 4 - AIR-TO-AIR REFUELING 37

4.1 Enroute 37
4.2 Tanker Rendezvous 37
4.3 Refueling Sequence 38
4.3.1 Observation and Reform Position References 38
4.3.2 Transition to Pre-Contact Position 39
4.3.3 Contact Position 40
4.3.4 Disconnects 40
4.3.5 Departure 40
4.4 Night Air Refueling 40

Chapter 5 - LOW ALTITUDE TRAINING 41

5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Altitude Management Systems 41
5.2.1 Radar Altimeter 41
5.2.2 Altitude Warning Settings (HSI) 41
5.2.3 TAWS - Terrain Awareness Warning System 41
5.2.3.1 TAWS Audible Warnings 42
5.2.3.2 TAWS Visual Warnings 43
5.3 Low Altitude Hazards 43
5.4 Low Altitude Task Prioritization 44
5.5 50% Rule 45
5.6 Heavy / High-Drag Maneuvering 45
5.7 Turning Room Demonstration 45
5.8 Ridge Line Crossings 46
5.8.1 Perpendicular 46
5.8.2 Parallel 47
5.8.3 Saddle 48

Chapter 6 - FIELD NIGHT OPERATIONS 49

6.1 Ground Operations 49
6.1.1 Cockpit Lighting 49
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 5

6.1.2 Taxing 49
6.1.3 Interval Takeo 49
6.1.4 Formation Takeo 49
6.1.5 NVG Takeo 49
6.2 Rejoin 49
6.3 Night Formation Procedures 50
6.4 Approach and Landing 50
6.4.1 Formation Approach 50
6.4.2 Landing 50
6.4.3 Emergency Procedures 50

Chapter 7. - CARRIER OPERATIONS (CV Ops) 51

7.1 General 51
7.1.1 Reference Publications 51
7.2 Carrier Operations Types 51
7.2.1 Carrier Qualifications (CQ) 51
7.2.2 Cyclic Operations 51
7.2.2 Weather Criteria 52
7.3 Launch Operations 52
7.3.1 Taxi 52
7.3.2 Launch 53
7.4 Departure Operations 53
7.4.1 CASE-I 53
7.4.2 CASE-II 54
7.4.3 CASE-III 54
7.5 Recovery Operations 55
7.5.1 CASE-I 56
7.5.1.1 Overview 56
7.5.1.2 Marshall - Holding Pattern 56
7.5.1.3 Breaking the Deck 57
7.5.1.4 SPIN Pattern 57
7.5.1.5 Overhead Break 58
7.5.1.6 In the Groove 58
7.5.1.7 Landing 58
7.5.1.8 Touch and Go / Bolters / Waveo ’s 59
7.5.2 CASE-III 59
7.5.2.1 Marshal 60
7.5.2.2 Approach 61
7.5.2.3 ACLS - Automatic Carrier Landing System 62
7.5.2.4 In the Grove 62
7.5.2.5 Touch and Go / Bolters / Waveo ’s 63
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7.5.3 CASE-II 64

Chapter 8. - BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS (BFM) 65

8.1. Introduction 65
8.2. Preparation 65
8.3. Aircraft Handling Characteristics (AHC) 65
8.4. Weapon Systems Check 66
8.5. Fence Check 66
8.6. Principles/Concepts Of Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM) 67
8.6.1. Positional Geometry 67
8.6.2. Attack Geometry 68
8.6.2.1 Types of Pursuits 68
8.6.2.2 In Plane vs Out-of-Plane 68
8.6.3. Control Zone 68
8.6.4. Turning Room 69
8.6.5. Mechanics of BFM 70
8.6.5.1 Roll 71
8.6.5.2 Turn 71
8.6.5.2.1 Rate vs. Radius 73
8.6.5.2.2 Turn in the Vertical 74
8.6.5.3 Acceleration 76
8.6.6. Lead Turns 77
8.6.6.1 No-Respect Lead Turn (Lead Turn Without Turning Room) 79
8.6.6.2 Counters 80
8.6.7. Energy Versus Position 81
8.7. O ensive BFM 82
8.7.1. Objectives of O ensive BFM 82
8.7.2. Outside the Turn Circle 82
8.7.2.1. TC Entry Cues 83
8.7.2.2. Point at the Bandit 83
8.7.2.3. Assess the Bandit 84
8.7.2.4. Knowing When to Start Your Turn 84
8.7.3. Follow-On BFM 84
8.7.3.1. Check & Extend 84
8.7.3.2. Continuous Turn 85
8.7.4. Vertical Considerations 86
8.7.5. Closing for Guns 87
8.7.6. Slow Speed Fighting 89
8.7.6.1. Flat Scissors 89
8.7.6.2. Rolling Scissors 90
8.7.6.3. High/Low Stack 90
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8.8. Defensive BFM 91

8.8.1. Objectives During Defensive BFM 91
8.8.2. Bandit Outside the Turn Circle 92
8.8.3. Bandit Options 92
8.8.4. Check and Extend Defense 94
8.8.5. Continuous Turn Defense 95
8.8.6. Guns Defense 96
8.8.7. Reversals 97
8.9. High Aspect BFM 99
8.9.1. Objectives During High Aspect BFM 99
8.9.2. Options At The Pass 99
8.9.3. One-Circle Fight 100
8.9.1. Two Circle Fight 102
8.10. High Aspect BFM Game Plan 103
8.11. Gun Employment 104
8.11.1. Tactical Considerations 104
8.11.2. Attack the Cripples 104
8.11.3. Gunsights 104
8.11.3.1. Gun Cross 104
8.11.3.2. Radar Not Tracking Mode, 105
8.11.3.3. Radar Tracking Mode 105
8.11.4. Employment Considerations 106
8.11.4.1. Low Aspect Shots 107
8.11.4.2. Beam Aspect Shots 108
8.11.4.3. High Aspect Shots 108

Chapter 9: FIGHTER PROFICIENCY EXERCISES 109

9.1. Gun Exercises 109
9.1.1. O ensive Ranging Exercise 109
9.1.2. Basic Tracking Exercise 109
9.1.3. Cine Track Exercise 110
9.1.4. Roll-Slide Attacks 110
9.1.5. Snapshot Exercise 111
9.1.6. Heat to Guns Exercise (Belly/Guns) 112
9.1.7. Vertical Roll to Six (Snatch Back) 113
9.1.8. Cross Turn Exercise 114
9.1.9. High Aspect Gun Exercise 115
9.2. Missile Exercises 115
9.2.1. Random Missile/Gun Exercise 115
9.2.2. Defensive Awareness Exercise 115
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 8

Chapter 10. - AIR COMBAT MANEUVERS (ACM) 116

10.1. ACM Objectives 116
10.2. Communications 116
10.3. Formation Integrity 117
10.4. Flight Discipline 118
10.5. Weapons Employment 118
10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter Contract 118
10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman Relationship 119
10.8. Two v. One O ensive Visual Maneuvering 120
10.9 Break Away Turn Away 122
10.10. Break Into 122
10.10.1. Straight Ahead Extension 123
10.11. Fight Entries 124
10.11.1. Vertical Entry 124
10.11.2. Outside Entry 124
10.11.3. Co-Flow Entry 125
10.11.4. Counter-Flow Entry 125
10.12. Role Exchange 126
10.13. Shots Of Opportunity 127
10.14. Egress 128
10.15. Two v. One Defensive Visual Maneuvering 128
10.16.1. Pre-Engagement Considerations 129
10.32. Lethal Weapons Employment 130
10.33. Execution of Duties 131
10.34. Classic Sandwich (No Switch) 131
10.35. Early/Late Switch 132
10.36. Engaged Fighter Unknown/Uncommitted Bandit 133
10.37. Cross-Court 135
10.38. Re-Entry 136
8.13. High-Aspect ACM 136

Chapter 11: BEYOND VISUAL RANGE / INTERCEPTS 137

11.1. Intercept Terminology 137
11.1. Terminology 137
11.2. The Baseline Intercept 139
11.3. BVR Time-Line 141
11.3.1 Pre-Commit (~60+ NM ) 141
11.3.2 Commit (~50+ NM) 141
11.3.3 Sort (~45 NM) 142
11.3.4 MELD (~30 NM) 143
11.3.5 STT / Fox 3 or 1 / Crank (~15-20 NM) 143
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 9

11.3.6 Assess Target Status (~10-20 NM) 143

11.3.7 Visual/Tally (~10 NM) 143
11.3.8 Fox-2 (4 NM) 143
11.3.9 Merge or Bug-Out (<4 NM) 143
11.4. Wingman Responsibilities 144
11.5. Night or IMC Intercepts 144

Chapter 12 - AIR–TO–SURFACE 145

10.1. The Air–to–Surface Mission 145
12.2. Preparation 145
12.3. Air-To-Ground Mission Planning 146
12.3.1. DMPI Selection 146
12.3.2. Dive Recovery 146
12.4. Surface Attack Checks 147
12.5. Ingress/Egress 147
12.5.1. Fence Check 147
12.5.2. Low Altitude Considerations 148
12.5.3. Medium Altitude Considerations 149
12.6. Computed Visual Bombing 150
12.6.1. Choosing a Delivery Option 150
12.6.2. Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) 151
12.6.3. Auto(CCRP - Continuously Computed RELEASE Point) 152
12.6.3.1. HUD / JHMCS Designation 152
12.6.3.2. Waypoint Designation 152
12.6.3.3. Bombing Delivery 152
12.6.4 Manual (MAN) Bombing Mode HUD 152
12.7. Bombing Angles 152
12.7.1. Visual Level Delivery (VLD) (0°-5°) 153
12.7.2. Low Angle Low Drag Bombing (LALD) (10°-20°) 153
12.7.3. High Altitude Dive Bombing (HADB) (30°-45°) 153
12.8 High Drag (HD) Bomb Delivery 154
12.8.1. Low Angle High Drag Bombing (LAHD) (10°-15°) 154
12.9 Air-to-Ground Gun & Rocket 154
12.9.1. Low-Angle Computed Strafe 155
12.9.2. High Angle Computed Strafe 155
12.10 Tactical Considerations 156
12.10.1. Visual Level Delivery (VLD) 156
12.10.2. Dive Bomb (DB) 156
12.10.3. High Altitude Release Bomb (HARB) and High Altitude Dive Bomb (HADB) 157
12.10.4. Low Altitude Toss (LAT) 157
12.11 Controlled Range Patterns 158
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12.11.1. The Box Pattern 158

12.11.1.1. Crosswind 158
12.11.1.2. Downwind 159
12.11.1.3. Base 159
12.11.1.4. Roll In 160
12.11.1.5 Final 160
12.11.1.6 Recovery 160
12.11.1.7 Turn to Crosswind 160
11.11.2.1 Climbing Safe Escape Maneuver 160
11.11.2.2 Turning Safe Escape Maneuver 160
12.11.3 Curvilinear Deliveries 161
12.11.4. Pop-up Deliveries 164
12.11.5. Range Departure 164
12.11.6. No Release 165
12.11.7. Jettison Procedures 165
12.12. Pop-Up Deliveries 165
12.12.1. Pop-Up Definitions 165
12.12.2. O set pop-up definitions 166
12.12.3. Typical O set Pop-Up 167
12.13. Pop-Up Planning 167
12.13.1. Planning Element Attacks 168
12.13.1.1 Time Deconfliction 169
12.13.1.2 Altitude Deconfliction 170
12.13.1.3 Horizontal Deconfliction 170
12.13.1.4 Aircraft Deconfliction 170
12.14. Flying A Tactical Pop-Up 171
12.14.1. Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception (CCD) Considerations 171
12.15. Flyup Attacks 171
12.16. Two Ship Employment Considerations 172
12.16.1. Split Pop Attack 172
12.16.2. Echelon Pop Attack 176
12.16.3. Trail Attacks 179
12.16.4. Shooter - Cover 179
12.17. Loft Attacks 180
12.17.1. Simultaneous Loft 180
12.17.2. Loft on the Wing 181
12.17.3. Trail Loft 181
12.17.4. Aircraft and Ordnance Deconfliction 181
12.18. Egress 182
12.18.1. Two-Ship Egress 182
12.18.2. Three-Ship Egress 182
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12.18.3. Four-Ship Egress 183

12.18.4. Egress Factors 183
12.18.5. Wounded Bird 183
12.19. Recovery 184
12.19.1. Fuel 184
12.19.2. Safe Passage 184

Attachment 1 - AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS 185

Attachment 2 - ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND SYMBOLS 186

Attachment 3 - GLOSSARY 192

Attachment 4 - CODE AND BREVITY WORDS 200

Attachment 5 - TURN PERFORMANCE CHART 211

Attachment 6 - WHITEBOARD BFM DEBRIEFING ICONS 212

Attachment 7 - REFERENCE DOCUMENTS 213

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 12

INTRODUCTION

Some words of wisdom from an old pilot. The world of Aviation in general and Combat
Aviation in specific is not an exact science, or a precise cause & e ect flow. The world of
aviation is more art than it is science. Yes, throwing specific switches in a specific order
will cause the aircra t to do a specific action. BUT, that is where it stops, in aviation we
fight, bend or in some cases break the rules of physics as we know it. As pilots we learn
‘tools’ and tricks and gain experience with flight time, and many times we employ those
tools in weird & new ways, because no 2 flights are the same. Every flight can, and usually
does, present a new situation or scenario. You constantly have to be adjusting, managing,
and improvising to achieve the desired goals. IT IS NOT A QUICK PROCESS. Give yourself
permission to take the time and enjoy the process of learning. Enjoy the journey for it is
not short, nor boring.

Creating these manuals and guides are a labor of love and passion, but it doesn’t
happen in a vacuum. It takes a lot of time, patience and research and support from many
people around me. If you enjoy these manuals and they help you, they’ve accomplished
exactly what they are designed to do. If you are feeling like paying it forward and want
to help me keep making these manuals and guides, feel free to buy me a beer or a co ee
(https://bmc.link/NapaPilot81) or support me on Patreon (http://patreon.com/NapaPilot).

Thank you for your support, see ya in the skies

NAPA “SPEEDY”
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 13

Chapter 1 - GENERAL INFORMATION

1.1 General.
This manual provides the necessary procedures to e ciently and e ectively learn the necessary skills to be
successful in e ectively using the DCS F/A-18C Hornet airframe. The DCS F/A-18C Hornet Flight Manual, DCS F/A-18C
Hornet Chucks Guide, and the Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) manual all provide
detailed information on aircraft systems and systems operation. This publication and the other documents complement
each other.
1.2. Using This Manual.
In general, this manual is organized in an order that parallels the training flow in pilot training. Chapters 2 - 6 are
basic airmanship that will be utilized in every sortie. Chapter 7 is Carrier Operations in the F/A-18C, and Chapters 8-10 are
Combat application fundamentals for the F/A-18C aircraft. But the fundamental information in those chapters can be used
for other aircraft as well. You will also find specific passages highlighted and annotated. These specific passages are
marked because they are the “nuggets” of info that I would highlight or mark if I were reading and studying this document.
1.3. Flight Discipline.
Flight discipline is at the core of every flying operation.

● Flight discipline begins with mission preparation. Know the rules and procedures, study the profile, and show up
prepared to fly. One unprepared crewmember can ruin the mission for everybody.

● Flight discipline continues with the briefing. Be on time, be ready to discuss the mission, and (or) be ready to brief.
Ensure all questions are answered and mission requirements are understood.

● Flight discipline is demonstrated in the air by executing the mission as briefed according to governing guidelines,
from engine start to engine shutdown.

● Flight discipline should be evaluated and specifically addressed during every mission debrief.
1.5. Checklist Discipline.
In real life, the omission of a checklist item could lead to a dangerous situation, in DCS it could result in a mission
failure or inability to complete a task at a critical time. Therefore, positively confirm completion of all checklists regardless
of how they are accomplished (for example, memory aid, mnemonic, or flight crew checklist). One technique to ensure
accomplishment of every step is to execute a few items from memory; then reference the checklist page to verify
completion. Further guidance on checklist use follows:

● It is not necessary to refer to the checklist during critical phases of flight.

● Once started, attempt to complete checklists without interruption. If interrupted, or if it is discovered that an item
was omitted, good techniques to get back on track include restarting at the first step of the checklist or restarting
two to three steps prior to the missed or interrupted checklist step. Do not start a new checklist until completing
the previous one.

● Throughout any flying career it is a common practice for checklists and required items to be memorized through
mnemonics or standardized phrases. The purposes of these are to help you remember what needs to be done at a
specific time. One caution is that you do not give lip service to performing a checklist when using a standardized
phrase or mnemonic. You must perform the checklist item or required check.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 14

1.6. Cockpit/Crew Resource Management (CRM).

The CRM or Cockpit/Crew Resource Management is a reference to the e ective use of ALL available resources to
safely and e ciently accomplish mission objectives. CRM centers on the following six skills:

● Communication. Communication is the sharing of information with others to cause action. Communications may
direct, inform, question, or persuade.

● Crew/Flight Coordination. Proper coordination includes crew/flight integrity and wingman consideration.
Crew/Flight integrity requires the utilization of all members of a flight to accomplish the mission.

● Mission Analysis. Includes pre-mission analysis and planning, briefing, and post mission debrief.

● Situational Awareness. SA is the continuous perception of self and aircraft in relation to the dynamic
environment of flight, threats, and mission. It also includes the ability to forecast, then execute tasks based upon
that perception.

● Task Management. Task management is the ability to establish priorities and alter a course of action based on
new information. It includes management of automation, e ective use of available resources, checklist discipline,
and compliance with standard operating procedures.
CRM is designed to focus aircrew members on procedures, and resources available to enable mission success. To do
this. A CRM topic will be included in the mission brief; it should be tailored to specific mission requirements or conditions;
and it will be evaluated during the debrief.

1.7. Mission Preparation.

Mission success is directly related to mission preparation. Solid preparation maximizes the e ectiveness of the
flight. Mission preparation consists of the following four areas:
General Study - Study in general areas builds a foundation of knowledge for pilot training, other formal training courses,
and operational missions. Some topics such as the flight manual are aircraft specific and other topics such as local area
procedures are location specific. Areas of study including instrument procedures, weather, aerodynamics, flight information
publications, and navigation are generic because they apply to any aircraft, at any location, flying any type of mission.
General study is a continuous process that is an integral part of any successful Pilot.
Mission-specific Study - Study in areas specifically related to the mission. This includes general study areas that are
specifically related to the mission. Mission-specific areas include, but are not limited to, initial approach plate (IAP) review,
maneuver review, and daily study topics.
Chair-flying. [PRO-TIP] - This is an in-depth, mental rehearsal of the sortie. It is visualization of specific
maneuvers and techniques, and mental review of checklists and specific tasks. To properly chair-fly, visualize each
aspect of the sortie. When initially learning to fly, this should include all aspects of the mission to include each
phase of flight in sequence and visualize each action, switch position, and radio call. As you progress through the
sortie in this manner, you will identify points during the sortie which require additional study. As experience is
gained, chair-flying may only include new events or maneuvers, task intensive phases of flight, or events which
have not been recently practiced. Though time consuming, properly chair-flying each sortie will pay dividends as
training progresses and throughout your flying career.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 15

1.8. Fuel Considerations.

In the F/A-18C Hornet, fuel is always a concern, particularly with naval aircraft. Because of the nature of naval
aviation, the closest field is typically the carrier with the alternate possibly being several hundred miles away. Fuel checks
should become habit throughout all stages of flight in the F/A-18C.

Bingo Fuel: Minimum fuel required to arrive at home base at max range fuel burn rate with reserve. In the Hornet
reserve is typically enough for 15min of flight time at max range fuel rate. A good rule of thumb is to use 1,500lbs
as the reserve number. Bingo fuel is briefed on every mission.

Joker Fuel: Is an assigned amount over Bingo Fuel. A mission may require several joker fuels or none at all. Joker
fuel is briefed and set at pre planned transition points in the sortie, if applicable.

1.9. Mission Briefing.

The AC/FL may or may not be the actual briefer, but it is best practice for them to ensure that each mission is
thoroughly briefed and debriefed.

● Briefings set the tone for all missions.

● There are resources available both on the internet and within Tactical DCS that can provide a framework to
help structure briefings and have all recommended briefing items addressed

● Other crew members or formation members will be prepared to assist the AC or FL.

● The briefing should focus on how to successfully accomplish the established objectives.

1.10. Debrief.
The purpose of the debrief is to determine if mission objectives were achieved and what lessons were learned. The
majority of learning will be accomplished during this phase. The AC/FL should:

● Cover what went right or wrong, root causes of errors, and how to improve subsequent missions.

● Debrief by objective, examining how well each objective was achieved.

● Summarize the mission with emphasis on major learning points and considerations for improvement of
deficient areas on future missions.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 16

1.11. Emergency Procedures.

Because DCS is a Flight Simulator, Emergency Situations in game are not the same as such IRL. But that being said,
three basic rules apply to all emergency procedures: (1) maintain aircraft control, (2) analyze the situation and take proper
action, and (3) land as soon as conditions permit. If the aircraft cannot be recovered safely, ejection may be the only option.
A memory aid to help prioritize pilot action, that is applicable in normal and emergency situations, is, “Aviate, Navigate, &
Communicate” in that order.

AVIATE - Maintain Aircraft Control. In any abnormal or emergency situation it is imperative to “fly the aircraft
first!” Maintain an aircraft attitude that allows for an appropriate response to the situation. Set power and trim to
help maintain control. In the contact phase, this may involve a contact recovery or out-of-control flight (OCF)
recovery. Analyze the Situation and Take Proper Action.

NAVIGATE. Aircraft control may include the initial turn and (or) climb to a recovery airfield. In low-level
navigation, it may involve starting a climb to the top of the route. In formation, it may involve calling Blind or KIO
and executing the appropriate procedure.

COMMUNICATE. If available, ATC can help identify suitable recovery airfields, find required frequencies, aid
navigation with vectors, alert emergency response assets, identify hazardous weather, or help find a chase ship.

CRM in an Emergency. A successful conclusion to any emergency results from thorough systems knowledge, sound
judgment, and e ective CRM. Several resources are available to aid successful recovery. If multi-crew, the AC determines
who flies the aircraft, based on pilot workload and the experience level and ability of both pilots. The crewmember/wingman
can read the checklist, monitor systems, provide advice, and maintain SA on the nearest suitable landing field.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 17

Chapter 2 - AIRCRAFT HANDLING & MANEUVERS

The following exercises and maneuvers are designed to expose you to various parameters within the F-18's flight
envelope. When executed correctly, they will explore the aircraft's flight envelope and reinforce your awareness of aircraft
performance. Minimum altitudes for the Basic Handling and Aerobatic Maneuvers is 10,000 feet AGL. Reference the
applicable exercises or maneuvers for minimum and recommended entry altitudes.

2.1. Basic Aircraft Handling Drills

These series of basic handling drills are to give you a familiarization with the basic handling characteristics of the
F-18C. It is recommended that these maneuvers be flown only in aircraft configured with empty external tanks, or no tanks
installed, and only Aim-9’s on stations 1 and 9. No other configurations should be used in the execution of these drills.

2.1.1. Slow Flight

Objective: To become familiar and proficient with handling the F-18C aircraft in slow speed / high-AoA condition.

Setup: 10,000ft MSL or above, 300 KIAS, fuel balanced, neutral trim (1 G).

Configurations:
CLEAN: Flaps Up, Gear Up, DLC’s Restracted.
LANDING: Flaps Down, Gear Down, Hook Down, DLC’s deployed, Air Brakes fully deployed

Description: Slow aircraft down to approx 135 KIAS in landing configuration. Complete level turns to left and right. Notice
how manipulating DLCs can a ect the flightpath of aircraft.

Comments: Low Airspeed, High AoA is uniquely di erent in the F-18C. The aerodynamics of the swing wing design as well
as the lifting body give the aircraft a surprisingly good slow speed / high AoA capability. The FCS of the F-18C will assist in
keeping from departing controlled flight.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 18

2.1.2 360º Degree Turn

Objective: To learn the proper technique required to do a left/right hand level high-G turn.

Setup: 10,000ft MSL or above, 350 KIAS, fuel balanced, neutral trim (1 G).

Description: . Roll the aircraft to 60-80 degree AOB. Center Controls, then apply back pressure to maintain 5G’s. Two
distinct and separate motions. Apply full AB. Adjust AOB and power to maintain 10,000ft and 5G’s throughout the turn.
Approximately 15-20º prior to starting heading, begin rolling out and decreasing back pressure. Finish the maneuver wings
level at 10,000ft MSL, 350 KIAS, and on starting heading.

Comments: The key to successful completion of this maneuver is to not use roll input with the stick, but utilize rudder
input to refine nose position during the turn.

Figure 2.1 360º Degree Level Turn

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 19

2.1.3 Wingover

Objective: To learn how to maintain control of aircraft through a dynamic maneuver in the vertical with a loaded roll.

Setup: 10,000ft MSL or above, 350 KIAS, fuel balanced, neutral trim.

Description: Maneuver begins by applying full AB and a wings level, and a 4 G pull (Figure 2.2) to 45° nose high attitude.
As you pass through 45° nose high, start a loaded 90° roll. You should adjust your roll rate so you are inverted as you pull
through the horizon. As the nose drops below the horizon begin rolling back to wings level, adjusting AOB and turn to end up
on the reciprocal of the start heading. Maneuver finishes once you are straight and level at starting altitude, and on
reciprocal heading.

Figure 2.2 Wingover

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 20

2.2. Aerobatics

2.2.1. Loop

At 450 KCAS minimum, above 5000' AGL (10,000' AGL recommended), with MIL power, begin a wings level, 4 - 5 G
pull (Figure 2.6). As airspeed dissipates across the top, maintain smooth pitch rate. The AOA should be 13º - 15º (at 14º
AOA you should feel light bu eting). As the nose comes back through the horizon inverted (approximately 180 - 220 KCAS)
and airspeed begins to build, ease o the back pressure and play the G to arrive back in level flight near entry altitude and
airspeed. If AB is used, enter at 350 KCAS minimum. Use su cient G on the back side of the maneuver to preclude
excessive airspeed buildup.

2.2.2. Immelmann

At 450 KCAS minimum, above 5000' AGL (10,000' AGL recommended), with MIL power, begin a wings level, 4 - 5 G
pull (Figure 2.6). As airspeed dissipates across the top, maintain a smooth pitch rate. The AOA should be 13º - 15º (at 14º
AOA you should feel light bu eting). As the nose approaches the horizon inverted, unload and roll the aircraft to arrive
upright wings level in level flight (TVV on the horizon line). If AB is used, enter at 350 KCAS minimum. Roll out at the top
remains the same.

Figure 2.6 Loop/Immelman

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 21

2.2.3. Split S

Enter at or above 15,000' AGL, between 300 - 350 KCAS, MIL power, level to 10º nose high (Figure 2.7). Roll
unloaded to wings level inverted and smoothly apply full aft stick. Terminate the maneuver in straight and level flight above
5000' AGL. Note change in altitude and airspeed.

Figure 2.7 Split-S

2.2.4. Cloverleaf

Pick a point 90º o the nose in the direction of turn. At 450 KCAS minimum, above 5000' AGL, (10,000' AGL
recommended), MIL power, begin a wings level 3 - 4 G pull (Figure 2.8). At approximately 45º nose high, decrease back
pressure and start a rolling pull in the direction of the 90ºpoint. The rate of roll should be planned to reach a wings level
inverted position with the nose on the horizon at the 90º point (airspeed approximately 200 - 220 KCAS). Continue the
maneuver as in the backside of a loop, playing the G's to arrive near the entry airspeed and altitude.

Figure 2.8 Cloverleaf

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 22

2.2.5. Pitch-back

This maneuver is a hard, then optimum turn

(approximately 13º AOA) beginning with the lift vector
above the horizon and ending with it below (Figure
2.9). Enter above 5,000' AGL at 400 KCAS or higher.
Select full AB, roll into 40º - 50º of bank and
simultaneously begin a 5 - 7 G climbing turn. After
90º of turn, bank should be approximately 90º. After
180º of turn, it should be 135º. At this point, the
maneuver ends. You should have gained 3000 to
5000' and have a minimum airspeed of 300 KCAS. You
may have to reduce G during the maneuver to preserve
airspeed.
Figure 2.9 Pitchback

2.2.6. Slice-back

Enter at or above 15,000' AGL, between

350 - 400 KCAS, MIL power. Initially roll into
135º of bank and smoothly increase aft stick as
required to maintain 300 - 400 KCAS (Figure
2.10). The maneuver is completed upon roll out in
level flight after approximately 180º of turn. The
sliceback is a split-S type maneuver designed to
make a 180º descending turn while minimizing
turn time and optimizing energy state. If speed is
above 400 KCAS and a descending turn is
required, reduced power and speed brakes may be
necessary if minimum turn radius and altitude
loss are desired.
Figure 2.10 Sliceback
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 23

2.2.7. Reversals/Rolling Maneuvers Demonstration

Enter above 10,000' AGL at 300 - 400 KCAS with fuel balanced. Establish a 4 - 5 G turn in MIL power (Figure 2.11).
When the instructor calls "Reverse," reverse the direction of turn while maintaining G loading. This maneuver demonstrates
the characteristics of a vector roll and its e ects on energy state. It's used in air-to-air training by attackers to prevent a
flight path overshoot and by defenders, as a last ditch maneuver, to force one. Full lateral stick pressure produces maximum
roll rate at any AOA and airspeed, while limiters decrease roll rate below 250 KCAS or above 15º AOA.

Figure 2.11 Reversals/Rolling Maneuvers Demonstration

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 24

2.2.8. Vertical Recovery Demonstration

The objective is to demonstrate the pitch rate available at low airspeed and high AOA, and ability to pull down
through the vertical without fear of getting the nose buried (Figure 2.12). Set up at 10,000' AGL minimum, 400 KCAS
minimum, MIL power, and fuel balanced. Make a wings-level pull up at approximately 4 G's and establish a vertical attitude
on the ADI. At 250 KCAS, smoothly apply and hold full aft stick pressure to establish a pitch rate towards the horizon.
Continue to hold full aft pressure while the aircraft passes nose down vertical. When the nose is 30º below the horizon,
unload and accelerate to 200 KCAL minimum before completing recovery to wings level flight.

Figure 2.12 Vertical Recovery Demonstration

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 25

2.3. Departure Indicators

The previously discussed maneuvers are a series of events designed to develop a "feel" for the F/A-18's handling
characteristics. While these are planned events, situations may occur which place you in similar circumstances with less
recovery/reaction time then optimum. Several, but not all inclusive, departure indicators are:

● A sensation of lateral side forces developing.

● Uncommanded A/C movements (pitch and/or roll).

● Airspeed oscillating below 200 KCAS.

2.4. Dive Recovery Maneuver

Dive recovery capability is a function of pullout load factor, dive angle, true airspeed, and FCS limiting. In a nose
low, low airspeed (below approximately 350 KCAS) situation, rolling wings level, pulling to the limiter, retracting speed
brakes, and selecting/maintaining MIL or AB thrust minimize altitude lost. If airspeed is above 350 KCAS, rolling wings
level, pulling to the limiter, opening the speedbrakes, and selecting/maintaining IDLE thrust reduces altitude lost. Loss of
consciousness in this situation could be fatal. During a recovery, constantly assess altitude remaining versus altitude
required. If you are disoriented or unable to determine attitude from the HUD, reference the round dials. If altitude is
critical, the FCS may not allow su cient G/AOA for recovery. Unnecessarily delaying the ejection decision could preclude
safe injection prior to ground impact.

To practice dive recoveries, attain an entry altitude of 15,000' AGL minimum, an airspeed of 350KCAS (high speed
recovery) or 250 KCAS (low speed recovery), power as required, and establish a 60ºdive with less than 30º of bank. Prior to
10,000' AGL and 550 KCAS (high speed recovery) or 350 KCAS(low speed recovery), recover by rolling wings level, set
throttle and speed brakes as appropriate, and apply maximum G until the aircraft is in level flight or climbing. While
practicing this maneuver, do not "snatch" the G's to the maximum G onset rate since this increases the potential for a GLOC
incident.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 26

2.5. Tactical Recovery Procedure (TRP)

This approach is used when landing at an airfield that is in or is near contested areas. The approach begins high in order to
be at an altitude that is defensible against SAMs and AAA, and waits until the overhead break over the runway to descend to
pattern altitude. This also allows the aircraft to land as quickly as possible with as little exposure to ground threats while in
a low and slow state.

1. While on initial, acquire a ground reference abeam the break point.

2. Break when crossing the approach end of the runway, this point is known as high-key

3. Aggressively roll into a 90 to 120 degree bank diving turn and smoothly reduce power to IDLE while increasing back
pressure to 2.5 Gs and 30 degrees of dive.

4. Roll out on downwind continuing to dive at 30 degrees, using the reciprocal of the runway heading as your target
heading. Use speed brakes to control your speed in the dive to avoid accelerating too much. Adjust heading to
account for crosswinds and maintain an appropriate lateral o set from the runway.

5. Upon reaching standard pattern altitude (typically 1500 feet AGL) you should be abeam the touchdown point of the
runway. This point is referred to as “low-key”.

6. Continue Approach as normal

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 27

2.6. Engine Failure

2.6.1 Engine Out Procedures

The first 3 steps are Required Action Items. They need to be executed as quickly and safely as possible if engine
failure occurs.
1. Throttles - MIL or MAX
2. FLAP switch - HALF
3. Maintain on-speed AOA and balanced flight.
4. Refer to Single Engine Approach and Landing procedure.

If an engine fails, the corresponding generator and HYD 1 (left engine) or HYD 2 (right engine) system will be lost.
Either generator supplies su cient power to operate all electrical items. A windmilling engine can cause repeated flight
control transients as the hydraulic switching valves operate. Various FCS cautions will come on intermittently. After the rpm
has decreased to near zero, the transients will cease, the FCS cautions will go o , and FCS operation will be normal. If the
failed engine core is rotating freely and rpm is below 30%, use the APU or engine crossbleed to retain both HYD systems.

If the right engine is being rotated with crossbleed to provide normal systems operation and fuel flow on the left
engine is reduced below 2,000 pph (as during landing), the right engine hydraulic pump may not provide su cient flow for
nose wheel steering and normal brakes. Refer to Hydraulic Failure, this chapter, for results of loss of a hydraulic system.

During engine crossbleed, the feed tank of the failed engine may not gravity transfer to the operating engine feed
tank. To prevent this, gravity transfer from the inoperative feed tank may be initiated by discontinuing crossbleed if the
failed engine AMAD operation is not required or interrupting fuel feed to the failed engine system by pressing the failed
engine FIRE button. Extended operation with the FIRE button pressed may result in a corresponding L or R AMAD caution.

If both engines fail, both generators will drop o line

as rpm decays through 60%. Refer to Double Generator
Failure, this chapter, for results and procedures. A minimum
of 12%N2 is required for ignition. At least 350 knots is
required to maintain 12% rpm. If rpm has decayed below
12%, airspeeds significantly greater than 350 knots may be
required to regain 12% rpm especially at lower altitudes. If
conditions do not allow for a 350 knot descent, APU restart is
the last alternative.

NOTE
At some aircraft weight and high altitude conditions,
and with one engine failed, even the use of MAX thrust on the
operating engine may not provide a positive rate of climb
capability with half flaps and landing gear down. Maximum
pressure altitude to achieve 100 fpm single engine rate of
climb is provided in the adjacent chart (figure 2.13)
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 28

2.6.2 Asymmetric Thrust E ects

During single engine flight with external stores, consideration should be given to dump fuel and stores jettison to
reduce gross weight, reduce drag and/or alleviate an aggravating asymmetrical loading. Close attention to airspeeds is
required in all loadings to maintain airspeed at or above single engine maximum endurance speed (5.6 to 5.8° AOA).
Maneuvering should be limited to that required to return to base using shallow bank angles and avoiding turns into the
failed engine. In straight and level flight at zero bank angle, some amount of rudder deflection and/or trim will be required
to o set the yawing moment from asymmetrical thrust. A slight (up to 5°) bank into the good engine should reduce this
rudder requirement. A straight-in half-flap approach should be performed.

NOTE
Single engine waveo s and bolters with F404-GE-402 (EPE) engines installed may require full rudder and
coordinated lateral stick to control aircraft yaw and roll produced by asymmetric thrust.

2.6.3 Single Engine Approach Techniques and Procedures

Use of afterburner on the good engine above on-speed AOA aggravates directional control problems resulting in
higher single engine minimum control airspeed (about 8 to 10 knots).

With F404-GE-402 (EPE) engines installed, use of afterburner on the good engine with full flaps selected (sudden
single engine waveo or bolter) may put the aircraft at or below single engine minimum control airspeed depending on
gross weight. Exercise caution to avoid over-rotation. Apply rudder and lateral stick as necessary to counter yaw induced
from asymmetric thrust until rudder control power is regained as the aircraft accelerates.

NOTE

● In the F/A-18C with either engine secured, significantly lower and/or cyclic dump rates have been experienced.
When the right engine is secured, lower dump rates follow immediately and may be accompanied by a CG caution.
When the left engine is secured, lower dump rates are experienced as total fuel reaches 6500 pounds (when tank 4
is empty).

● Hydraulic system capacity is dependent on respective engine rpm. Excessive simultaneous hydraulic system
demands (i.e landing gear activation, flap movement, and multiple flight control inputs, etc.) combined with single
engine rpm below 85% may exceed hydraulic system capacity or result in FCS reversion to MECH. Therefore, when
practical, maintain engine with operating HYD system at or above 85% rpm.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 29

Chapter 3 - FORMATION FLYING

3.1 Admin Formation Sight Picture
Close formation/fingertip is primarily used for low-visibility weather conditions. As a general rule, when correcting
back to position, correct the vertical spacing first, lateral spacing next, and fore/aft spacing last. See figure 3.1 for visual
references.
Avoid fixating on any one particular formation reference; constantly scan all references. This will make small
changes in position more obvious. Adjust power in small increments with smooth throttle movements. When turned into,
reduce power slightly and push forward on the stick to maintain the correct position. Close formation is flown with
approximately 12 feet of lateral spacing. Lead should avoid turning into Wingmen when flying close formation. If a turn is
made into the echelon, each aircraft will maintain the same relative position as in straight and level flight.
When turned away from, anticipate adding power and increasing back pressure. Advance power smoothly as soon as
the turn is initiated. See figure 3.1 - Formation Position Visual References

Figure 3.1 Formation Position Visual References

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 30

3.2 Two-Ship Tactical Formations

3.2.1 Line
Line, also known as Combat Spread, is a primary formation for the F/A-18C. It provides excellent mutual support for
both aircraft, both in terms of visual lookout and firepower support. Its disadvantage however is that it is more di cult to
fly than other formations, it requires a higher level of skill and situational awareness from both flight members, lacks ease
of maneuverability, and isn’t great in low visibility or rough terrain.
Line is most appropriate in situations where enemy aircraft are your biggest threat, or where you need both aircraft
to reach a point at the same time (such as when performing a two-ship gun or Maverick attack).
The numbers in the image above are general guidelines and Wingmen may need to vary the distances as
appropriate. If you’re flying at a medium altitude with a possible air threat, spread the formation out a bit. If you’re down
low, close the formation up. At low level, separation of around 4000-6000 feet makes things easier. In addition to having
some flexibility in distance separation, the Wingman also has 10 degrees of discretion in both the fore/aft and in altitude
separation. The closer you are to a perfect line, however, the happier Lead will be. When flying Line at low level, remember
the wingman ALWAYS stacks level to high of lead, NEVER low.
● Suitable for situations where maximum mutual support is required against air and surface threats.

Figure 3.2 - Line Formation

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 31

3.2.2 Combat Trail

Combat Trail is a highly maneuverable formation

which is easy to maintain, although the greater
separation does make it easier to lose sight of
lead/wingman. Combat trail is especially well suited
to missions which require low level terrain-masked
flight.

Its use should be carefully considered where a

credible air threat exists, as the formation provides
limited mutual support for the trail aircraft when
compared to wedge/line. The formation does provide a
high degree of support for the lead aircraft against
ground fire as the trail aircraft will have good visibility
of the terrain below lead and have su cient time to
suppress any threats should it be desired.

● Highly maneuverable formation

● Provides limited mutual support to the trail aircraft against air threats and ground.

● Gives very good support to the lead aircraft against surface threats.
The Wingman should stay within a 120-degree cone behind Lead at a distance of 3000 to 6000 feet. Lead may call for a
specific spacing.

3.2.3 Wedge

Wedge, also known as Tac-Wing is the recommended alternative to line when there is no air threat, visibility is poor, or
low-altitude flying amongst di cult terrain is required.

Wedge provides the flexibility and maneuverability that may be your best defense when conditions get bad, it’s also much
easier for the Wingman to fly and simpler for Lead to manage. Wedge is also an excellent attack formation in its own right
and can easily be converted into Line or Trail if required.

● Used as an en-route formation when required due to threats, terrain, weather, or night operations.

● Wingman is free to maneuver to either side

● Avoid direct 6 o’clock position when switching sides

● To transition, Lead will broadcast on flight channel “GO WEDGE.”

In Wedge, the Wingman will fly 30 to 60 degrees behind Lead’s wing at a lateral spacing of 3000 to 9000 feet (or .5 to 1.5
nm).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 32

3.3 Four-Ship Tactical Formations

The four-ship is under control of one flight lead and is employed as a single entity until such time as it is forced to
separate into two elements. At no time should an element sacrifice element integrity attempting to maintain the four-ship
formation. Each two-ship element should have its own radar and visual plan so that no changes will be required if the
four-ship is split into two-ships.

3.3.1 Box/O set Box

In the box formation, elements use the basic line abreast two-ship maneuvering and lookout principles. The trailing
element takes 1.5 to 3 NM separation, depending on terrain and weather. The objective of the spacing is to give maximum
separation to avoid easy visual detection of the whole formation, while positioning the rear element in a good position to
immediately engage an enemy converting on the lead element. Because the F/A-18 is di cult to see from a direct trail
position, a slight o set will facilitate keeping sight of the lead element (Figure 3.3). Use of air-to-air (A-A) TACAN between
the elements, and the radar in the rear element, will help keep the proper spacing. However, proper emission control may
preclude their use in combat.

Advantages:

● The formation provides excellent mutual support and lookout.

● The rear element is positioned to engage an adversary making a stern conversion on the lead element.

● It is di cult to visually acquire the entire flight.

● Element spacing for an attack is built into the formation.

Disadvantages:

● The formation is di cult to fly in poor visibility and rugged terrain.

● Depending on position, the

trailing element may be
momentarily mistaken as a
threat, especially if
staggered too much o to
one side.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 33

3.3.2 Wedge

Elements are in two-ship wedge with the trailing element lead 1.5 - 3 NM back, o set as required to maintain visual
(Figure 3.10). Number two flies o of number one, maneuvering with cuto as necessary to maintain position. Number three
flies o of number one, maneuvering as required to maintain visual. Number four flies o of number three.

Advantages:

● Very o ensive for air-to-air threats forward of the 3/9 line.

● Inexperienced wingmen may find it easier to maintain a visual on lead and stay in formation.

● The formation permits four aircraft to maintain flight integrity under marginal weather or extremely rugged
terrain conditions.

Disadvantages:

● Six o'clock lookout may be poor.

● Formation easily detected by a single

threat.

● The defensive maneuvering flexibility of the

flight is very limited.

● Number two must be disciplined and fly no

further than 6,000 feet from lead to avoid
conflict with trailing element.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 34

3.3.3 Fluid Four

Element leads maintain line abreast formation, while wingmen assume wedge (Figure 3.2). Number three maneuvers
o number one as if in line abreast. Number two and number four maneuver o their element leaders to maintain the
outside of the formation. Element leads are responsible for deconfliction of elements when crossing the opposing element's
six o'clock.

Advantages:

● Inexperienced wingmen are kept close for ease of maneuvering.

● Four-ship maneuverability is good.

● Formation provides concentration of force.

Disadvantages:

● Adversary can acquire all four aircraft.

● Defensive maneuvering rapidly becomes confusing due to the proximity of aircraft.

● Cumbersome to maneuver at low altitude in rough terrain.

Figure 3.6 Four-Ship Fluid-Four

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 35

3.4 Tactical Formation Turns (TACFORM)

3.4.1 Turns Into the Wingman

● Lead initiates the turn by turning into the wingman, normally at MIL power and a sustained 4 G's or contract
airspeed.

● The wingman continues straight ahead (or checks 20º - 30º as briefed) and searches the new six through lead.

● If lead rolls out short of passing through the wingman's six o'clock, the wingman now weaves to line abreast
(delayed 45º - 60º turn).

● If lead turns through the wingman's six o'clock, the wingman assumes a 90º turn and turns to regain line abreast.

● If a 180º turn is required, it will be accomplished in increments of two delayed 90º turns.
3.4.2. Turns Away from the Wingman

● Lead makes a distinctive wing flash or check turn of approximately 30º to signal the turn.

● The wingman sees the flash and begins the turn into lead using the briefed G or airspeed and power setting (i.e.,
MIL, 4 G sustained, etc.).

● If lead wants a delayed 45º - 60º turn, he turns into the wingman when the wingman obtains the desired heading.
This is the wingman's command to roll out.

● If lead wants a delayed 90º turn, he allows the wingman to continue turning through his six o'clock.

● If lead wants to turn 180º away, he initiates the turn with a continuous 180º turn.

3.4.3. Check Turns

● Lead turns to the desired heading using a gentle turn.

● Wingman sees either a divergence or convergence and strives for line abreast using an S-turn, vertical, or power.

Figure 3.7 2-Ship Delayed 90

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 36

Figure 3.8 2-Ship In-Place Turns

Figure 3.9 2-Ship Cross Turn

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 37

Chapter 4 - AIR-TO-AIR REFUELING

Air-to-air refueling can be the one the most challenging skills to master. The following SOPs are about the process
of refueling, however, to improve your AAR abilities there is no substitute for practice. You must put in the hours of practice
to reach the point where you can reliably connect, stay connected, and smoothly move to observation, in turns, in weather,
and at night; there is no other way, no shortcut.

4.1 Enroute
1. Lead will guide the flight to a point within 20 miles of the tanker orbit steerpoint at 1,000 feet below tanker
altitude.

2. Lead will initiate radio contact with the AI tanker as well as broadcast on the appropriate tanker frequency
“<Tanker callsign>, <Flight callsign>, Flight of 2 F-18s, Inbound, <distance> miles <cardinal direction from which the
flight is approaching the tanker orbit.>.” The tanker will normally be in a left-hand orbit pattern. Optimal speed for
Air-to-Air Refueling in the F/A-18C is between 250 - 310 KIAS.

3. Lead will verify the flight’s armament and countermeasure systems are safe on intra-flight frequency stating
“<Flight callsign> Flight, Nose Cold, Switches Safe.”

4. Lead will put the flight into Echelon Left formation, route spacing, if not already there.

4.2 Tanker Rendezvous

1. Lead will set his TACAN to the frequency of the tanker and set the mode to AA T/R to get bearing and range
information to the tanker. Lead will then direct the flight to an intercept bearing on the tanker’s orbit at 1,000 feet
below the tanker altitude until visual contact with the tanker has been established.

2. Rejoin Speed

a. >1NM distance = 100 kts closure

b. .5NM distance = 50 kts

c. Decrease airspeed by 10 kts for every .1 NM closure.

3. When the flight has visual contact with the tanker, Lead will maneuver the flight into final heading for rejoin. Rejoin
will be in Echelon left, route spacing.

4. The flight will rejoin to the left observation position, the first receiving aircraft can join directly behind the tanker
with the other flight members joining to the tanker’s left wing in Echelon.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 38

4.3 Refueling Sequence

The F/A-18C, like all naval aircraft, utilize the Probe & Drogue system for aerial refueling. Which allows it some
flexibility in tanking aircraft. NATO forces have multiple aircraft they can use for aerial refueling with this system, S3
Vikings, F/A-18C Super Hornets, KC-130’s, KC-135’s (w/MPRS) just to name a few. However, the key areas and procedures
are all the same regardless of airframe.

Key areas around the tanker aircraft are pre-contact, observation, contact/refueling, and reform areas, see Figure
4.1 Normal refueling flow will be Lead to the pre-contact/astern position with other flight members to the left wing
observation lower, and forming up high in the reform area after refueling, and departing low. When rejoined with the tanker,
the flight will join up on the tanker as briefed by Lead. One aircraft at a time is allowed to change formation around the
tanker with all others remaining steady. Lead directs and clears each member of the flight for formation changes. On
approach to the rejoin, Lead calls “<Flight callsign> Flight, to <tanker callsign> observation. Lead in to pre-contact.” on the
intra-flight frequency.

Figure 4.1 - Normal Air-to-Air Refueling Process

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 39

4.3.1 Observation and Reform Position References

Maintain position along the tanker’s wing line maintaining one receiver’s wingspan clearance from the tanker. Keep
high enough to see part of the tanker’s opposite wing and slightly forward of an imaginary line connecting the training edge
of the tanker’s wingtips. During turns, stack low (observation position) or high (reform position) and maintain the horizontal
plane of the aircraft in contact/refueling position.

4.3.2 Transition to Pre-Contact Position

● Lead will clear each flight member in turn to the pre-contact position by broadcasting “<Wingman callsign> Clear to
pre-contact.”

● Deploy the Re-Fuel probe and transition to the pre-contact position(max speed for transition of the probe is 300
KIAS). Maneuver is similar to the first half of a cross under. Drop below the tanker, slightly reducing power. Move at
a controllable rate and position the aircraft approximately 50-100 feet (one-two aircraft length) behind the tanker,
aligned with the assigned basket-pod, slightly lower than the basket pod and matching the tanker’s speed. A good
visual guidance is to position the basket-pod at the top right corner of the HUD Glass. See Figure 4.2.

● Pilots will then contact the AI tanker announcing in pre-contact position on the tanker frequency. Do not contact
the tanker until in a stabilized pre-contact position. Once authorized by the tanker, move to the contact/refueling
position.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 40

4.3.3 Contact Position

Transition to Contact/Refueling Position - Move
smoothly and slowly. Advance the power slowly moving
the aircraft towards the tanker ( 1 - 2 KIAS Vc).
Contact Position References - As you close the
distance, focus on the pod, NOT THE BASKET, and
maintain the visual marker of the pod at the top right
corner of HUD glass. DO NOT FOCUS ON THE BASKET.
Doing so will result in PIO.
Maintaining Contact - Continue flying visual
references o the tanker and do not overcorrect. Never
chase the basket. When connected, make small power
and flight control inputs. Anticipate corrections to avoid
being slow and do not over control the aircraft.
Corrections are made in millimeters
4.3.4 Disconnects
Normal Disconnect - Once the aircraft is full or the briefed fuel load is received, disconnect from the tanker and retract
the probe.
Reform After Disconnect
● Upon completion of refueling, transition slightly down and aft.

● Call on intra flight “<Wingman callsign>, refueling complete.”

● When clear of the boom pay attention to other aircraft in the observation and reform positions.

● Lead will clear you back and into the reform area by saying “<Wingman callsign>, cleared back for reform.”

● Perform a cross under on any wingmen in the reform area and move to a route spacing in the reform area o the
wing or your wingman or tanker if Lead.

4.3.5 Departure

Once flight has completed refueling, Lead will clear the flight to depart by broadcasting “<Flight callsign>, Flight of
2 F-18s, Departing <Tanker callsign> to the <Cardinal direction of departure>.” on the tanker frequency. Lead will ensure
deconfliction with the tanker and other tra c and proceed with departure, preferring to depart below the tanker’s altitude,
if possible.

4.4 Night Air Refueling

Di erences between day and night procedures are minimal. NVGs can work for night tanker rejoins and can be worn
throughout the process, but may be removed if the pilot finds refueling without them to be easier.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 41

Chapter 5 - LOW ALTITUDE TRAINING

5.1 Introduction
Low altitude flight in rough terrain may provide masking opportunities to degrade radar and visual detection, and
contributes to tactical surprise. In addition to radar masking, terrain also provides optical masking. Properly executed
terrain masking techniques make it extremely di cult for intercept threats to acquire the penetrating aircraft or its
shadow. However, one should never fly lower than the threat, mission objectives, or comfort level dictate.

5.2 Altitude Management Systems

5.2.1 Radar Altimeter

The F/A-18C is equipped with a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter set indicates clearance over land or water
from 0 to 5,000 feet. Operation is based on precise measurement of time required for an electromagnetic energy pulse to
travel from the aircraft to the ground terrain and return. Voice alert and/or warning tone and visual warnings are activated
when the aircraft is at or below a selectable low altitude limit. The set consists of a receiver-transmitter, individual
transmitting and receiving antennas, and a height indicator. The receiver-transmitter produces the energy pulses, transmits
the energy to the ground, receives the reflected signal and processes this data for display as altitude by the head-up display
unit (HUD) and the height indicator. The height indicator, on the instrument panel, consists of a calibrated scale from 0 to
5,000 feet, a push-to-test switch, a low altitude index pointer, an altitude pointer, an OFF flag, a low altitude warning light,
and a BIT light.

5.2.2 Altitude Warning Settings (HSI)

In the HSI Data settings, you can configure the barometric and radar warning altitudes. When passing through this
altitude, an aural “ALTITUDE” alert will sound. Pressing the adjacent push button allows you to edit the warning altitude on
the UFC. The barometric altitude can be set up to 25,000 feet and the radar altitude up to 5,000 feet. Setting either
altitude to zero disables the alert for that setting.

5.2.3 TAWS - Terrain Awareness Warning System

The terrain awareness warning system alerts the aircrew of a controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) condition during
all mission phases. The system operates any time that the navigation mission computer (MC1) and TAMMAC digital mapping
set (DMS) are functional. TAWS functions as a safety backup system and not as a performance aid. TAWS has been designed
to eliminate false warnings, minimize nuisance warnings, and generate consistent aircrew response in all aircraft master
modes. Five possible voice warnings are provided to indicate the correct initial response to an impending CFIT condition, and
a visual cue is provided to indicate the recovery direction of pull, or in some instances, to command an increase in turn rate.
All TAWS warnings should be treated as though an imminent flight into terrain condition exists. Pilot response to a TAWS
warning should be instinctive and immediate.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 42

TAWS incorporates signal processing that determines a best estimate of aircraft position and altitude (AGL and
MSL). TAWS protection algorithm continuously computes two recovery trajectories: Vertical Recovery Trajectory (VRT) and
Oblique Recovery Trajectory (ORT). VRT is the standard GPWS-like recovery: roll to wings-level, if needed, and pull to
recover. ORT assumes that you maintain the current bank angle and pull to recover (increase turn rate). Both computed
trajectories include the following assumptions:

A. Pilot Response Time is the

time from issuance of a
TAWS warning to the time
that the pilot actually
initiates recovery. Pilot
Response Time is set at 1.3
seconds.

B. Roll Recovery Phase is the

time necessary to roll the
aircraft to near wings-level.
This assumes at least ½
lateral stick will be used for
bank angles less than 70°
and at least ¾ lateral stick
will be used for bank angles
≥ 70°.

C. G-Onset Phase is the time required to pull to the target recovery g. The target recovery g is 80% of the instantaneous g
available, or 5g, whichever is less. The g-onset phase assumes that rapid aft stick motion will be used (full deflection
within ¾ second). In addition, TAWS assumes that throttles will be moved to MAX if below corner speed and to IDLE if
above corner speed.

D. Dive Recovery Phase is the remainder of the trajectory until terrain clearance is achieved. TAWS assumes a terrain
clearance of 50 ft.

5.2.3.1 TAWS Audible Warnings

TAWS provides clear, unambiguous, and directive aural and visual cues to the aircrew. Aural warnings provide the
aircrew with a wake-up call and correct initial response while visual warnings provide the aircrew with correct follow-on
recovery information.

TAWS uses the ACI to provide aural cues to the aircrew. The aural cues are distinct from any other cues that the
aircrew may receive. The TAWS voice alert warnings are: ″Roll−Left...Roll−Left″, ″Roll−Right.....Roll−Right″,
″Pull−Up...Pull−Up″, ″Power...Power″, and ″Check Gear″. Each of these warnings is issued at a level 3−6 dB above the present
voice alerts. The TAWS voice warnings provide a wake−up call to the aircrew and indicate the most appropriate initial
response for the given aircraft state, not necessarily the only required response. The aural cue repeats until the warning
condition is cleared. TAWS aural warnings have priority over all current aural tones.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 43

5.2.3.2 TAWS Visual Warnings

A visual recovery arrow is provided in the center of the HUD and HUD format on the DDI. The recovery arrow
indicates the direction of recovery. The visual warning is displayed when a CFIT condition is present and is removed when
the CFIT condition is cleared. TAWS visual recovery cues are designed to be used in conjunction with TAWS voice warnings.
There are several voice warning/visual recovery cue combinations. When the arrow points UP in the HUD (i.e., along the lift
vector), a longitudinal pull is the correct response and an aural ″Pull Up...Pull Up″ is heard. This is a VRT recovery if the
aircraft is close to wings level, or it is an ORT (increased turn rate) recovery if the aircraft is banked such that the TAWS
algorithm assessed that an increased turn rate would provide the quickest recovery from an impending CFIT condition.
Figures 5.2 and 5.3 depict these two situations. Both situations require a longitudinal pull as the correct response, however,
the first case (VTR) depicts a dive recovery while the second case (ORT) depicts a recovery requiring an increase in turn rate
by increasing g when already in an established angle of bank.

5.3 Low Altitude Hazards

Be keenly and constantly aware of low-level hazards:

● Visibility restrictions, visual illusions, and low sun angles can a ect low altitude SA. Terrain contours directly in
front of you may be lost against the horizon. When in doubt, put the flight path marker on "blue sky."

● Subtle rises in terrain. Maintaining level flight and a constant altitude may result in significantly reduced ground
clearance. Constantly check NEAR ROCKS then FAR ROCKS.

● Task saturation/fixation. The key to successful operation in the low altitude environment is a solid cross-check,
appropriate task prioritization, and SA. Your cross-check should remain the same, only the time spent performing
its various counterparts changes with altitude changes. Proper mission planning and selective use of the low
altitude structure will help reduce the number of high task situations that could occur.

Unperceived descents, over banked turns. Small descent angles or unplanned increase in bank angles can result in
significant descent rates and ground impact. Attention to the velocity vector and altitude awareness cannot be
overemphasized. Controlled flight into the ground is, in most cases, the result of misprioritization and task saturation.
Regardless of your assigned or perceived tasks, pilot distraction at low altitude is deadly.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 44

5.4 Low Altitude Task Prioritization

Misplaced priorities occur when a task is accomplished at the wrong place or time. Operating at low altitude is a
hazardous proposition because it significantly reduces the time available to divert attention away from basic aircraft control
while handling other tasks. The danger of channelized attention and task saturation is they divert attention away from the
pilot's first priority - flying the aircraft.

Cockpit tasking varies at di erent times throughout a low level route. It is important to establish priorities when
mission tasking places more demands than time allows. The following items illustrate techniques for minimizing low altitude
task saturation problems.

● Terrain clearance is the primary task and should be the first task performed. When in doubt, minimize head down
time or climb.

● Accomplish avionics items as early in the flight profile as possible. Many avionics items can be set prior to takeo ,
thus reducing workload at low altitude.

● Accomplish critical tasks first and wait to accomplish lesser tasks later when cockpit tasking is reduced.

● Climbing to a higher altitude allows less time to concentrate on terrain avoidance and more time to accomplish
other cockpit tasks. Flying low level at 500 feet is more demanding than at 1000 feet.

● Pilots must be acutely aware of the flight path vector at all times. Head down avionics tasks are not appropriate if
the aircraft is in a descent or banked.

One particularly busy time during low level flight is at the low level start route point. Tasking here includes timing
control, steerpoint selection, avionics updates, radar search, formation, and terrain avoidance. Problems can be insidious
because of arrival into the low altitude regime with little or no warm-up time before beginning the demanding workload
required for low altitude operations. Flight leaders should consider accomplishing some tasks prior to descending to their
minimum altitude or by delaying the descent until past the start route point. The start route point should be planned such
that these options are tactically feasible.

Approaching the IP is another demanding time during which pilots must finalize attack avionics and switchology,
sanitize the target area, and establish the briefed attack formation. Each pilot must continually anticipate situations of
increased task loading and remain focused on task priorities in order to accomplish the mission safely and e ectively.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 45

5.5 50% Rule

For high-low transitions, the 50% rule is used to determine maximum safe flight path angle for a 90° turning
roll-in (Figure 5.4). The dive angle is equal to 50% of the pre-roll-in altitude AGL in hundreds of feet. For example, if your
current altitude AGL is 4000 feet, you can safely accomplish a 90° roll-in to a maximum 20° dive. If you are 2000 feet
AGL, 10° is the maximum. This rule is easily applied to repositioning on a target from a pop-up or when rolling in on a
tactical target from a wheel pattern. Obviously, because of the variability associated with roll-in techniques, this rule is not
precise.

However, the 50% rule

does prevent the gross incorrect
estimates of safe dive angles
based on false human
perceptions of AGL altitude.

5.6 Heavy / High-Drag Maneuvering

This exercise shows the airspeed and angle of attack e ects of sustained maneuvering in a high drag/heavyweight
configuration and is more pronounced when flown at gross weights of 30,000 pounds or greater. At 1000' AGL or greater,
perform a MIL power 180º level turn using 5 - 6 G's, starting at 420 - 480 KCAS. Note the airspeed loss and AOA increase
during the turn. Do not slow below the low altitude minimum airspeed. After performing the turn in MIL power, select AB
and accelerate to 420 - 480 KCAS. With full AB selected, perform another 180º turn at 5 - 6 G's. Note airspeed and AOA
changes during this turn and compare them with the MIL power turn.

5.7 Turning Room Demonstration

This exercise enables you to visualize the horizontal turning room required for the F-18C to complete a low altitude
turn at employment airspeeds. At 500' AGL or greater, 420 - 480 KCAS, fly perpendicular to a known ground reference line
(road, railroad, power line, river, etc.). As you approach the reference line, perform a level 4 - 5 G turn using cockpit and
outside visual references so as to roll out exactly over the reference line. Repeat this exercise until you no longer overshoot
or undershoot the reference.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 46

5.8 Ridge Line Crossings

Crossing ridge lines in high threat areas is a dangerous move. The aircraft is highlighted to threats, both surface
and air. Avoid ridge crossings if at all possible. Obviously, many situations force you to cross ridges. If possible, cross a ridge
at its lowest point or in a saddle. Sound planning and practice of ridge crossing techniques can be a great aid. Three
techniques are commonly employed.

5.8.1 Perpendicular
This crossing minimizes enemy radar or visual acquisition but should be done only when you know your six is clear
(Figure 5.5). Accelerate as required to maintain tactical airspeed during the pull-up. Pull early enough to avoid a large
overshoot crossing the ridge, so you crest the ridge at your specified minimum low level altitude. To go down the back side,
bunt or roll and pull. A totally inverted pulldown is prohibited. At the crest, unload and roll to approximately 135° of bank,
then slice down. At the desired nose low position, roll out and resume low level flight. Initial attempts at this technique
should be limited to a 15° nose low attitude. DO NOT bury the nose in the new valley. This maneuver may put you belly up to
unexpected high terrain on the other side of the mountain. Also, the wing flash during the maneuver is highly visible to
threats. The roll and pull technique is most e ective when crossing large, steep, isolated ridge lines. A bunt or pushover is
more appropriate for milder, rolling terrain. The pull-up for a bunt/pushover should be initiated early enough to avoid
excessive ballooning over the ridge. The advantages of bunt are straight line navigation, no wing flash, and less
disorientation.

Figure 5.5 Perpendicular Crossing

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 47

5.8.2 Parallel
This type of approach is appropriate if your six is, or may be, threatened (Figure 5.6). It denies the bandit a blue-sky
background and provides a di cult guns environment. Instead of a straight approach to the ridge, turn to arrive at the
pull-up point with approximately 45° of crossing angle to the ridge. Pull up later than for a perpendicular crossing, and
continue to turn in the climb to be parallel to the ridge crest just below the top. Roll and pull into the ridge, to cross the
crest at your specific minimum altitude. Continue a loaded roll to fly down the backside of the ridge, on a heading 90° to
135° from the ridge line. Roll out and continue the low level.

Figure 5.6 Parallel Crossing

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 48

5.8.3 Saddle
The saddle type ridge crossing is similar to the parallel and can be used when threatened (Figure 5.7). Turn to
parallel the ridge line below the crest until you can use a saddle, canyon, or the end of the ridge to cross to the other side.
The exact maneuver is dictated by the terrain characteristics, but can be as easy as a level turn.

Figure 5.7 Saddle Crossing

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 49

Chapter 6 - FIELD NIGHT OPERATIONS

6.1 Ground Operations
6.1.1 Cockpit Lighting
Cockpit lighting should be set to ensure the primary flight instruments are the most visible gauges. Other lighting
can be set to each pilot’s personal preference. When not using NVGs cockpit lighting should be set to the minimum possible
so they do not impact night vision. When using NVGs adjust the lighting to your comfort level ensuring the primary flight
instruments are most visible. HUD, DDI, and HSI screens will all need to be lowered in brightness considerably to not be
blinding while wearing NVGs.
6.1.2 Taxing
Aircraft will remain on the taxiway centerline while maintaining a minimum of 150 feet nose to tail separation
between aircraft. Use taxi light spacing to aid in maintaining nose to tail clearance. The aircraft taxi light will be turned o
when holding short of the active runway so it will not interfere with aircraft taking o or landing.
6.1.3 Interval Takeo
Procedures for nighttime interval takeo remain the same as during daytime operations with a few additional
requirements. Unless departure plates direct otherwise, climb on the runway heading to 5,000 feet AGL at 350 KIAS before
initiating any turns.
6.1.4 Formation Takeo
Procedures for nighttime formation takeo remain the same as during daytime operations with a few additional
requirements. Because of limited visibility all configuration changes (gear up, etc.) must be initiated with a radio call.
6.1.5 NVG Takeo
NVG takeo s can only be accomplished when operating at airfields under blackout conditions. Most Airfield in DCS
are Automatic lighting so blackout conditions during take-o or landing do not occur

6.2 Rejoin
Rejoin can be accomplished with or without NVGs. Caution must be used to limit overtake during rejoin. 30 KIAS is
the maximum overtake speed, lead will broadcast heading, altitude and airspeed if di erent than briefed. For turning
rejoins establish a maximum of 30° of bank. When 3,000 feet away maintain 30 KIAS of overtake, when approaching 1,600
feet reduce overtake to approximately 15 KIAS. Continue to cross check altitude to ensure enough altitude separation is
available if an overshoot occurs.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 50

6.3 Night Formation Procedures

Visual cues for both are the same as during daytime operations but the primary reference used is the lighting
pattern. Unless briefed otherwise, the route is the normal night spacing. Use the HSD to monitor distance to other flight
members.
Flight Breakup
Breaking up the flight is the same as daytime. Lead will broadcast current altitude, airspeed, altimeter setting and
heading. Once directed to separate, immediately begin cross-checking instruments and outside references.

6.4 Approach and Landing

6.4.1 Formation Approach
Formation approaches should only be used during emergency situations where the escorting jet plans to execute a
go-around once the emergency aircraft has landed. Approach should be established a minimum of 15 miles out using TACAN
and ILS if available. The lead aircraft will broadcast all configuration changes. For example “<Flight callsign>, Speed brakes,
Now” or “<Flight callsign>, Gear down, Now.” The escorting jet should increase wingtip clearance and fly stacked-high
maintaining the proper fore/aft position. Once the emergency jet touches down, the escorting jet initiates a missed
approach.
6.4.2 Landing
Scan the entire runway to avoid staring at the touchdown point. The landing light should provide enough
illumination to see the runway. Cross-reference the runway remaining markers and airspeed indicator to slow the aircraft
safely.
6.4.3 Emergency Procedures
In-flight emergencies are addressed the same as during the day but pilots must also ensure they continue to
cross-check instruments while referencing checklists and accomplishing emergency procedures.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 51

Chapter 7. - CARRIER OPERATIONS (CV Ops)

7.1 General
Flight deck operations are very complicated and extremely hazardous. This publication only supplements more
important, primary sources of information regarding carrier operations. A thorough knowledge and understanding of these
operations cannot be overemphasized.

7.1.1 Reference Publications

Your aircraft NATOPS manual contains sections specifically dedicated to carrier operations. You should also
familiarize yourself with both the CV NATOPS and LSO NATOPS manuals. These manuals govern aircraft operations around
the ship, including launch, recovery and flight deck procedures. The CV NATOPS provides information regarding procedures
and practices for operating around the carrier. The LSO NATOPS is the primary reference used by LSOs and provides
technical information and guidance. The primary focus of this manual is the recovery phase of operations.

7.2 Carrier Operations Types

7.2.1 Carrier Qualifications (CQ)

The purpose of CQ is to give pilots a dedicated opportunity to develop fundamental skills associated with operating
fixed-wing, carrier-based aircraft and demonstrate acceptable levels of proficiency required for qualification. During CQ,
typically far fewer aircraft are on the flight deck than during Cyclic Ops. This allows for much easier simultaneous launch
and recovery of aircraft. The waist catapults (located in the landing area) are generally not used. Aircraft can trap and then
be taxied immediately to a bow catapult for launch. The idea is to generate as many cat shots and traps as possible.

7.2.2 Cyclic Operations

Cyclic Operations refers to the continuous process of launching and recovering aircraft. In order to maximize
e ciency, aircraft are launched and recovered in groups or "cycles." A typical cycle is one hour and thirty minutes long
(1+30 cycle). ATO requirements may necessitate longer or shorter cycles. Longer cycles can accommodate more launches
and recoveries, while shorter cycles limit the number of aircraft that can be launched or recovered. The cycle time also has
an impact on fuel for airborne aircraft. Longer cycles may necessitate additional tanking.

Each cycle, or event, is usually made up of 12-20 aircraft. These events are sequentially numbered and correspond
to the respective cycle in the 24-hour fly day. Event 1 corresponds to the first cycle, Event 2 to the second cycle, and so on.
Prior to flight operations, the aircraft on the flight deck are arranged ("spotted") so that Event 1 aircraft can easily be taxied
to the catapults once they have been started and inspected. Once the Event 1 aircraft are launched, which generally takes
about 15 minutes, Event 2 aircraft are readied for the next cyclic launch. The launching of aircraft makes room on the flight
deck to land aircraft. Once Event 2 aircraft are launched, Event 1 aircraft are recovered, fueled, re-armed, re-spotted and
readied to be used for Event 3. Event 3 aircraft are launched, followed by the recovery of Event 2 aircraft (and so on
throughout the flight day/night). After the last launch of the night, all of the aircraft are generally stored up on the bow in
order to keep the landing area clear until the last aircraft lands. They are then re-spotted about the flight deck and secured
until the next morning's first launch.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 52

7.2.2 Weather Criteria

In order to standardize flight operations in all weather conditions, day or night, carrier aviation utilizes three
specific cases of operations. These are known as Case I, Case II and Case III. Each of these cases is dependent on existing
weather conditions. The Air Boss is responsible for determining the case of launch and recovery operations.

● Case-I departures and recoveries are utilized during daytime operations (day ops) when weather conditions are
VMC. Case I weather requires the ceiling to be no lower than 3,000 feet and not less than 5 NM visibility.

● Case-II operations are utilized during day ops when it is

anticipated the aircraft may enter IMC. Case II weather requires
the lowest ceiling to be 1,000 feet or above and 5 NM visibility.
Case II is normally called for when an overcast layer is present.

● Case-III weather is any ceiling below 1,000 feet or a visibility less

than 5NM. All night operations are conducted under Case III. For
the purpose of determining Case III operations, night is defined as
30 minutes prior to sunset until 30 minutes after sunrise.

7.3 Launch Operations

On modern aircraft carrier deck (also known as Flight Deck), all movements are controlled by the use of non-verbal
communication techniques. After start-up, when the pilot indicates he is ready to go flying, he will pass the thumbs-up to
the plane captain (brown shirt). The Plane Captain and pilot will then standby until a Yellow Shirt arrives to take over
control of the aircraft. An aircraft on the flight deck never moves unless under a yellow shit’s control. Whether it is taxiing
or being towed, these “directors” will always be there to control all aircraft movements. With the limitations of DCS, the
pilot is responsible for safe taxing from parking to catapult.

CV Launch operations do not change with weather conditions. Between night and day the only di erence is light
wands are used to make arm signals easier to see.

7.3.1 Taxi

General

Ensure wings are folded during all taxi operations on the deck. Ensure to follow the taxi-plan to e ciently launch
all aircraft as quickly as possible. IRL this plan is determined as part of the mission planning process. In DCS, due to how
aircraft are spawned onto the deck (based on order of person spawning in), this plan needs to be conceived as aircraft are
ready to taxi. Package or Flight Leader will determine this plan.

Night Operations

Night operations in general in aviation are inherently more dangerous, night operations in a carrier environment,
even more so, because of the limited lighting available due to operational security and light discipline. For taxi operations
in a night environment, ensure all exterior lights are OFF. This is best done using the “pinky” master light control switch on
the throttle. Ensure this switch is the OFF position prior to engine start, as well as Taxi/Landing Light is in the OFF position
as well.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 53

7.3.2 Launch

General

Once you are close enough to one of the catapults, the deck crew will automatically start responding and the
airplane director will begin giving you hand directions for proper alignment onto the catapult. Ensure to follow all
directions by the flight director, but do not allow the pace of the launch procedure to distract you from completing the
required items of your Pre-Takeo Checklist. In the F/A-18C Hornet it is standard operating procedure to use max power
(Full After-Burner) for catapult launch operations.

Night Operations

The ultimate di erence between day and night launch procedures is the salute. During day operations the salute
signals to the flight directors that the aircraft is set and ready to be launched. During night operations placing the exterior
master light switch to the ON position accomplishes that.

7.4 Departure Operations

CV departure procedures, like their land airfield counterparts, are designed to provide a set of standard procedures
to assist in deconfliction of the airspace around the carrier for both departing and recovering aircraft.

7.4.1 CASE-I

Case I departures are flown during the day when weather conditions allow departure under visual flight rules (VFR).
The weather minimums are a cloud deck above 3,000 feet and visibility greater than 5 miles.

Once the aircraft clears the catapult and a positive rate of climb is established, you execute the following all
simultaneously:

1. Execute a clearing turn to stay clear of the

ship’s path.

a. Cats 1&2 - BRC+20 deg >Snap to BRC

b. Cats 3&4 - BRC-20 deg >Snap to BRC

2. Climb to 500 feet and fly the base recovery

course (BRC).

3. Continue straight ahead at 500 feet and 300 KIAS paralleling BRC until 7 miles from the carrier. At that point, climb
along the planned route.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 54

7.4.2 CASE-II

Case II departures are flown

during the day when visual conditions
are present at the carrier, but a
controlled climb through the clouds is
required. The weather minimums are a
cloud deck above 1,000 feet and
visibility greater than 5 miles.

After the clearing turn,

proceed straight ahead at 500 feet and
300 KIAS paralleling the BRC as on
Case I. At 7 miles from the carrier, turn
to intercept the arc running 10 miles
from the carrier, staying below the
cloud deck.

Stay on this 10-mile arc until you reach the briefed departure radial. Climb on that course maintaining 300 KIAS
until clear of the clouds.

7.4.3 CASE-III

Case III departures are flown

at night and when weather conditions
are below the minimums of 1,000 feet
cloud deck and 5 miles visibility. A
controlled climb is maintained
throughout the departure.

The aircraft will launch with a

minimum launch interval of 30 seconds
between aircraft. Following the launch,
climb straight ahead at 300 KIAS,
crossing 5 nautical miles from the
carrier at 1500 feet AGL or above.
There is no clearing turn in CASE-III
Departures.

At 7 nm from the carrier, turn to intercept the 10 nm arc. Continue climbing along the arc until you reach the
briefed departure radial. Continue to climb on that course until clear of the weather.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 55

7.5 Recovery Operations

The recovery process starts on entry to the Carrier Control Area, or CCA. This is a fifty-mile radius circle around the
carrier where standardized procedures are followed to quickly recover large numbers of aircraft with as little
communication as possible. As you begin the recovery procedure, the pilot must plan to recover with no more than
43,000lbs total GW, if necessary dump fuel to ensure to be at or below that GW at recovery. Once inside the CCA, check in
on Marshal frequency with call sign, position, altitude, and fuel state. Marshal will provide recovery holding instructions and
pass the ship’s weather, altimeter setting and ship’s heading (BRC). Three di erent types of recovery can be expected
depending on the current weather conditions:

Case I: This is a daytime visual recovery flown in when the cloud deck is higher than 3,000 feet and visibility is
greater than 5 miles. Aircraft proceed to a holding stack over the carrier. Case I recoveries are used to the maximum extent
possible.

Case II: Case II recoveries are flown when weather conditions require instrument flight during the descent but
allow visual flight near the carrier. It is essentially a mix of CASE-I & CASE-III procedures. Case III procedures are used
until the ship is in sight, at which point, Case I procedures will be used. The minimum weather requirements are a
1,000-foot ceiling and 5-mile visibility.

Case III: This instrument recovery is used at night or when the weather is below Case II minimums. Case II and III
recoveries are flown from a marshal stack behind the carrier
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 56

7.5.1 CASE-I

7.5.1.1 Overview
Case I recovery begins when you contact the
carrier Marshal with an ‘INBOUND’ call. After
receiving direction from Marshal, you will set up to
enter the holding pattern over the carrier. The
Marshal controller will hand you o to the tower and
you will enter the holding stack.

The tower will clear you to leave the holding

pattern and commence your landing approach, known
as ‘breaking the deck’. You will descend from holding
and fly by the carrier just outboard on the starboard
side at 800 feet. You will execute an overhead
‘break’ to the left and enter the landing pattern.

If all goes well, you will catch one of the

arresting wires with your tailhook and taxi to
parking. If not, you will either ‘waveo ’, abort the
approach and reenter the landing pattern, or ‘bolter’, touch down on the deck and reenter the landing pattern.

7.5.1.2 Marshall - Holding Pattern

The overhead holding pattern is a left-hand pattern, with Point 1 located directly overhead the carrier and Points 2,
3 and 4 following in 90° increments. This holding
pattern is often referred to as the “stack”. All
aircraft must remain within 5 nm of the carrier
and no lower than 2,000 feet AGL.

Any climbs must be accomplished

between points 1 and 3 while any descents must
be accomplished between points 3 and 1.

While holding, the flights will remain at

max conserve fuel flow (250 KIAS) unless briefed
otherwise. Aircraft in overhead holding will
stagger their intervals to ensure equal spacing
from all flights at the same altitude. If there are
two total flights, then they should be 180° apart.
Three flights should be 120° apart. Four flights
will be 90° apart. You will leave the holding
pattern, or ‘break the deck’ on the ‘Charlie’ signal
from the tower.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 57

7.5.1.3 Breaking the Deck

The flight will depart holding from outside point 3 and

descend to 800 feet and increase airspeed to 350 KIAS. An
arcing turn will be flown to the initial point 3nm astern of the
ship. The flight will continue inbound and fly just outboard the
starboard side of the ship at 800 feet, paralleling BRC. The
radio command ‘KISS OFF’ should be given to your flight and the
landing pattern should be entered.

7.5.1.4 SPIN Pattern

A “SPIN” is an expedited way to send you back into the

landing pattern without going back into the stack again.

To execute a SPIN, at the bow the flight performs a

climbing left hand turn to 1,200ft AGL, to reciprocal of BRC. Stay
within 3nm DME of the carrier, and maintain 350 KIAS. Yes this is
a tight turn and must be started at the bow or as close as
possible to the bow. From this point you would
“break-the-deck” as you would from marshal, just from 1,200ft
AGL instead of 2,000+ ft AGL.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 58

7.5.1.5 Overhead Break

The landing pattern is entered with the radio command ‘KISS

OFF’ to your flight followed by a sharp break turn to the left. The
members of your flight will continue ahead and execute their own break
to enter the pattern behind you. A 15-20 second break interval will
correspond to a proper 40-60 second landing interval.

If you are unable to break before 4 nm, you will have to depart
and reenter the pattern. To accomplish this, maintain 800 feet until 5
nm from the carrier, then climb to 1,200 feet and execute a left-hand
descending arc back to the initial.

Break altitude is 800 feet, and all breaks will be level. When
established on downwind, you will descend to pattern altitude of 600
feet, configure for landing and closely monitor the abeam distance. The
optimal distance varies from aircraft to aircraft but 1 ¼ to 1 ½ miles
generally allows a smooth entry into the next phase called ‘the groove’.

7.5.1.6 In the Groove

You will continue to descend in a left-hand turn, rolling out wings level on centerline with a centered ball to allow a 15 – 18
second groove before aircraft touchdown on deck. This phase will be flown based on the state of the IFLOLS ball and verbal
directions from the LSO.

Call the Ball - When your aircraft is in the groove (wings level) and you have the
ball in sight, you should select ‘BALL’ from the ATC carrier radio menu.

Clara - If you do not have the ball in sight, select ‘CLARA’ from the ATC menu. The
LSO will provide sugar calls (“You’re high”, “You’re low, POWER”) the following calls
to get you on glidepath if necessary.

If you are executing an unsafe approach with gross deviations the LSO will
transmit “Wave o , wave o , wave o ”. The IFLOLS waveo lights will also flash
red.

Inside ¾ Mile - When the ball call has been made, direction from the LSO is based
on your deviation from localizer centerline and 3.6° glidepath.

Inside ½ Mile - As you approach the carrier’s stern, direction from the LSO becomes more precise.
7.5.1.7 Landing
Do not anticipate an arrested landing. When the aircraft touches down, advance the power to max in anticipation of
a bolter. Maintain max power until the aircraft comes to a complete stop. Then, release the brakes and allow the aircraft to
be pulled back. The arresting wire will release from the hook and you will be free to taxi to a parking location.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 59

7.5.1.8 Touch and Go / Bolters / Waveo ’s

The procedures for touch and go landings and bolters are identical. Continue to fly the ball all the way to
touchdown. Upon touchdown, simultaneously advance power to max, retract speed brakes, and rotate to optimum AOA for
takeo . Maintain wings level and verify a positive rate of climb.

Once a positive rate of climb is established and your aircraft is forward of the bow, use a shallow right turn to
parallel the BRC. Climb to pattern altitude (600 feet) and turn downwind with the proper interval with other landing
aircraft.

7.5.2 CASE-III

Case III recovery occurs when any cloud ceiling is below 1,000 feet or when visibility is less than 5 nm regardless of
cloud ceiling. All night operations are conducted in Case III.

This approach starts with an ‘INBOUND’ call to the Marshal who will assign a holding location, holding altitude and
an approach time. You will depart the holding stack at that approach time and radio ‘COMMENCING’ to the Marshal
controller.

You will descend and check in with the Approach Controller. Reduce descent rate when passing 5,000 feet and
report ‘PLATFORM’. Level o at 1,200 feet.

At 10 nm from the carrier, configure for landing. You will reduce speed to pass 6 miles from the carrier at 150 KIAS.
You will achieve an ACLS lock if applicable and fly the needles on approach. Expect to reach 600 feet at 3 miles from the
carrier, on speed for landing.

At ¾ nm behind the ship, you report in with the Landing Signal O cer (LSO) with a ‘BALL’ radio call. You will fly the
rest of the approach and landing based on visual indications on the IFLOLS ball and verbal instructions given by the LSO.

If all goes well, you will catch one of the arresting wires with your tailhook and taxi to parking. If not, you will either
‘waveo ’, abort the approach and reenter the landing pattern, or ‘bolter’, touch down on the deck and reenter the landing
pattern.

Figure 7.12 CASE-III Approach Overview

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 60

7.5.2.1 Marshal
The first step for a Case II or III recovery is having your flight enter a marshal holding stack behind the carrier. At
50 miles or closer, you will select ‘INBOUND’ from the ATC carrier radio menu. If a two-ship checks in during CASE III, the
aircraft that intends to land first (and get the lower marshal altitude) should have their side number read first. Marshall will
issue instructions to the first side number and after “readback correct” give marshal instructions to the second one. The
distance of the holding stack is calculated as one nautical mile for every 1,000 feet of altitude, plus 15. So, for example, if
the aircraft is assigned a marshal stack altitude of 8,000 feet, the distance to the carrier is 23 nautical miles.

Aircraft will fly the marshal holding pattern at max-conserve airspeed ( 250 KIAS) with 6-minute left-hand turns:
two minutes turns and one-minute legs. Each flight (maximum of 2 aircraft per flight for Case II and one aircraft for Case
III) will hold at o set patterns with 1,000 feet of separation. The lowest flight in the stack will land next.

Each aircraft will generally push to the carrier from the marshal stack at minimum intervals of 60 seconds. This
provides at least 1-minute between each landing.

You must be at the assigned Radial/DME at push time. If you need to adjust the orbit to make your TOT, do so. As
you reach the assigned push time, you will transmit ‘COMMENCING’ to Marshal Control, and begin your approach.

Figure 7.13 CASE-III Marshal Alt / Distance Chart

Figure 7.14 CASE-III Mashal

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 61

7.5.2.2 Approach
Shortly after leaving the marshal stack, you will be handed
o to the Approach controller, and you will “CHECK-IN”. Once the
aircraft leaves the marshal stack, it will descend at 4,000 feet per
minute (fpm) at 250 knots until 5,000 feet altitude, at which point
the descent rate is reduced to 2,000 fpm. This is maintained until
1,200 feet for CASE II.

For a CASE II recovery, you will auto-radio “see you at 10”

when the aircraft is 10 nm from the carrier just as on a Case I
recovery. Radio control is transferred from the marshal controller
to the tower controller. At this point, the pilot performs an
overhead break and landing. No holding pattern is required.

All CASE-III Approaches will be done using ICLS systems.

You will ‘fly bullseye’, following the azimuth and glidepath guidance
provided on the HUD or instruments.

At 10 nm, you should begin to reduce your speed and at 8

nm, you should configure for landing. At 6 nm, the aircraft should
be on-speed.

The Long-Range Laser Lineup System (LRLLS) should be

visible on the stern of the carrier. A steady amber light means you
are aligned with the angled deck for landing. A green light means
you are lined up right and a red light means you are lined up left.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 62

7.5.2.3 ACLS - Automatic Carrier Landing System

The F/A-18C is equipped with the ACLS system as well to help pilot workload in this approach. ACLS provides
guidance to the Marshal Stack, the carrier, and three di erent levels of landing assist.

Mode 1 - Is fully automatic and provides hands-o recovery,

Mode 1A - Is fully automatic until ½ nm to touchdown, then transitions

to manual control.

Mode 2 - Allows manual control with ACLS guidance on the HUD

At around 6 nm, aircraft equipped with the Automated Carrier

Landing System will acquire ACLS lock. Approach will then ask the pilot
“say needles” to check ACLS alignment. Pilot responds by reporting how
the aircraft must be flown to be centered, which is indicated with the
“tadpole” in the HUD indicating the correction needed to align on
glideslope. That is, if the aircraft is low and left the pilot responds, “up
and right.” For more detailed guidance on how to configure and use ACLS
reference F/A-18C Flight Manuals.

7.5.2.4 In the Grove

Once you are at ¾ mile, the approach is essentially exactly like a CASE-I approach, only with limited visibility.

This phase will be flown based on the state of the IFLOLS ball and verbal directions from the LSO.

Call the Ball - When your aircraft is in the groove (wings level) and you have the ball in sight, you should select ‘BALL’
from the ATC carrier radio menu.

Clara - If you do not have the ball in sight, select ‘CLARA’ from the ATC menu. The LSO will provide sugar calls (“You’re
high”, “You’re low, POWER”) the following calls to get you on glidepath if necessary.

Inside ¾ Mile - When inside ¾ mile and the ball call has been made, direction from the LSO is based on your deviation
from localizer centerline and 3.6° glidepath.

Inside ½ Mile - As you approach the carrier’s stern, direction from the LSO becomes more precise.

Because of the limited visibility, maintaining control of the ICLS “needles” is paramount. Typically on a CASE-III
your only visual marker in the groove will be the lights in the recovery area, which are A LOT smaller
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 63

7.5.2.5 Touch and Go / Bolters / Waveo ’s

The bolter/wave-o pattern for a CASE-III approach should not be confused with the pattern for a CASE-I. They are
very di erent. The CASE-III bolter/wave-o technique is as follows:

1. Advance throttle to Mil / Max as needed

2. Maintain wings level and on assigned final bearing

3. Gear Up & Flaps Half

4. Maintain 150 KIAS

5. Climb to 1,200 ft and await ATC directions (Any assigned turn will be level turns)

Typical routing will either be back to marshal OR the abbreviated pattern depicted in Figure 7.16. If assigned the
following pattern, you will be directed to “Left Turn to downwind” and then directed with “At (X)DME turn left to final
bearing”. You can use the following rules of thumb to assist with re-configuring for landing:

4 DME - ‘Dirty’ up at the start of the turn

6 DME - ‘Dirty’ up half way through the turn
8 DME - ‘Dirty’ up once back on final approach heading
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 64

7.5.3 CASE-II

Case II recovery occurs during daylight hours when conditions may be poor on the approach but adequate for
landing under visual flight rules. The cloud ceiling must be above 1,000 feet and visibility more than 5 nm.

This can be thought of as a combination of Case I and Case III. The Case III procedures are used outside 10 nm and
Case I procedures are used inside 10 nm.

For a CASE II recovery, you will radio “see you at 10” when the aircraft is 10 nm from the carrier just as on a Case I
recovery. Radio control is transferred from the approach controller to the tower controller. At this point, the pilot performs
an overhead break and landing. No Case I holding stack is required.

Figure 7.11 CASE-II Recovery Pattern

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 65

Chapter 8. - BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS (BFM)

8.1. Introduction
The purpose of the basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) chapter is to review the basic training spectrum of the F-18 in
aerial combat. This training consists of a series of mission elements and types that use a building block approach to reach
the required level of proficiency. Aerial combat is by far the most di cult aspect of flight for the fighter pilot to understand
and master. The arena is very dynamic, and the skills used must be learned over time. Personal desire and discipline will
determine how quickly the individual masters the required skills. To reach the end objective of achieving a first look, first
kill capability, you will train in an environment which begins with the basics of a close-in engagement and then progress to
beginning the engagement beyond visual range (BVR). Your training will emphasize not only o ensive skills, but high-aspect
and defensive skills as well. Furthermore, your training will transition from 1 v 1 maneuvering to operating as a team to
provide mutual support as elements and flights.

8.2. Preparation
This is arguably the most important aspect of each and every mission. Spend some time thinking about what you're
about to do, and prepare adequately for that mission. The following is a list of important steps within this process:

● Contact the flight lead early and get an idea of the scenario and his game plan.

● Knowing your aircraft is vital to the success of the mission. The ED Manual and Chucks guide is a good place to
start, but for further information refer to avionics manuals, and the NATOPS Flight Manual.

● The skills used in aerial combat are learned over time and the interest, desire, and personal discipline of a pilot are
important factors in speeding up this learning process.

8.3. Aircraft Handling Characteristics (AHC)

Before a fighter pilot can employ the F/A-18C to its optimum use, he must understand his limits within the
F/A-18C's capabilities and the F/A-18C's limits within its flight envelope. To develop a sense of aircraft performance and
potential, without constant reference to flight instruments, one needs to fly the aircraft in a series of maneuvers that
explores the aircraft's flight envelope and reinforces the pilot's awareness of aircraft performance. Exercises and maneuvers
that expose the pilot to various parameters within the F/A-18C's flight envelope are: the aerobatics, and advanced handling
maneuvers described in Chapter 2.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 66

8.4. Weapon Systems Check

Before entering the combat arena, know the status and capability of your weapon systems. The following technique
should serve as a good starting point for developing your own weapon systems check. It should be accomplished with
minimum use of time and fuel, so strive for an e cient and easily remembered sequence. One purpose of the weapons
systems check is for you to practice and verify the proper operation of the switchology required to get to various modes you
will use on your specific mission. Use the check to ensure the DDIs are set up as desired, and to practice selecting the
appropriate modes quickly. Practice in selecting A/A Master mode and configuring the submodes to desired settings.
Repetition will make the action second nature during engagements. This is also a good time to review HUD and radar
symbology. As you complete the weapons systems check, ensure proper avionics and weapons operations. Early detection of
any malfunctions or limitations which could limit mission e ectiveness will help you adjust your game plan prior to entering
combat.
Be alert for pop-up targets on the radar en route to the area and lock-on to a couple both for practice and to check
the system. The radar warning receiver (RWR) should be on and checked for volume and azimuth while flying as target for
the wingman's weapon systems check.

8.5. Fence Check

In actual combat, most of the items in the fence check should be done prior to or right after takeo —a few at
FEBA crossing. For peacetime training this will vary based on training areas/restrictions; portions of the check will be
accomplished in/approaching the area or not at all. Going left to right around the cockpit:

● F Fuel. Check balance, total, NORM feed, Set Bingo

● E Emitters. Use the acronym TRAIL

○ T TACAN. Check operation. A/A set as briefed.

○ R Radar. Set CCR and altitude coverage as briefed.

○ A ALQ & ALR. Set proper ECM technique and RWR as required.

○ I IFF. Set modes, codes, and Auto/Man as required.

○ L Lights. As desired

● N Navigation. INS check/verify steerpoints.

● C Cha and flares. ARM and check operation airborne.

● E Employment. Recheck SMS programming. Check arming options to include weapon, fuze arming option, release
pulses, spacing, and delivery modes. Ensure Master Arm is set as required, HUD has correct symbology, proper arm
indication, and SOI in proper place. Confirm TGP laser code is set IAW mission requirements and Arm as required.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 67

8.6. Principles/Concepts Of Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM)

The maneuvers required during a BFM engagement are nothing more than a combination of those learned during
AHC. The primary objective of BFM is to maneuver your aircraft into weapons parameters to employ ordnance. To
accomplish this you may first need to maneuver so as to keep a bandit from employing ordnance against you. The required
maneuvers are not pre-staged to arrive at the end game solution, but are combined as necessary based upon continual
reassessment of the situation. The entire process of observing, predicting, and maneuvering is repeated until either a kill or
disengagement has been achieved. In order to successfully execute BFM, a pilot must understand his geometric relationship
to the target and how it a ects his ability to employ his weapons. The spatial relationship of two aircraft can be analyzed
from three perspectives: positional geometry, attack geometry, and the weapon envelope.

8.6.1. Positional Geometry

When discussing one aircraft's position relative to another, range, aspect angle, and angle-o (heading crossing
angle [HCA]) are used to describe angular relationships. These three factors dictate which aircraft enjoys a positional
advantage, and how much of an advantage it is (Figure 8.1). Range is the distance between two aircraft.

Aspect angle describes the relative position of the attacker to the target, without regard to the attacker's heading.
It is defined as the angle measured from the tail of the target to the position of the attacker. Angle-o is primarily
concerned with the relative headings of two aircraft. Angle-o is defined as the angular distance between the longitudinal
axes of the attacker and the defender. Whenever the attacker is pointing at the defender, the aspect angle and angle-o will
be the same.

Figure 8.1 Angular Relationships

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 68

8.6.2. Attack Geometry

8.6.2.1 Types of Pursuits

There are three available attack pursuit

courses: lead, lag, and pure (Figure 8.2). The attacker's
nose position or his lift vector will determine the
pursuit course being flown. If the attacker is in the
defender's plane of turn, the position of the attacker's
nose determines the pursuit course. With his nose
pointed in front of the defender (such as in the case of
a gunshot), he is in lead pursuit. If he points behind the
defender, he is in lag pursuit. If he points at his
adversary, he is in pure pursuit. Note that an initial
lead pursuit attacker could be driven into a lag pursuit
course if he has insu cient turn rate available to
maintain lead.
8.6.2.2 In Plane vs Out-of-Plane

Plane-of-Motion (POM) can be summarized as

the target’s track across the sky relative to the horizon.
We will define out-of-plane maneuvering as any time
our plane-of-motion is greater than 45 degrees above
or below our opponent’s POM (figure 8.3). When the
attacker is out of the defender's plane of turn, his
pursuit course is determined by where his present lift
vector (the top of his canopy) will position his nose as
he enters the defender's plane of turn. For example, if
forced out-of-plane by a defender's hard turn, an
attacker may have his nose pointed behind the
defender during the reposition. After gaining su cient
turning room, if the attacker pulls far enough in front
of the bandit to arrive back in-plane with his nose in
front of the defender, then he is in lead pursuit. The
same holds true for pure or lag pursuit (Figure 8.4).
Whether to establish a lead, lag, or pure pursuit course
will depend on the relative position of the attacker
with respect to the defender's turn circle (TC).

8.6.3. Control Zone

Control Zone (CZ) is a cone, approximately

2,000-4,000 ft, +/- 10° in the near side, and +/- 20° in the aft portion of the pursued aircraft.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 69

8.6.4. Turning Room

In order to discuss how BFM can solve range, aspect, and angle-o , a concept called turning room and turning
circles is used. Turning room is the separation between the two aircraft that can be used to accelerate, to decrease
range, or turn and decrease aspect angle and angle-o . A turn circle is defined by aerodynamics and is based on a certain
size (the diameter) and how quickly an aircraft can move its nose (turn rate). The determinant of whether an aircraft is (at
any instant in time) "inside" or "outside" of a defender's turn circle is the relationship between the attacker's aspect angle
and range and the defender's turn radius/rate. If the defender is turning at a rate that will allow him to continue to
increase aspect angle, the attacker is outside the defender's turn circle (Figure 8.5). At the instant the defender can no
longer increase aspect angle, the attacker has "arrived" inside the defender's turn circle.

The attacker's nose position (i.e., lead or lag) relative to the defender's current position and flight path does not
strictly determine whether the attacker is inside or outside the defender's turn circle. (Figure 8.6)

As the defender bleeds o energy and airspeed, while performing

his defensive turn, his turn radius will decrease. His turn rate will also
decrease, once the defender slows below his corner velocity. This
relationship often results in a characteristic "fishhook" appearance to the
defender's turn (Figure 8.7). The attacker may start inside the turn circle,
but end up outside as the defender tightens his turn or slows below corner
velocity—depending on the defender's ability to maintain the turn rate and
how the attacker maneuvers. It is very important to note that turning room
can be acquired in either the lateral or vertical planes or a combination of
both. Another important note is turning room can be used by either
aircraft.

Lateral turning room is in the bandit's plane of motion. The

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 70

bandit's turn direction (into or away from the attacker) will a ect how much turning room is available. If the attacker is
inside the bandit's turn circle, he must have a turn rate and radius capability that will allow him to "make the corner" the
bandit presents. The disadvantage of lateral turning room inside the bandit's turn is that it frequently requires high energy
bleed rates to generate the turn rate required to make the corner and stay in the bandit's plane of motion. If the defender
turns away from the attacker, turning room increases. If the attacker is on the belly-side of the defender's turn, part of his
geometry problem is being solved initially since the bandit is rotating his vulnerable cone towards the attacker.

Vertical turning room is acquired out of the bandit's plane of turn. If the bandit is in a vertical turn, this turning
room may be located in a horizontal plane. If the bandit is in the horizontal, then turning room will be available either
above or below his plane of motion. Range and closure will govern the amount of turning room that can be generated.
Energy can be gained while maneuvering for turning room below. If the pilot elects to go for turning room above the bandit,
he must have the airspeed to drive above the bandit while retaining su cient energy to continue his attack. The attacker
must remember his turning room is also the bandit's turning room. If the attacker does not have the energy to use the
turning room, then he must deny the bandit the use of it. Turning room required is based on an aircraft's turn performance
and turn geometry; therefore, a more maneuverable aircraft will not require as much turning room as a less maneuverable
one.

Turning room is normally established as you

transition inside the defender's turn circle. Trying to
establish vertical or lateral turning room outside the turn
circle can result in the attacker becoming the defender. The
same thing can happen while trying to build turning room
starting from inside a defender's turn circle if you
subsequently maneuver outside of his turn circle. The bandit
may have the capability to force a role reversal similar to an
overshoot.

The attacker can recognize that he is inside or will

transition inside the defender's turn circle by observing the
defender. If the defender's present rate of turn will not bring his nose on the attacker and the attacker sees line of sight
(LOS) movement by the defender, then the attacker is inside, or will transition inside, the defender's turn circle (Figure
8.8). Another visual cue is the defender's aspect angle remains constant or begins to decrease.

As you can see from Figure 8.8, both attackers A and B begin outside the bandit's turn circle and transition inside.
The position relative to the defender's 3/9 line has nothing to do with being inside or outside the defender's turn circle. The
defender's ability to point at the attacker will determine whether the attacker is inside, will transition inside, or is outside
of the turning circle. There are a myriad of things that determine the aspect and angle-o when transitioning into the
defender's turn circle, i.e., range VC2 defender's turn capability, and the aspect and angle-o when beginning the attack. The
aspect and angle-o the attacker perceives at the transition will determine the initial pursuit course he elects. The actual
aspect and angle-o as well as the turning room and relative energy states will dictate weapons envelope and the degree
of BFM necessary to achieve a kill.

8.6.5. Mechanics of BFM

This section will examine the three basic principles of BFM: roll, turn, and acceleration.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 71

8.6.5.1 Roll

Roll allows the pilot to position his lift vector, thus determining the plane of motion in which he will turn. As the
airspeed slows and AOA builds, roll performance begins to degrade. At slow speed, in order to roll more rapidly, the AOA
must be reduced prior to initiating the roll. It should also be noted that the slower the airspeed, the longer it will take to
command a reduction of AOA. This factor becomes very important in slow speed lift vector positioning such as might be
required to defeat a gunshot.

An important aspect of roll is the ability to slow the forward velocity of the aircraft. If G is maintained and a roll is
initiated, a spiral is made in the flight path, thereby increasing the "through the air" distance the aircraft flies to arrive at
any selected point. An additional benefit of roll is the ability to position the bandit so the pilot can maintain a tally. This is
especially useful with an aft quadrant bandit where a simple roll to maintain line of sight (LOS) is preferable to energy
depleting "kickouts."
8.6.5.2 Turn

Turn radius determines the size of the turn circle. This radius is based on the aircraft's TAS and radial G. The size of
the circle and the relative turn rate capability of the two aircraft will determine how well the pilot can solve the angular
problems the defender presents. The objective is to work to where available G will allow the attacker to point his nose at
the defender to achieve a missile or gun shot with an acceptable specific power (Ps) bleed-o . How well an aircraft can
turn is a function of the turn rate and radius it generates.

Radius defines the size of an aircraft's turn or its turning

"circle." In the F/A-18C, turn radius at max AOA/G is relatively
constant over an airspeed range of 165 knots calibrated airspeed
(KCAS) up to 330 KCAS. Above 330 KCAS, turn radius increases
slightly as max G is obtained (415 KCAS). Above 415 KCAS, turn
radius increases dramatically. Because of the F/A-18C flight
control system, the F/A-18C does not have a true corner velocity.
It has a "corner plateau" which is an airspeed range of 360 - 415
KCAS that produces a good turn rate based on available G. (see
Appendix 4). O ensively, sustained operations are not possible in
the same plane against a defender with a smaller turn circle
(radius) assuming similar turn rates without inviting an
overshoot/reversal situation (Figure 8.9).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 72

Even if the attacker has the

identical turn rate/radius capability as
the defender (1v1 similar), the attacker
is unable to sustain operations in the
same plane to the degree the center of
the two turn circles are o set. In a
gross example, if the attacker is outside
the defender's turn circle and
immediately turns, instead of
accelerating into the defender's turn
circle, roles will be reversed after 180°
of turn (Figure 8.10).

The attacker's solution to the

situation described above (outside
defender's turn circle) is to maneuver
into the defender's turn circle, aiming
toward an "entry window" (Figure 8.11).
This involves initially pointing to lag. For
example, at point B in Figure 8.11 the
attacker has just entered the turn circle
and has his nose in lag. Upon reaching
the "entry window," to close on the
defender the attacker may need an
out-of-plane maneuver (discussed later)
to avoid overshooting, followed by a pull
back towards lead pursuit. The ability to
enter the defender's turn circle and
control geometric closure by initially
pointing to lag is an important concept
in BFM.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 73

8.6.5.2.1 Rate vs. Radius

A defender wants to decrease his turning circle as much as

possible. This is because a superior turning aircraft cannot use his
better turn capability until he is inside a defender's turn circle. An
earlier turn would merely a ect an "in-place" turn (Figure 8.12).

Rate is needed to achieve weapons parameters or defeat

attacks. The F/A-18's turn rate increases very rapidly from slow
speed up to 414 KCAS, at which point the rate is the highest. Rate
allows the attacker to match or exceed the turn rate of his adversary
and establish lead for a gunshot. The attacker needs a turn rate
advantage that will allow him to pull his nose onto the bandit to
employ the AIM-9 or point to lead pursuit for a guns shot. It is
important to note an attacker with a higher sustained turn rate can
maintain a positional advantage against a defender with a smaller
turn radius but reduced rate (Figure 8.12). In order to employ the
AIM-9, he must have a turn rate that will allow him to keep his nose
within approximately 30° of the bandit for tone acquisition and
missile launch. The ability to maintain a high sustained turn rate
(corner speed: 415 KCAS ) while the defender sacrifices sustained rate for a tighter turn is another key concept in
understanding BFM. In this sense, a turn rate advantage is more tactically significant than a smaller turn radius.

Rate is also used to defeat threats. A defender can use rate to drive an attacker into a lag position and thereby
deny him a missile shot or a gunshot opportunity. In close, if the attacker has already established lead, the defender can
roll and turn out of the bandit's plane of turn to spoil his gunshot solution. A missile fired in the aft quadrant can be
defeated by rotating the aircraft towards 90° aspect angle with regard to the missile. This will generate the maximum
line-of-sight (LOS) problem for the missile and hopefully exceed its gimbal tracking capability or its turn capability.
Slowing below corner to decrease turn radius is not advisable. As already discussed, a smaller turn radius will enhance the
overshoot probability of the missile, but the missile will still kill if the overshoot occurs within fuze functioning distance of
the target. A higher turn rate, not a small turn radius, is necessary for a successful missile defense. The F/A-18 also turns
better with afterburner (AB). AB gives a better turn capability because it allows the pilot to sustain airspeed and thereby
sustain a higher turn rate (assuming near corner velocity).
In addition, maneuvering at higher AOAs results in a
greater portion of the aircraft's thrust vector to be pointed
toward the center of the turn, which also helps the F/A-18
maintain a smaller turn radius and greater turn rate. To
achieve the highest turn rate possible, slow or accelerate
towards corner velocity speed range (415 KCAS) as quickly
as possible and turn hard to generate maximum angles in
the shortest time. The maximum LOS problem for a missile
occurs at 90° of aspect angle (Figure 8.13).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 74

It is important to remember that although a turn initiated on the limiter may give you your best initial turn rate,
you may not be able to sustain it. Monitor your airspeed. Even though the F/A-18 is a formidable high AoA fighter, it doesn’t
not have the thrust-to-weight to recover energy quickly. Remember, speed is life. Unless you have a reason to be slow,
don’t get there.

As a rule of thumb, these are some reasons you may find yourself slow (hopefully not for long) due to trading energy
for turn rate:

● Solving those last few angles during BFM in order to employ ordnance.

● To salvage a bad situation.

● To avoid becoming defensive or losing 3/9 advantage.

● Defeating enemy ordnance.

8.6.5.2.2 Turn in the Vertical

When turning in the vertical, rate and

radius are a ected by the earth's pull (gravity).
Any time the aircraft's lift vector is above the
horizon, turn rate is decreased and turn radius is
increased. If a loop were performed at a constant
(cockpit) G, the flight path would be characterized
by an "egg" shape (Figure 8.14). A 4 G loop would
result in e ective radial G (GR) loading as
indicated in the figure. From the cockpit
perspective, a 4 G turn at the top of a loop "turns
like" a 5 G horizontal turn.
If a pilot can utilize a downhill turn at key
points in a BFM engagement, his relative turning
performance will be better than his adversary's.
This fact allows an attacker, flying proper BFM
and starting from inside the defender's turn circle,
to maintain a positional advantage. When a vertical (downhill) turn is used to complete a counter turn, the attacker can
more than make up for turn performance lost while performing the counter turn. The attacker can use superior turning
performance to solve angle-o problems and choose the desired pursuit curve to fly to weapons employment parameters.
In practice, the counter turn and/or the initial part of the reversal is often accompanied by a slight climb that allows the
attacker to set up the downhill part of his maneuver and not be required to fly excessively below the defender's plane of
motion while turning to solve angle-o and pursuit curve problems. This slight climb (while turning) and slice turn
sequence results in a maneuver commonly called a "Hi Yo-Yo" usually followed by a "Low Yo-Yo." Another important
concept of vertical turning is "optimizing" turn rate and energy (airspeed) expenditure. Utilizing maximum available G while
entering a purely vertical turn (loop) excessively bleeds energy while "working against" gravity. Generally, a lower G
vertical turn is more e cient at the beginning and end of a loop, while maximum G (maximum rate) vertical turns can be
best employed when working "with" gravity—from nose pointing straight up until nose pointing straight down.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 75

At the top of the vertical plane the F/A-18’s

ability to pull into a high AoA gives it an advantage. At
the top, you will be able to command a harder pull
converting energy into nose position, all while going into
nose low position and instantly gaining the lost energy
back.
Flying an optimum loop—using 3 - 4 G's at
beginning and end, and maximum G available while flying
over the top—maximizes vertical maneuvering potential.
Maximum turn rate at the bottom of vertical turns should
normally be used only to force a trailing aircraft's nose
into lag and to cause the trailer to overshoot in the
vertical (Figure 8.15). Additionally, vertical turns
performed in the "pure" vertical (i.e., no lateral or
horizontal component) deny a trailing (similar) aircraft, at
a lower energy state, the capability to counter the result
of the energy di erential by performing an oblique or
horizontal turn (Figure 8.16).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 76

8.6.5.3 Acceleration
The three primary factors a ecting acceleration are altitude, attitude, and airspeed.

E ects of Altitude - The lower the density altitude the more e ective the acceleration will be because of increased
thrust.

E ects of Attitude - Aircraft attitude determines the e ect of gravity on an acceleration maneuver. If the aircraft
velocity vector is above the horizon, acceleration e ectiveness is reduced. If the aircraft velocity vector is below the
horizon, e ectiveness is enhanced. Aircraft G loading e ects induced drag and acceleration e ectiveness. The fastest
airspeed gain occurs in an unloaded (0 G), nose-low acceleration. The end result of this maneuver is a large altitude loss
and very nose-low attitude that may be unacceptable in an aerial engagement. If altitude is a factor, select AB and fly a 0.7
to 0.9 G, slightly nose-low extension maneuver. While airspeed gain will not be as rapid as at 0 G, altitude loss is
minimized and you will not bury the nose. The point to remember is that the closer you are to 0 G, the faster you will
accelerate, but you will bury the nose more and lose more altitude. This is especially important in an attempt to separate
from an opponent, because if the nose is buried in a very nose-low, unloaded acceleration, the resulting high G pull out
may provide the bandit a chance to a ect a lead pursuit course or "arc you" during the ground avoidance turn. In any case,
however, attempt to get the nose below the horizon before establishing the "optimum G" for an acceleration. Rarely will a
nose-high acceleration be e ective.
E ects of Airspeed - Acceleration is a trade o between thrust and drag. Thrust increases at a greater rate than
parasite drag with velocity increases over the speed range of 100 KCAS to 450 KCAS (or 0.95 mach whichever comes
first) due to the ram air e ects on the engine. Above 450 KCAS, acceleration rates decrease as drag becomes dominant. As
a rule of thumb, the best acceleration rates occur in the speed range from 300 to 400 KCAS.

Acceleration is a trade o between

thrust and drag. Often, the purpose of an
acceleration maneuver is to separate from an
adversary—get beyond his maximum missile
range. In this case, the object is to fly a straight
line over the ground to prevent the adversary
from arcing. As bank angle increases from
wings level to 90°, the corresponding
"optimum" acceleration G decreases (to
maintain a straight line flight path). At 0.9 G
and 90° of bank, the aircraft is turning
laterally as though it was in a 30° (rejoin) level
turn (Figure 8.17). To reduce the potential for
arcing, reduce G to 0 when approaching 90° of
bank.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 77

8.6.6. Lead Turns

A lead turn is the most e cient BFM
maneuver. A lead turn is nothing more than an
attempt to decrease angle-o prior to passing
the opponent's 3/9 line. It can be done in any
plane (horizontal, vertical or combination of
both). The classic lead turn is accomplished by
the pilot o setting his flight path one turn
diameter from his adversary. He observes where
his opponent is going and predicts where he will
be at some point in the future. He then initiates
a turn to arrive at a point in space with reduced
aspect and angle-o (Figure 8.18). Plan to lead
turn to a position about one turn radius behind
the defender.

The size of your turn circle, turn rate capability, and the defender's airspeed will determine the point you initiate
the lead turn. Considerable judgment is required to properly initiate and execute a lead turn so as to arrive within the
intended weapons parameters. It is important to stress that a lead turn requires the initiation of the turn forward of the
defender's 3/9 line. (Remember turning room for one is also turning room for the other and the tighter turning fighter has
the advantage.) The point to start the turn is based on the question "Can I make that corner?" When the answer is "Yes,"
start the turn. You may also notice the proper lead point as where LOS movement increases. The lead turn opportunity
normally begins inside the bandit’s turn circle, and just as the LOS rate changes as you enter a bandit’s circle from a 9,000
foot perch setup, the LOS rate will increase in a high aspect pass as you enter the bandit’s turn circle, except that the
change in LOS rate is not as apparent. This LOS rate is that caused by the relative motion between the fighter and the
bandit, not the apparent LOS rate caused by fighter maneuvering. During the turn, G should be adjusted as required to
keep the adversary moving slightly forward along the horizon (horizontal turn). The objective is to roll out behind the
adversary. The more turning room acquired, the
longer the range for lead turn initiation and the
lower the G-loading required to complete the
maneuver. Conversely, if the maneuver is initiated
at short range with little or no o set, a high-G turn
will be required to complete the maneuver. The
uprange distance at which a lead turn is initiated
will govern the roll-out range at the target's six
(Figure 8.19). Lead turns against a target that
maneuvers prior to passing your 3/9 line will not
produce a dead six position, but should still result
in some turn advantage. Bandit LOS rate aft on the
canopy and aspect less than 180 are the visual
cues for a lead turn and work for both horizontal
and vertical conversions.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 78

These cues only take into account

positional advantages, not energy
di erences. Once LOS movement becomes
apparent, put the lift vector in lead of the
bandit and use enough G to keep the turn
rate as close to the LOS rate as possible,
or allow the LOS to drift slightly forward.
If you pull to exceed the bandit’s LOS rate
(bandit moving forward on the canopy)
you may be turning belly up to the bandit
and risk becoming defensive, unless the
conditions permit a no respect lead turn.
A bandit who turns to pass 180 aspect
with you will not allow a lead turn. If you
were to try to lead turn a bandit 180° out
prior to passing him, and without seeing
the proper cues, you could allow yourself
to be lead turned unless you are in a no
respect lead turn situation.

A lead turn may be attempted

without turning room simply by initiating
a turn prior to passing the opponent's 3/9
line. This is commonly referred to as a "no
respect" lead turn and should only be done
if you can definitely out perform the
defender or if you are positive the bandit
has not detected you. If the opponent
continues on his present course, the
attacker will roll out with decreased
angle-o , but will still have a small aspect
angle problem (Figure 8.20). This lead
turn may be easily countered by pulling
away from the direction the attacker is
turning and continuing to build angle-o
(Figure 8.21). If the attacker initiates the
turn well outside the defender's turning
circle, the defender can slow his forward
vector (throttle, speed brakes,
out-of-plane) and allow the attacker to fly
in front of the former defender's 3/9 line
(Figure 8.22)
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 79

Lead turns can be accomplished in any plane. Assuming airspeed is in the "corner plateau" region, lead turns going
down will require slightly less o set than lead turns going up.

A lead turn down or a split-S is useful because it preserves airspeed. This is especially important if the adversary
has a predictable flight path due to a low energy state. The adversary must try to deny the lead turn with a turn degraded
by the e ects of gravity. If the attacker achieves o set above his adversary, but is hesitant to commit to a nose-low slice,
he may lead turn in the horizontal. This is done by pulling to a lead point in a plane above the bandit's flight path. Although
not as e cient (there is still an aspect problem to be solved) as a turn done in a plane with the bandit, it preserves nose
position (the vertical HCA between the attacker and defender) and prevents a vertical overshoot should the bandit counter
the lead turn by pulling up and into the attacker.

A lead turn up is e ective because it allows visual contact with the defender while possibly placing the attacker in
the defender's blind zone. A lead turn coming from low to high takes great advantage of radial G during the terminal
portion of the turn (when the attacker's lift vector is below the horizon). The lead turn in the vertical should be avoided if
over the top airspeed is not achieved (minimum of 250 KCAS level) or a significant energy advantage does not already exist
(ascending aircraft does not have vertical maneuvering potential). Lateral o set should be achieved as necessary to
maintain a tally during the maneuver.

8.6.6.1 No-Respect Lead Turn (Lead Turn Without Turning Room)

A no-respect lead turn can be accomplished against a bandit that does not see the fighter or a turn deficient bandit
(Figure 8.21). If the bandit does not see the fighter, the end result is an unobserved conversion turn. A turn deficient bandit
has a either very large turn radius and/or a very slow turn rate generally because of two reasons-either the bandit is
extremely fast or extremely slow. For example a bandit traveling at Mach 1.3 will have a very large turn radius compared to
a fighter near corner velocity. The fighter at corner velocity can begin a lead turn well ahead of the bandit’s 3-9 line, giving
up angles and even going belly up to the bandit. But because of the bandit’s high airspeed and the inability to perhaps
bleed it down quickly, he cannot take advantage of the angles the fighter is giving up.

A second example is a very slow bandit coming down from over the top. If a bandit goes vertical and is coming
down slow on airspeed, a fighter may lead turn the bandit and even go belly up to the bandit prior to the 3-9 line because
the bandit is too slow to bring his aircraft to point at the fighter lead turning in front of him.

The above two examples are extreme cases where a bandit cannot stop a fighter from lead turning in front of him
because of an airspeed related performance limit.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 80

8.6.6.2 Counters

The counter to a lead turn is to remove the o set prior to the lead point, i.e., take your share of turning room by
beginning your own lead turn.

Against aircraft with inferior turn performance, if the pilot plans and initiates a lead turn at the proper range, he
will automatically negate any turn his opponent attempts (Figure 8.23). The opponent with an inferior turn performance will
initiate a lead turn sooner than you wish to initiate yours. The inferior turning aircraft will also strive for more lateral o set
than you need for your own turn. This can be easily countered by turning to deny his lead turn and initiating your own lead
turn at the proper point for your turn capability. This will quickly develop into a lagging contest won by the aircraft
generating the best sustained turn rate.

Figure 8.23 Denying Lead Turn Versus Inferior Performer

Against an aircraft with superior turn performance, or if you have gotten slow and have less turning capability, a
defending pilot should fly directly at his opponent, eliminating all o set and denying any chance for a lead turn. It is
important that he make the turn to point at his opponent prior to the point where the opponent transitions inside the
defender's turn circle. The sooner this is accomplished, the less severe the maneuvering required to deny the lead turn
(Figure 8.24).

Figure 8.24 Denying the Lead Turn Versus Superior Performer

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 81

8.6.7. Energy Versus Position

Energy is the potential to maneuver. However, too much energy can be a dangerous thing. Excessive speed can
lead to severely degraded turn performance, minimum time in weapons parameters, and reduced station time.

The key to the fighter pilot is the determination of how much energy he needs and how much he is willing to
expend for a given positional advantage.

BFM allows the achievement of weapons parameters with minimum energy expenditure in as little time as possible.
This concept of e cient maneuvering is important because in a tactical situation, it will dictate how much BFM is to be
employed in a given engagement. How much predictable time can the F/A-18 pilot a ord on one attack with regard to the
entire tactical environment? How much energy or future maneuvering potential can be expended for a given positional
advantage? Will that position be su cient for the kill or will it just prolong the maneuvering, requiring more time and
energy? All these questions must be asked and evaluated to determine the trade o for a given situation. Obviously, high
energy bleed o for position is justified to achieve firing parameters against a Flogger attacking the home drome, while the
same PS expenditure may be unwise in an outnumbered sweep vs sweep scenario deep in enemy airspace. Energy and
position must continually be balanced by the fighter pilot. BFM is a tool the F/A-18 pilot uses to achieve this
balance—always trading energy for position and using position to employ ordnance, remaining cognizant of his own need
for survival.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 82

8.7. O ensive BFM

The primary consideration in o ensive BFM is to kill the bandit by arriving in lethal weapons parameters as soon as
possible and take the shot. Understanding the concept of turn circles is mandatory to assessing which BFM discussed in
this chapter will work in which instances. It should be remembered that BFM is not a fixed set of maneuvers, but rather,
combinations of rolls, turns, and accelerations that have been optimized for certain situations and named for the sake of
discussion. Since the end goal of any o ensive engagement is to kill the bandit, BFM is designed precisely to do just that
with minimum time and energy expended.

8.7.1. Objectives of O ensive BFM

The first and primary goal of o ensive BFM is to kill. In order to kill, the fighter pilot must recognize weapons
parameters and employ ordnance once in those parameters. If he cannot shoot, he must reposition until he can employ
ordnance.

● Gain and maintain su cient energy to have future maneuvering potential against the adversary.

● Maintain nose/tail separation against the adversary. O ensive maneuvers will position the pilot behind the bandit
with su cient energy to enable him to stay there.

● Allow the pilot to drive into a position from which ordnance may be employed against the adversary.

8.7.2. Outside the Turn Circle

Several things happen quickly/simultaneously (Figure 8.25):

● If able, point at the bandit and fire an AIM-9.

● Select AB.

● Point to where you want to enter the bandit’s turn circle. Do not pure pursuit the bandit during missile
time-of-flight.

● Assess the bandit’s turn.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 83

8.7.2.1. TC Entry Cues

This is one of the most important aspect of flying BFM. You must recognize when you are in the bandit's TC, and
what to do once you're there if you ever hope to arrive at an end game kill. Your primary reference should be the LOS
across the horizon. If you never changed your initial aim point (assuming it was a good one) then LOS across the canopy
works also. But that's not what you should look for because you control that somewhat by where you point and how hard
you pull, so look at the horizon. Back to LOS rate. Initially you will see the bandit move very little across the horizon but he
will be rotating in space. As you approach his TC, his aspect will begin to stabilize (rotation stops) and his movement
across the horizon will pick up. You have entered his TC! The Bandit will probably slide out of the HUD FOV prior to your
entering the TC, but it will happen at a low LOS. For the typical set-up this will occur about 10:00 or 2:00, (sounds like
40°- 50° on the locator line) but will vary depending on how hot your entry is. Range is dependent primarily on how hard
the bandit breaks and a little on aspect, but 5000' - 6000' is again typical for what we do, (normally about 6 seconds from
"fights-on" with the bandit normally through 120° of turn with aspect about 70.).

Another technique for determining your position relative to the bandit’s TC is to evaluate the bandit’s present rate
of turn. If this turn will bring you forward of the bandit’s 3/9 line, then you are outside the bandit’s TC. You are inside the
bandit’s TC when you determine that his rate of turn will not bring you forward of his 3/9 line.

Use the afterburner to gain airspeed. Because you're outside the bandits TC, the time it takes for you to get there
is dead time. Every second the bandit generates 15-20° more angles you'll need to solve and you can't solve any angles
until you get to his TC. Therefore you'll want to get there as quick as possible. However, once there you'll need to slow back
down by getting out of A/B and/or use of S/B. A good trade o is about 500 knots at the TC entry. Faster and your radius is
too large and rate drops o , slower and you'll quickly have to ease o the "G" to sustain corner. Power modulation in the
Hornet, especially against a thrust deficient bandit is all important, i.e. two- handed turns are a requirement.

8.7.2.2. Point at the Bandit

The TC entry point is a window from where he started (actually just inside) to just short of the center of his TC.
Anywhere within this window is the correct solution, however, exactly where will determine the amount of vertical needed
to solve the problem. The hotter the entry (i.e. the closer to the center of the TC) the more vertical required. This assumes
you are fighting a bandit similar in capability to you. A good rule of thumb is to enter about 2/3 of the way out from the
center. Assuming a standard set-up, at the "fights on/Fox II" you need only to roll out and point to where the bandit was (or
at the first flare) to hit this entry point. This is the conservative approach, but will enable you to see the TC entry more
clearly. How about vertical? This is a wonderful concept, but too low and the bandit can keep his energy up by keeping lift
vector on, too high and you delay getting to the TC. Again, look for a window, within about 500' high or low is reasonable. If
you go low, the bandit can create max angles with lift vector on as well as maintain energy by having his lift vector below
the horizon. A level (or even a slight climb) will force the bandit to make a decision. If he keeps lift vector on he bleeds
energy, if he keeps lift vector slightly below the horizon he builds you some vertical turning room. The point here is two
fold; have a game plan, but realize the bandit may not be cooperative. Constant assessment of what the bandit is doing,
and being able to adjust is a must.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 84

8.7.2.3. Assess the Bandit

Look through the bandit at the horizon beyond. This gives you the best cues to determine the size of the bandits TC,
(and therefore the center of it), the amount of altitude delta you have (space between horizon and bandit is vertical turning
room), and most importantly, it will be the best cue for TC entry time.

8.7.2.4. Knowing When to Start Your Turn

You've arrived at his TC (Figure 8.25) but now you need to solve the other problems that have been created, such
as angles and range; realize that the bandit will not be in your HUD at this point. Reference the previous discussion on
airspeed at TC entry and power modulation. If your initial speed is greater than 500 KIAS or .75 M (which is lower) pull
power to MIL/min AB, or fan the boards, you will slow down during your initial turn. Less than 500 KIAS or .7 M (whichever
is lower), leave power set in full AB. As the bandit's airspeed decreases, so does his TC size. When you enter his TC your
turn circle will be a bit larger than his initially. Your initial move should be to make a loaded roll to set your lift vector on
or slightly above the bandit, and pull. This is initially a limiter pull while you assess range and closure.

During the maneuver, you need to assess what the bandit is doing, along with your range, closure, and heading
crossing angle (HCA). This initial turn will take you through about 120° of turn. It is critical to keep your nose in check with
the horizon as well as the bandit, + 15°. (Slightly more may be required if you chose to make your entry hotter due to
higher aspect angles) Done correctly your flight path will take you slightly outside his, and you will always be looking at the
top of his aircraft. What you do from here depends on what type of defense the bandit is doing. For this discussion two will
be addressed: check and extend & continuous turn.

8.7.3. Follow-On BFM

8.7.3.1. Check & Extend
There are a number of di erent cues the bandit is doing this. Probably the first is the ability to pull the bandit to
your nose with relative ease. Next is a rapid change in aspect. During your initial turn you were continually looking at the
top of his aircraft. As the bandit extends, the burner-can becomes the focus of your attention. Another cue is LOS. When
you entered his TC you saw rapid LOS across the horizon. As the bandit extends his LOS across the horizon stops. The last
cue is range. During your initial you closed rapidly, but the extension will again increase range. When you see this the
bandit is trying to get something you are trying to deny, energy and range. Your reaction should be to stay on the limiter
and point at him as quickly as possible to threaten him. This should bring him back into a turn, if not shoot him with a
missile. The bandit’s extension has opened up the range enough to place you outside his turn circle, so think about getting
there again. Your move should be another TC entry the same as before, but it will be quicker, and both the bandit's energy
and your energy are diminished. Resist the urge to point directly at him. This typically happens with new BFMers, and
though it can be a quick kill option, it's best left to be learned as experience increases.

Your goal is to get to a position of control (the control zone, his elbow, etc.) and beat him down on energy until you
decide to prosecute. Typically you will arrive there after 2 or 3 extensions by the bandit, provided you didn't let him extend
too long each time. Transitioning to the eventual kill with the gun will be discussed later. Take your time, be patient, and
the kill will happen quicker in the endgame.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 85

8.7.3.2. Continuous Turn

The cues you have that this (Figure 8.26) is the bandit's game plan are opposite of the check & extend. You may be
able to pull him to your nose, but it will unnecessarily deplete energy, require all you've got, and is not the appropriate
move. Your first cue should be the continuous LOS across the horizon. Also, you'll continue to see the top of his aircraft.
Finally, the range between you and the bandit does not open up by virtue of the bandit's maneuvers. Depending on how well
he flies this defense will determine how fast you beat him down on energy and kill him. He is presenting angle problems,
and trying to force an error out of you (most notably bleed down your energy). Your BFM should not let this happen. You
will need to threaten him to get him to bleed energy, but if you try to make it happen in one fell swoop you'll lose. When
you detect this is his game plan, ease o of the turn to preserve range, position and energy. This will solve your angular
problem by itself.
As a target, try to close no closer than about 3000' initially and maintain about 350 kts (300 as an absolute min).
The 3000’ is an approximation of his turn radius. As long as you are outside this, and you make a slight flight path
overshoot (which will happen), he can't do anything about it. This also happens to be an approximation of your turn radius,
and you will need turning room to threaten/prosecute. Preservation of range is critical here and the greater your HCA the
more you'll need. As long as your HCA is within about 30° as you slide outside of his flight path this range is su cient. If
the HCA is greater than that you'll need more range, so shoot for about 4000' - 5000'. Maintaining 350 KTS will optimize
your turn radius and your turn rate. The closer your nose is to the bandit the more threatened the bandit will feel, and force
him to turn harder and deplete energy. Using a series of small high and low yo-yo’s will eventually bring your nose into lead
thus forcing the bandit to do something. Do not get your nose too low, you'll be fighting God’s G and the bandit, and you'll
lose. Along with the yo-yo’s, your turn circles will be slightly o set, so even if the bandit has equal energy initially, your
nose will arrive in lead. Be patient!! Don't let your energy deplete until you are sure his is gone and you are ready to kill.
Cross check your range and closure at the initial turn to avoid setting yourself up to pass too close to the bandit with HCA
out of control ( i.e. setting up a reversal opportunity for the bandit).

Common Errors in Continuous Turns::

● No AB: delays entry, overall energy is lower.

● Too hot of a TC entry: set up a reversal opportunity, best case delay the kill unnecessarily.

● Late TC recognition: flying out the back, letting the bandit get a good extension.

● Pulls too hard: range/closer

problem, depletion of your
energy.

● HUD BFM: develops closure

problems quickly, sets up an
overshoot.

● Being greedy: PATIENCE is the

key to success.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 86

8.7.4. Vertical Considerations

The concepts for a vertical fight (Figure 8.27) are similar to other BFM skills. Look for TC cues, cross check over
the top airspeed, and prosecute the attack. When you follow the bandit up, it's not a limiter pull into the vertical. Perform
a loop, except at the top you can pull harder to threaten the bandit. If your airspeed is significantly greater than his, you
may be able to use that to prosecute across the top, but you may not have a free overshoot.
Keys here are:
● Cross check closure, and

● Ensure his nose is committed down before you go for the kill.

The biggest error made happens at the onset. If the bandit goes up and you immediately follow. Essentially you're
cutting across the center of his TC, and creating problems talked about earlier. Remember to point to where he was and
make a good TC entry.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 87

8.7.5. Closing for Guns

This section applies not only to perch sets, but also when you
transition from the long range o ensive sets and decide it's time to
give the bandit a shower of 20mm (Figure 8.28) from the control
position. If the bandit has 300 kts, he can generate tremendous
problems and you probably won’t maintain the control position.
Normally don't try to gun him until he is 250 or less (there are a
number of ways to tell his airspeed: closure combined with aspect,
and looking in the DDI). There are two options you have as the
attacker at the "fight's on". The first is to pull lead and gun him now,
The second is to bid to lag and beat his energy down.

If you elect to pull lead and gun him from the start, prepare
for the possible outcomes. If he's a duck and simply puts lift vector on
and pulls, he dies, fight's over in 3 seconds provided your pipper
control is on the mark. If not, or he jinks, you now have a closure problem and angle problem which you may not be able to
solve very quickly especially if you continue to press the attack and follow his jink. The way to keep out of trouble here is
to pull lead, if he even hints at a jink it's time to reposition while you're still outside 2500'. If you decide to shoot, do so
with a lethal burst, then reposition immediately. If the shot is good, call him dead. If it's not, you're already solving the
closure problem before it gets out of control.

The other option is to make a bid to lag (Figure

8.29) to beat the bandit's energy down before you gun
him. This option is highly recommended for the less
experienced, and should be your primary game plan until
your proficiency increases. The bid to lag can be
accomplished in a variety of ways. The simplest is to
ease o of your turn to float back to the bandit's elbow.
This will keep energy up so you can pull your nose to
lead at your discretion. Power can stay in mil. It also
keeps your nose in a threatening position to the bandit
and prevents him from selecting AB (If he does shoot
him with the missile). You may also elect to reposition
using a slight out of plane maneuver, This is acceptable and does kill closure rapidly, but may also send a non-threatening
message to the bandit by going out of plane while his energy is still up. Executed correctly this technique is fine, but make
it quick, small, and crisp. Remember this is two handed BFM, AB may be required but not usually on the first move.

If you remember nothing else, remember this: FIGHT TO LAG, LEAD TO KILL

The bandit has a couple of options to try and force an error. If he continues his turn, think o set turn circles, and
small yo-yo’s. He's on the down side of the Ps curves, so you're controlling the fight from the start. One mistake is to bleed
your energy before him. Ride the smoke trail, and monitor his airspeed. When he's down to about 200 kts you own him.
Avoid being low and not in lead, you'll scrape o on the floor first. As long as you're slightly high, the bandit will have to
flatten his turn to avoid the floor. When he does you can trade your altitude for turn rate and gun him.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 88

If the bandit reverses (Figure 8.30) in a nose counter or roll underneath, he's trying to cause several problems. First
is to get your nose out of sync with his, and make you fly a shorter string causing a closure problem. You can control this
with an appropriate reposition to his six. Idle / speed brakes may also help. Either a yo-yo type maneuver out of plane or a
lag roll will work, but be extremely careful not to bury your nose or it may stagnate the fight. The idea is to stop your
forward movement to preserve range. If you keep a constant cross check of range and closure, and solve it early, you'll stay
behind him all day. If you delay, you're sure to find yourself in a stack or defensive. As a rule of thumb at 2000' if you see
100 knots of closure, reposition, At 1500' if you see 50 knots, reposition. This is a two handed BFM, using small crisp
maneuvers. When in doubt, reposition! It can't hurt, and you'll preserve your o ensive position.

Common Errors:

● Poor Vc control; leads to overshoots, reversals, or stacks.

● Exaggerated repositions; allows the bandit extension and turning opportunities.

● Poor Pipper control; don’t waste your bullets.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 89

8.7.6. Slow Speed Fighting

If late recognition of undesired closure/range occurs, the bandit may reverse and force a slow speed fight. The
slow speed fight area is where the F/A-18C maintains a significant advantage over other airframes. Its ability to maintain
control and nose-authority in a high-AoA attitude makes it a very lethal fighter in a slow-flight. But should be entered into
with caution, because of the lower T/W Ratio, the F/A-18 cannot regain energy quickly. There are three common types of
slow speed fights: flat scissors, rolling scissors, and high/low stack.
8.7.6.1. Flat Scissors
A flat scissors (Figure 8.31) is the result of an in-plane overshoot. Given an energy advantage, exclusive use of the
vertical may exist. If so, reposition high and loop the bandit. Be patient and drive to his six o'clock position prior to
committing the nose back down. Without exclusive use of the vertical, a determination must be made in relation to the
bandit's turn circle. At slow speed, turn circles may be very small (1200' radius or so). If outside his turn circle, pull with
the lift vector on and attempt a snapshot. If the snapshot is denied/defeated, attempt a lead turn to gain 3/9 line
advantage. If the lead turn is denied or the scissors starts from inside the bandit's turn circle, forward velocity relative to
him must be stopped to gain 3/9 line advantage. To do so, align fuselages and set the wings relative to the horizon to stop
forward motion. Power/drag can be used to slow forward velocity followed by max AB to maintain pitch attitude. When the
bandit begins to move forward on the canopy, pull to his six o'clock to establish a 3/9 line advantage. If both of you are
pulling for a high six o'clock position and neither establishes a 3/9 line advantage, a rolling scissors will result.

Figure 8.31 Flat Scissors

O ensive Maneuvering in a Flat Scissors
The ultimate goal of the o ensive aircraft in a Flat Scissors is to maneuver into a position to employ the gun.
However, the primary responsibility is to maintain the o ensive advantage. Because the Flat Scissors is a one-circle fight
in which the goal is to slow the aircraft's down-range-travel more than the other aircraft, proper lift vector placement and
reversal timing are the primary objectives. The o ensive aircraft is always striving to arrive in-phase, in-plane, with RAC
under control. If the range is at least 1,000 feet, it is preserved with an early turn. If the range is less than 1,000 feet
nose-to-tail, you should continue to pull behind the opponent until the nose is behind him. Once the nose is behind the
opponent, look for reversal timing.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 90

8.7.6.2. Rolling Scissors

In a rolling scissors, the pilot that can point, intimidate, and cause the other pilot to stop pulling should have the
advantage. If unable to point and intimidate, then stop the rolling when the nose is above the horizon and the bandit's nose
is below the horizon. By rolling out with the nose above the horizon, forward velocity is slowed. Because the bandit's nose is
below the horizon, he should have a greater forward velocity. This should result in a 3/9 line advantage for you (Figure
8.32). If a rolling scissors continues, then both aircraft's airspeed will decrease so that the scissors transitions to a vertical
rolling scissors. In a vertical
rolling scissors, the
opportunity to stop the nose
above the horizon may not
occur. Therefore, attempt to
pirouette in the vertical and
point to intimidate the
bandit. A vertical rolling
scissors fight will lose
altitude rapidly, maintain SA
on altitude lost and terrain
clearance. When a rolling
scissors transitions to a
horizontal fight (neither pilot
having a 3/9 line advantage),
the fight may result in a
high/low stack.

8.7.6.3. High/Low Stack

A high/low stack can result from an overshoot in the vertical or stopping a rolling scissors. If the high man, use
power to gain turning room above the bandit. Keep sight by weaving slightly during the climb. Be sure to keep the nose
above the horizon to prevent an increase in forward velocity. Attempt to get his nose out of synchronization (sync) to gain
lateral as well as vertical turning room. At approximately 3000' of turning room (adversary outside the turn circle),
maneuver to gain 3/9 line advantage. While the high man has a slightly higher potential energy, the low man has the
advantage of an easy tally. Try to mirror everything the bandit does to force his loss of sight, but not to the point of losing
lift. This will deny him lateral and vertical turning room, forcing the bandit to roll to regain sight. If he rolls excessively, his
nose will drop, increasing his forward velocity. Once the 3/9 line advantage is gained, maneuver to the bandit's six o'clock
and attempt a gunshot.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 91

8.8. Defensive BFM

The following discussion of defensive BFM is predicated on an understanding of o ensive BFM. In defense,
realizing the mistakes of the attacker gives the defender his best chance of role reversal or escape. To recognize the
attacker's mistakes the defender must know o ensive BFM concepts. The primary objective of defensive BFM is survival.
Unfortunately, you are looking over your shoulder, often under high G-load to accomplish this. More than any other
situation in flying, defensive BFM is a physical problem. It hurts to pull G's and look over your shoulder. The ramifications of
being physically unprepared for the defensive BFM arena should be obvious. In the F-18C, it can kill you. Physical
conditioning and proper body positioning are a must!

8.8.1. Objectives During Defensive BFM

There is no magic maneuver you can use on defense which will automatically change you to an o ensive position
against a similar bandit. In order for you to go o ensive or separate, he must make a mistake. Therefore, it is essential you
maintain a tally so you can take advantage of his mistakes, assuming he makes any. Your maneuvering on defense must be
weighed with keeping the tally. If the bandit doesn't make any mistakes, or makes fewer than you, the best you can hope
for is to keep him from employing ordnance against you. As the engagement continues, this can become extremely
frustrating and there is a tendency to give up. Your will to live must remain high. As long as the bandit isn't shooting, your
defense is working.

There are two basic objectives during defensive BFM:

● Survive the bandit's attack. Deny the bandit weapons employment opportunities. Defeat any weapons
employed by the bandit.

● Separate or kill the bandit.

There are also a few principles that are important if you intend to survive:

● First is the will to live. Whatever it's for it doesn't matter, but the instant you give up you die. Once this
attitude has been established the fight may commence.

● A game plan is important, and a couple will be discussed later. However, if the game plan you decide on is
not working, do something else.

● Keeping a tally is a must! Do whatever it takes not to lose the bandit once you have him in sight.

BFM is a constant trade-o between energy and position. Only expend enough energy as required and no more.
Airspeed is rate, and rate is critical in defeating ordnance and causing angular problems for the bandit. If you give up
airspeed and don't get anything for it, you'll die. However if you try to conserve airspeed at the wrong time, you’ll o er the
bandit a shot opportunity. Don’t die with airspeed or altitude below you.

Along the same line, is nose position relative to the horizon. Don't get it buried or you become extremely
predictable which makes the bandit's job a lot easier.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 92

8.8.2. Bandit Outside the Turn Circle

The initial turn is critical, and sets the stage for the rest of the fight. It should be almost reactionary, but watching
the bandit throughout is a must. This turn must be on the limiter! You must create as many angles as possible before
the bandit gets to your turn circle. Also, it is important to blend in the G quickly and smoothly, rather than a snap to 7.5
G's. A non-limiter turn makes the bandit's job easier.

At the "fight's on" call, a break turn needs to be initiated. This means roll to set your lift vector (on the bandit or
slightly below the horizon), power in mil, pull smoothly to the limiter, and dispense flares. Lift vector position is very
important. Lift vector on the bandit will prevent him from obtaining out of plane turning room. However, if the bandit stays
level or climbs slightly, you’ll bleed airspeed quicker, and once below corner you’ll lose turn rate. Lift vector below the
horizon will allow you to sustain a good turn rate longer, creating more angles on the bandit, but it may also give the bandit
some vertical turning room high. Either is acceptable, but realize what you're gaining/giving up with each, and know how it
plays into your game plan. There are a number of ways to visualize your lift vector: the top of the canopy, the vertical
stabilizer, or bandit's relative position on the horizon.

Flares need to be expended to decoy missiles in flight as well as missiles before they ever come o the rail. You
must continue to expend flares as long as the bandit is in a position to shoot a missile. This varies considerably depending
on the threat, but for the purpose of this discussion, assume the bandit has an o -boresight capability of 30°. During this
break turn, assess what the bandit is doing and determine what your next move will be. What you will see for the first part
of this break turn is the bandit tracking forward on your canopy. This is good!!

8.8.3. Bandit Options

What the bandit does will depend on his game plan, aircraft capabilities, and pilot abilities. This discussion will be
limited to the bandit making some big out of plane maneuver, going to pure/lead pursuit, or making a bid for lag. If the
bandit elects to make a big move out of plane, he is going for turning room and probably doesn't think he has a turn
capability equal to yours. Do not allow huge amounts of vertical turning room. The missile threat will go away rather quickly,
so your move should be to select full AB, put lift vector on him, and continue the pull on the limiter. Depending on the
amount of vertical, he may not have ever entered your turn circle. In this case you should be able to pull him to the front of
your canopy and pass him high-aspect. This pass will most likely be low to high for you, and give you an opportunity to
reverse on the bandit. Reversals will be discussed later.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 93

If the bandit elects

to go pure or pull lead
pursuit he may be trying to
separate (Figure 8.33), he
may not understand the
concepts of BFM, or he may
just be very aggressive. He is
definitely trying to shoot you,
be it with a missile or the
gun. What you will see is
constant forward movement
on your canopy by the bandit.
Also you will see his nose on
or lots of belly and intake.
Your actions should be to
continue to dispense flares
for the missile, and continue
to pull on the limiter to
generate as many angles as possible. The bandit also could be trying for a high aspect gun shot so be prepared to get out of
plane at about 4000'- 5000'. This out of plane maneuver does not need to be excessive, about 15° will su ce. A couple of
options are available. For a short period of time there is an overlap between the missile WEZ and the gun WEZ, so you may
be defending against both at the same time. Once the missile has been min ranged select AB. Min range for the missile is
a ected greatly by aspect angle and Vc, and should occur at about 4500'. Watch the bandit!! If he repositions early you will
have to revert to your defensive game plan. If the attack is pursued he is either preparing for a separation or setting himself
up to give up 3/9. In this case you may elect to separate. Recheck full AB and unload to accelerate as fast as possible.
Check to keep the bandit in sight, and continue to assess range and bandit intent. Your other option is to reverse on the
bandit.

If the bandit makes an initial bid to lag (Figure

8.34), he probably has the intention of staying in this
fight, and KNOWS WHAT HE IS DOING. You will see
forward LOS on your canopy initially, then as the bandit
enters your turn circle he will stop then move aft. Also
you will see the top or side of his aircraft, and his nose
o of you. You have two options: either a check and
extend defense, or a continuous turn defense.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 94

8.8.4. Check and Extend Defense

The concept behind a check and extend defense is to get energy when his nose is o , and try to increase the range
between you and the bandit. So whenever you turn it's on the limiter, and when you extend it's with both hands forward.
Continue to turn on the limiter until the bandit starts to move aft on your canopy. With the bandit's nose o of you (which
may happen before he enters your turn circle) select full AB. Your next action is to unload. You've just been at 7.5 G's so
ensure you unload to less than 1 G and not to 2-3 G's. Rolling out of the bank as you extend will telegraph your intentions,
so stay in the bank. Your nose should be slightly low, but not buried, and most importantly maintain sight of the bandit.

What you are looking for is nose rate and nose position. At first you will see a lot of plan form which will decrease
as the bandit tries to pull you to his nose (Figure 8.35). Ideally, you need to start back into your turn before his missiles are
a threat. So when you assess that the length of his aircraft is about equal to the width, get back into a limiter turn. Turning
now will allow you to start the turn in AB, if you wait a bit longer the turn will be a full fledged break again. When you turn
may also be dictated by airspeed. If you are guaranteed to stay and fight, you should start you turn at about 450 kts to
optimize turn performance. When you are within 30° of his nose, get back to mil power and expend flares. Now look for the
same cues as before as to when you have the opportunity to extend again. Realize that the check and extend defense may
allow the o ender to salvage a poor TC entry.

This process continues until the bandit makes a mistake or you need to transition to a guns defense. The bandit's
options are the same as previously discussed, and should be dealt with in the same manner. As this fight progresses, your
opportunities to extend, and the length of your extensions will decrease depending on the bandit mistakes.

Common Errors:
● Not breaking on the limiter.

● Lift vector control (too high and you bleed energy, too low results in getting your nose buried.

● Poor IRMD.

● Poor timing of extensions/turns.

● Poorly timed out of plane maneuvers.

● Failure to recognize bandit errors.

● Losing sight.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 95

8.8.5. Continuous Turn Defense

This defense is much tougher to fly correctly than the check and extend, but gives you the best opportunity to
survive in an air-to-air arena which involves radar missiles and all-aspect IR missiles. The basic principle is to maintain an
energy state where your aircraft performs best, creating angles and forcing the bandit into making a mistake. As with the
check and extend, initially you need to turn (Figure 8.36) on the limiter as long as the bandit moves forward on your
canopy. When the bandit's nose is o , get the power back into full AB, and assess your energy. Get your lift vector slightly
below the horizon so God's G can help you maintain energy and continue your pull. Ease o of the limiter. Continue to
monitor the bandit! His flight path should take him slightly outside yours, but not past your extended longitudinal axis. As
long as he is not in a position to employ missiles you can keep it in AB, but as soon as the bandit rates his nose around
you'll have to use IRMD

If the bandit bleeds all his energy in the first turn, and continues to pull maximum G, he may stagnate. You should
feel pretty good at this point, but remember it is the bandit's decision to stay "stuck in lag" not yours, and if he
wants/knows how to get out of it, he can. However, if he is experienced, when he recognized that your game plan was a
continuous turn he probably eased o his turn to preserve both energy and range. Eventually he will threaten you enough to
force you out of AB, and rate his nose to threaten you with the gun. When this happens it's time to give up some of your
airspeed and turn to create angles and closure problems. The bandit will have to reposition to maintain control, and as soon
as he does plug in the AB, and ease o your turn to capture the rate that will not deplete any more airspeed. When the
bandit threatens you again, repeat the process. If the bandit makes no mistakes you'll eventually have to transition to a
guns defense. If he does he may overshoot to a scissors, stack, or even a reversal.

Common Errors:

● Lift vector control.

● Poor IRMD.

● Poor energy management.

● Failing to recognize bandit errors.

● Late transition to a guns defense.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 96

Whether you elect to do a check and extend defense or a continuous turn defense the goal is to force the bandit to
make an error that you may capitalize on. There are several keys to assessing the bandit's energy state. If the air is right to
produce contrails, and the contrails are coming o the bandit's wing tips, his energy is high. If they are coming o of the
fuselage, then the bandit's energy is low. The best indicator of the bandit's energy is nose rate. Couple this with bandit
maneuvers and you're on you can capitalize his errors. If the bandit bids low to arc you across the circle; a small bid down
by the bandit can easily be countered by matching him. This will not only take away his turning room, but will aid in
keeping your energy up. If the bandit makes a large bid down to cut across the circle, chances are his energy is low. You
could match this move also, but that may result in moving the entire fight to the bottom of the area and give the bandit a
possible snapshot. If you know his energy is such that he does not have over the top air speed, and you do, use the vertical.
This can be extremely risky, especially if you miss-judge his energy and he has range. Another option is to place your lift
vector slightly above the bandit and pull on the limiter. This will keep you out of plane, increase angles, and possibly send
this fight neutral or o ensive for you. In most cases, your defense will be a combination of both the check and extend, and
the continuous turn. Proper application of both will prolong your survival and give the bandit more opportunities to create
an error for you to capitalize on.

8.8.6. Guns Defense

If you're in a gun fight, defeating the gun

shot should be at the top of your thoughts
(Figure 8.37), but the missile is still a threat at
close ranges so don't forget IRCM. For the bandit
to get a valid guns track he must be in plane, in
range, and nose in lead. As a general rule, give
the bandit what he doesn't want. (i.e. if he tries
for lead give him lag and visa versa)
At the "fight's on '' your first move must
be out of plane. Rotate your lift vector down (about 20°) in the direction of the bandit and pull as if your life depended
upon it, and watch the bandit. How long you pull depends on the bandit, but be extremely careful not to bury your nose and
become predictable. He has only two options: make a bid to lag, or pull lead for a gunshot.

If the bandit makes a bid to lag

you'll see an aft movement on your
canopy, and his nose come o of you. Your
move can either be to keep turning to try
and get him to stagnate, or nose counter
to create closure problems. If you continue
to turn, be prepared to jink (Figure 8.38)
as the bandit rates his nose to you. If you
nose counter right o the bat, keep in
mind that even though you're creating
closure immediately, the bandit may still
bring his nose through you in his next
reposition.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 97

If initially the bandit pulls lead for a gun shot you'll see forward movement on your canopy and the bandit's nose
rating forward. (If you see belly you're too late on your move.) What you need to do is roll underneath or nose counter over
the top in a worm defense. The bandit wants lead so give him lag.

Basically both moves are similar as you're doing an unloaded roll to change your direction of flight. As you jink it is
important to keep some energy on the jet. AB is probably out of the question or you'll o er the bandit a missile shot. So
maintain mil power, flare when appropriate, and try to keep a slight downward vector of about 10°-15°. This will help you
keep about 200 kts and ensure you still have the energy to jink. The unload at slow speed seems to take forever so really
slam the stick forward and roll quickly the other direction. If your vector is slightly down then repositioning your lift vector
in the opposite direction is quicker if you roll underneath. But don't try it with less than 1000' of altitude until the floor in
case you make an error. It is best to use a combination of both to avoid predictability. It is critical to maintain the pull for
a few seconds following each move to ensure you are getting out of the bandit's HUD.

Your first goal is to give the bandit a closure problem, forcing him to reposition, and get his nose out of sync. The
closure problem will develop by the bandit continuing to pull lead with each of your jinks. He will subsequently fly a shorter
path than you, creating lots of closure at short range. You'll notice this by the size of his aircraft, and a nose o reposition.
If his nose is in plane, get him out of sync. If his nose is out of plane, try to keep him in phase with you by putting the lift
vector on. If during your jinks you lose sight of the bandit, do not go into a single direction death spiral. If you jink and
don't pick him up, then jink again. Search inside and slightly high first then high above. If no tally, jink again and search the
same pattern. The bottom line is, if the bandit never makes an error, or you don't capitalize on those he does make, you'll
have problems.
Common Errors.
● Mis-timed jinks (Failure to accurately assess the bandit's range, and nose position).
● Jinking up.
● Loaded rolls (up and you bleed energy, down and you get your nose buried)
● Lose sight.
8.8.7. Reversals
When does the opportunity for a reversal present itself? Throughout the engagement you need to constantly
assess the bandit's range, closure, and heading crossing angle. The general cues that a reversal is a valid option are when
the Attacker has:
● High Closer Rate
● High HCA
● Range is inside of his turn circle (Range is dependent on the turn performance capabilities of the aircraft)
ALL CUE’S MUST BE PRESENT FOR A REVERSAL TO BE SUCCESSFUL.
IF ANY OF THESE ARE NOT, DO NOT REVERSE!!
IF a reversal is executed when one or more of those cue’s are missing, you are simply solving the angles problem
for them. The decision to reverse is made before the bandit actually passes you, but when the time comes and you make
the decision to go for it, you have to execute quickly and decisively or you're toast. The execution must be done quickly,
confidently and a max performance turn. Once you begin execution, you are committed. Think “pull for the bandit's high
six”, and you'll do fine.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 98

As he passes by, this is your cue to execute! At that instant, select full AB and unload the jet, then roll. A loaded
roll is an option as well, but this option should only be used if you need to bleed more energy in the reversal. You want
turning room, so don't put your lift vector on him, you want to initially place it slightly above his POM. Then quickly but
firmly do a max performance pull. As the nose climbs above the horizon you will utilize the rudders to transition the LV
placement into lag. This move will result in a loaded barrel-roll around his flight path, and in essence stopping your ground
track while he flies by. Be careful not to over control the jet and force it into an accelerated stall or spin during this
maneuver. The rate at which you roll your lift vector is solely determined by the LOS of the bandit as he passes. If it works,
put your o ensive hat back on. If it doesn't, more than likely you're now in a scissors or a stack. One word of caution—if
you're having to waiver on your decision to reverse or not, DON’T! What you stand to lose is far greater than continuing with
your defensive game plan.

Defensive Maneuvering in a Flat Scissors

The goal of the defensive aircraft in a Flat Scissors is to "maneuver to survive." Like the o ensive aircraft, the
defender will maneuver his aircraft so as to reduce his down-range travel through the proper use of lift vector placement.
To accomplish this, you must pull for his six after each reversal. In addition, the defender is always trying to keep the
o ensive aircraft out-of-phase and out-of-plane to deny him a high percentage gun tracking shot. Reversal timing is
critical. The timing of the reversal within this window is entirely dependent on the track crossing rate of the o ensive
aircraft. The sooner the reversal can be executed, the more out-of-phase the defender can get with the attacker. With a
high track-crossing-rate, the defender should reverse as soon as the attacker's nose falls behind him. If the
track-crossing-rate is low, the defender might have to wait until the attacker crosses his six. Most importantly, if the
defender sees the attacker solving for the "Big Three," the first axiom of defensive BFM must be observed: "maneuver to
survive.”

Defensive Maneuvering in a Rolling Scissors

A rolling scissors isn’t fundamentally any di erent then a flat scissors, try to slow your forward progress along the
ground faster than the other guy. Except that both aircraft are essentially barrel rolling around each other, as they are
attempting to utilize the vertical to manage turning room and energy by changing the POM into the vertical to slow forward
progress over the ground. This type of scissors is a delicate balance of energy management. As your nose drops below the
horizon, energy increases quickly, possibly to the point of negatively a ecting your TC performance and increasing your TC
radius, giving your opponent turning room to transition to your six o’clock. Conversely, when you transition from nose low to
nose high, gravity can reduce your speed quickly, which can result in a departure of controlled flight if not anticipated.
Which, again, gives your opponent time to transition to your six o’clock. Unlike in a flat-scissors where your LV is going to
be on or slightly above your opponent, with the goal of maintaining your POM level. In a rolling scissors, your LV/POM will
be in lag behind your opponent. Unlike a flat scissors where you lose visibility during the re-merge, in a rolling scissors you
will have visual for the entire maneuver. If you see the attacking aircraft LOS begin moving aft, you need re-asses and look
for opportunities to extend utilizing advantages of the .
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 99

8.9. High Aspect BFM

When two aircraft turn toward a mutual head-on attack, they are positionally neutral; however, di erences in
aircraft performance, ordnance, and pilot abilities keep this from being a "neutral" fight. The assumption in high aspect
BFM is both fighters have tally and have turned to point at each other.

8.9.1. Objectives During High Aspect BFM

● Determine your advantage.

● Exploit that advantage into a positional advantage.

● Use o ensive BFM to achieve a kill.

● Separate before becoming disadvantaged.

● If unable to separate, perform your best 1 v 1 defensive BFM.

8.9.2. Options At The Pass

Your decision to stay and fight or to separate will be based on many considerations: fuel, ordnance, energy,
mission, etc. If your decision is to separate, then the initial pass is usually the best opportunity for a separation. If your
decision is to stay and fight, then attempt to gain turning room laterally and vertically prior to the pass. If the bandit allows
you to gain turning room prior to the pass, lead-turn him to gain a position of advantage. If the bandit does not allow you
turning room at the pass, your options are: extend, vertical up, vertical down, pitch, slice, or lateral turn.
Extend - You may extend straight through in order to gain turning room and/or energy. This will force a wider fight which
will allow the use of all-aspect ordnance. If the bandit is capable of a high turn rate, it will be di cult for you to gain
su cient turning room prior to the bandit threatening you. However, if your energy is low at the initial pass you may have no
option but to extend.
Vertical Up - If you pull straight up at the pass your turn rate will be lower and turn radius will be larger during the first
half of the loop. As you maneuver in the vertical, you will become slower, more predictable, and be more exposed to the
look-up missile threat. As a general rule, unless the bandit does not have the ability to maneuver in the vertical, going up at
the initial pass is not advisable.
Vertical Down - If you pull straight down at the pass, your turn rate will be higher and turn radius, dependent upon
airspeed, may be smaller. If you are at corner plateau velocity, a limiter split-S will be the quickest way to turn 180°. The
disadvantages of the split-S are that the maneuver is physically demanding, and the tally is extremely di cult to maintain.
Additionally, if you are above corner plateau velocity your turn radius can become very large.
Pitch - If you use a pitch at the pass, the e ect on your turn rate and turn radius will be similar to the vertical up, but to a
smaller degree. The advantages/disadvantages of a pitch are the same as the vertical up; however, a pitch may be used to
control excessive airspeed and slow to corner plateau velocity prior to performing a follow-on maneuver such as a lead turn
or slice.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 100

Slice - If you use a slice at the pass, the e ect on your turn rate and turn radius will be similar to the vertical down, but to
a smaller degree. Controlling airspeed to minimize turn radius is very important. A slice at the pass is a good compromise
to gain some benefits of radial G and still maintain tally. A 415 KCAS max AB slice, with approximately 10° nose low, will
allow a 7.5 G sustained turn for the first 90° of turn. After that, modulate G to control nose position and airspeed.
Level Turn - Generally, a level turn does not take advantage of radial G and is ine cient BFM. However, turning level
o ers the best opportunity for maintaining tally and will help bleed o excessive airspeed (above 500 KCAS) until a
transition to a slightly nose low attitude is desired.
8.9.3. One-Circle Fight
A fight can be forced one-circle by you or the bandit. A
one-circle fight will be a closer fight and deny all-aspect missile
employment.

Against a bandit where you have a turn rate and turn

radius advantage (F-4) a one circle fight will allow you to
recognize a quick positional advantage (Figure 8.39). At the
pass, turn in a nose low slice away from the bandit to kick him
across your tail. You must control your airspeed prior to the
pass to avoid getting above corner velocity and increasing your
turn radius. With your turn rate and radius advantage you will
recognize a positional advantage after 180° of turn. After the
first 180° - 210° of single circle turn, you must choose one of
two immediate actions:

(1) Extend for energy prior to turning toward the bandit

or
(2) Reverse the turn direction immediately and start a lead turn inside the bandit's turn circle.

As you roll out of an initial right turn, the bandit will be at 12:30 to 1:30 with a right to left LOS rate. Your
airspeed should be 270 (+/- 10)KCAS if a maximum G turn was accomplished. The next several seconds can be used to
unload for energy if airspeed is low or begin a lead turn inside the bandit's turn circle. The turn should begin prior to the
pass, but with a constant airspeed pull. Maintain over the top potential. If the bandit remains level, two to four passes may
be required to align fuselages enough for a shot. If he recognizes his energy advantage, he may attempt to exploit the
vertical. If the bandit zooms, immediately evaluate your energy in light of the aggressiveness of his maneuver. If his energy
is significantly greater, you may want to extend momentarily before pursuing in the vertical. From this point, high to low
lead turns as the bandit comes down the back side of his loop will result in fuselage alignment. From this position of
advantage you can employ o ensive BFM to develop a shot opportunity.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 101

Against a bandit where you have a

sustained turn rate advantage, you may or may
not achieve a positional advantage after the
initial turn. If the bandit uses his instantaneous
turn capability, you may meet him at high aspect
at the next pass (Figure 8.40). In this case, you
will have an energy advantage at the second
pass. The key to this fight is patience. If he
continues to turn hard, his turn rate will
decrease. However, the bandit's turn radius will
also be smaller which may allow him to turn
inside your turn circle. On subsequent passes,
you will realize a positional advantage if you
continue to lead turn the bandit. Exercise care to
not grossly lead turn out in front of the bandit. A
low energy bandit will have a smaller turn
radius, but will not be able to follow you into the
vertical. If the bandit does not use his
instantaneous turn rate capability you will have
similar energy but a positional advantage after
the first turn. This fight will be similar to the discussion of the fight previously mentioned; however, patience is still the
key since the bandit has a good instantaneous turn rate capability.

Advantages to a One Circle Fight:

● Allows a quick positional advantage against a poor turning bandit.

● Unpredictable move at the pass.

● Keeps you inside the bandit's all aspect missile minimum range.

● Utilizes the F/A-18’s superior high-AoA capability

Disadvantages to a One Circle Fight:

● Forcing a one circle fight gives up the lateral turning room between you and the
bandit.

● Requires a very hard, energy depleting turn to be e ective.

● Normally doesn’t allow F/A-18 AIM-9 front aspect employment (inside minimum range).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 102

8.9.1. Two Circle Fight

If both fighters attempt to lead turn, then a two circle fight

will result. A two circle fight will be a wider fight and may allow
fleeting all-aspect missile shot opportunities.

Against a bandit where you have a significant turn rate and

turn radius advantage, a two circle fight should allow you to achieve a
positional advantage after the first turn (Figure 8.41). At the pass
attempt to have 425 - 475 KCAS, select max AB and turn using a nose
low slice to increase your turn rate advantage. You must control your
airspeed to keep from increasing your turn radius but ensure you
maintain a good sustained turn rate (400 - 425 KCAS is a good
airspeed range). This first turn may provide an all-aspect missile
opportunity. Patience is important. Concentrate on lead turning the
bandit at every pass. As you begin to recognize a positional advantage
it is important to maintain over-the-top airspeed until the bandit has
lost over-the-top capability. If the bandit goes pure vertical, ensure
you have su cient airspeed (within 100 KCAS of his airspeed is highly
desired) then go up and look for a low to high lead turn.

Against a bandit where you have a sustained turn rate

advantage, you may or may not achieve a positional advantage after
the initial turn. If the bandit turns hard, you should pass high aspect
again (Figure 8.42). At the initial pass, begin a nose low slice to
increase your turn rate as described above. Upon roll out, prior to the
second pass, a fleeting front aspect AIM-9 opportunity may occur.
Nose position vs energy maintainability will dictate the airspeed for
both fighters at the pass. If the bandit expends all his energy to point
at you, the next pass will be high-aspect, but you will have an energy
advantage. On subsequent passes, an energy advantage and positional
advantage will result from lead turning and energy management. As
you recognize an o ensive position, you must control your airspeed.
The bandit will be slow and may transition to a one circle fight on the
second pass due to this low energy state. Additionally, be aware that
the bandit's turn radius will be small due to his slow airspeed. When
you see the bandit's nose on the inside of your turn, but not pointing at
you, he is low on energy. You now have exclusive use of the vertical.
You can transition to the pure vertical and drive to the bandit's six
o'clock.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 103

8.10. High Aspect BFM Game Plan

There may not be a single best way to fight any individual bandit and fighter pilots will always be required to make
decisions in the air based on the situation. But it is important to have a sound game plan that will work in most situations
before you get to the initial pass. The F/A-18C has an outstanding instantaneous and good sustained turn capability.
Additionally, the F/A-18C's JHMCs gives it an advantage in a visual fight. To put the game plan together approaching the
merge, attempt to gain turning room laterally and below the bandit. As you enter the bandit's turn circle you will begin to
see rapid movement aft on your canopy. Begin a low-to-high lead turn. If the bandit turns into you this will force a two
circle fight. This also means you are turning in the shortest direction to maintain tally. At the pass, overbank to get your
nose below the horizon to take advantage of radial G. Analyze the bandit's energy by evaluating his nose rate and movement
across the horizon and transition to a sustained turn rate pull. Set up the next pass to be the low man. At the bandit's turn
circle, when you begin to recognize definition on his aircraft (approximately 3000'), begin a low-to-high lead turn,
overbanking to use radial G, if possible. Do not lose tally or go belly-up. Continue this plan until you achieve a position of
advantage. Take shots of opportunity but never give up all your energy for one shot unless it guarantees a kill. It is also
important to maintain over-the-top airspeed until the bandit has given up his over-the- top capability. Even with equal
performing aircraft, if you lead turn and use radial G to your advantage, you will gain a positional advantage. When you have
the positional advantage, transition to o ensive BFM and kill the bandit.

O -boresight capabilities must be taken into

consideration (Figure 8.43). Even today's technology allows
air-to-air missile employment without being in pure pursuit. As
technology improves (increased o -boresight missile capability
and/or improved ACM modes and helmet-mounted sights), an
adversary may be a threat well before achieving pure pursuit.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 104

8.11. Gun Employment

The F/A-18C is one of the most lethal fighting machines in the world today. The combinations of missile technology
and F/A-18C avionics make weapons employment in the tactical arena more e ective. The following discussion will center
on gun employment.

Gunshots range from very controlled tracking opportunities to very dynamic snapshot situations. Apparent LOS
relative to the shooter and the defender's turn rate capability dictate which type of shot is available; tactical considerations
dictate which is the most feasible. Every gun opportunity must be judged and handled with proper concentration given the
trade-o between target destruction and your survival. How predictable can you be? How much energy can you expend and
what will you do after the shot? Can You a ord the time to take the shot?

8.11.1. Tactical Considerations

There are two basic situations where gun use is required: when the gun is the only available weapon, and when a
target of opportunity (inside the missile minimum range/angle envelopes, but within gun parameters) presents itself. Gun
solutions, especially in a dense air-threat environment, are fleeting in nature. You must see the situation approaching, react
quickly to "fine tune" the gun solution, then kill or damage on the first attempt. But think twice about the time and energy
dissipation required to generate such a situation if it does not already exist.

8.11.2. Attack the Cripples

Ideally, this would be an inexperienced pilot separated from his flight, low on fuel and energy, with no tally. Time to
kill will be minimum in this situation. The bogey you would not choose to gun will be on the opposite end of the spectrum; he
is experienced, has energy, fuel, and a tally, and his flight is with him. Minimize all solution errors which are controllable.
There is one parameter which minimizes ALL errors associated with a dynamic air combat gun solution range. Get in close to
improve your Pk.

Gunshot opportunities in combat are rare. Don't save rounds for other bandits, fire a lethal burst (generally 1 - 2
seconds) on the one you're engaged with, then immediately reposition to avoid the resulting fireball. Once separating,
assume you've been targeted by a new threat (you've been very predictable and not checking six while getting your guns kill)
and maneuver your jet accordingly.

8.11.3. Gunsights

Three di erent sighting references are available for use. The gun cross, Radar-Not-Tracking, and Radar Tracking are
available in all F/A-18Cs. Refer to DCS F/A-18C HORNET Flight Manual for information on HUD symbology.

8.11.3.1. Gun Cross

The gun cross is always available and easily used. You can e ectively imagine the gun cross as being where the gun
barrels are pointed. Proper aim is achieved by positioning the gun cross in the target's plane of motion (POM) with the
proper amount of lead. The gun cross is a very good reference to use to initially establish yourself in the target's POM with
some amount of lead. As range decreases, you can then refine the lead angle before firing.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 105

8.11.3.2. Radar Not Tracking Mode,

The Radar Not Tracking Mode (Figure 8.44), also called the Funnel Mode, is obtained
immediately upon A/A GUNS selection if the radar is not already tracking a target or at any
time if radar track is lost or broken. To use the funnel, fly to place the target aircraft’s wings
between the funnel such that its wing tips just touch the sides of the funnel.

8.11.3.3. Radar Tracking Mode

Radar Tracking Mode (Figure 8.45) is the primary air-to-air gun mode of the Hornet.
Radar Tracking Mode is obtained immediately upon gun selection if the radar is tracking an
aerial target. Valid range, range rate, and angle tracks are required for Radar Tracking Mode
operation.

Once the radar is locked on, the Target Designator (TD) indicates the
position of the target being tracked, and target range is displayed on an analog
bar on the 50-mil diameter gun reticle along with a maximum firing range cue.
Maximum gun firing range corresponds to a maximum bullet time of flight of 1.5
seconds and a minimum impact velocity (bullet VC) of 500 feet per second or a
minimum bullet velocity (Vb) at impact of 1,000 feet per second, whichever range
is less. Maximum firing range is much greater head-on than tail-on.

An advantage of the Radar Tracking Mode is the use of radar track data.
The use of track data makes the lead angle computation dependent only on target
motion and the encounter geometry. The computed lead angle is essentially
independent of aircraft attitude. The Radar Tracking Mode obtains firing solutions quickly since rapid attitude changes have
little short-term e ect on the required lead angle. As a result, the pilot’s task is solely flying to aim the gun reticle since the
target tracking function is being performed by the radar.

As a further aid to the pilot and for consistency with the missile modes, a SHOOT cue appears if the target is within
maximum firing range. If the predicted miss distance is less than 20 feet, and all other firing constraints (master arm,
weight o wheels) are satisfied, the SHOOT CUE comes on. The SHOOT cue includes a 0.5 second anticipation needed for
pilot reaction time plus gun delay time. The SHOOT cue remains on until the predicted miss distance exceeds 30 feet.

Radar Tracking Mode is automatically selected if A/A GUNS is selected while there is a radar lock. If there is no
radar lock, it will go to Radar Not Tracking Mode.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 106

8.11.4. Employment Considerations

Gunnery errors can be separated into three categories, dispersion, systemic, and pilot controlled errors. Dispersion
is di erent for each bullet and accounts for the shotgun type of pattern. The dispersion for our gun is six mils, meaning
80% of the bullets can be expected to hit inside of six mils. Systemic errors result from boresight inaccuracies, radar angle
tracking inaccuracies, or any other non-pilot errors. These errors vary from day to day and from aircraft to aircraft and
result in a movement of the center of the burst some unknown distance from the aimpoint. In the F/A-18C, the dominant
systematic errors come from boresight and radar tracking errors. Boresight errors can be reduced to less than the six mil
dispersion with a good bore sight program. Radar tracking errors arise from the radar tracking di erent parts of the aircraft
which induces errors in its estimate of velocity and acceleration. However, these errors typically lie along the targets flight
path, producing a miss in front of or behind the target. Therefore, the best shooting technique to ensure at least some hits is
to strafe the target along its flight path.

The final kind of errors concern pipper position relative to the target, the pilot controlled errors. It's Obvious that
the pipper must be near the target to get a hit; however, systemic errors may cause a very precise track of the cockpit with
the pipper to result in a very precise miss just forward of the nose.

The bottom line regardless of which sighting system is used is that strafing the target along its flight path and firing
a lethal burst will compensate for systemic errors and result in a higher probability of hitting and killing the target.

E ective gun employment requires practice and, most of all, mental preparation. The gun must be in the target's
plane of motion, gun cross in lead, and in range. Instead of trying to fly the pipper to the target, concentrate on establishing
the gun cross in front of the target and in the target's POM. Then, using the Range Cue’s or Gun Reticle(pipper) as an
indicator of the proper lead angle, make small plane and lead angle changes to superimpose the pipper on the target. Open
fire before the pipper reaches the target, thenstrafe the target from one end to the other. If variables change, reposition and
press again if the threat allows:

● Watch the target and not the sight. Learn to anticipate sight and target coincidence and open fire oneTOF before.

● Do not wish the pipper onto the target. Discipline yourself to fly it to a precise point, open fire, then let it slowly
drift through the target.

● Anticipate a target reaction. If the defender maneuvers out-of-plane, accept a snapshot and separate or reposition
for another attempt.

● Fire at close range; commensurate with safety and training rules. The shorter the bullet TOF, the more accurate the
pipper placement is, and the less reaction time the target has to defeat the shot.

● At cease fire, have a plan. Be ready to reposition or separate if he doesn't blow up.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 107

8.11.4.1. Low Aspect Shots

For low aspect shots with a radar lock on, a simple technique is to use the 1 G pipper to track the target when
outside max range. This will establish the plane of motion and solve the majority of the leadangle requirements (remember
from basic gun theory that of the total lead angle, about 85% is lead for target velocity and 15% for target acceleration).
Using the 1 G pipper initially makes it easy to transition to either the in-plane or out-of-plane maneuver lines once you're in
range. The pilot then opens fire and strafes the target along its lift vector, using either the in-plane maneuver bar or the
out-of-plane maneuver lines as a reference for the lead angle boundary (Figure 8.46).

By using this technique, we are using the best

qualities of each part of the system. The radar can get a
quick, accurate measurement of target range and
velocity but lags in its estimation of acceleration. The
Pilot is a poor estimator of target range and velocity, but
can very quickly perceive a change in acceleration by
watching the target's planform and motion. Therefore, by
using range and velocity inputs from the radar and
acceleration and POM from the pilot's perception, and
then strafing the target over the area of uncertainty, we
can shoot and even hit targets.

With a full system lock and the Gun Reticle

pipper displayed, the above technique is still valid. The 1
G pipper is less noisy than the Gun Reticle pipper and is
much easier to track the target with. Noise can be caused by ECM, cha , large target size causing pinpoint track confusion,
etc. Once in range, if the pilot sees the target remaining predictable, he can then transition to using the Gun Reticle pipper.
You should open fire about 1/4 second before the pipper is on the target and then increase G to strafe it from tail to nose
(tail aspect).

Without a lock, the pilot must use funnel width in relation to the target's wingspan to determine the proper lead
angle. An accurate firing burst can be obtained by first centering the target in the funnel. Next, open fire with the wingspan
slightly larger or smaller than the funnel, let the target slowly track up or down the funnel, and cease fire when the
wingspan is equal to the width of the funnel. It is important to remember that whenever relative motion exists between the
funnel and the target, the gun is properly aimed before the target wingspan reaches the width of the funnel due to the LCOS
filtering properties.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 108

8.11.4.2. Beam Aspect Shots

Next, consider beam aspect shots. The dynamics of beam shots require large lead angles and are di cult because
the required turn rate to track the target exceeds the aircraft's turn capability at short ranges. In the 1v1 engagement, a
beam shot could result in an exchange of 3/9 line if the shot is missed. However, in a multi-bogey environment, it may not
be sound to slow down and anchor in an attempt to achieve a low aspect shot. Against a bomber with a tail gun, a
beam/front aspect shot is the best option. For whatever the reasons, a beam aspect shot requires that you establish yourself
in plane with excess lead angle early on. In Level II and III, the MRGS lines are used initially to accomplish this by tracking
the target on or between any of the MRGS lines. This puts the gun in lead and eliminates lateral error as you close. In Level
IV and V, the funnel extends to the bottom of the HUD and is easily used to accomplish this initial lead requirement. This
lead angle is maintained until range has decreased to the point whereG forces are as high as the pilot is willing to accept or
until lateral control is too di cult. Aircraft G is then held constant as the gun is fired and the target moves up in the HUD.
In this way, bullets are passing from in front of the target to behind it. Controlling lateral error (keeping the target centered
in the funnel) becomes the critical factor, not lead angle.

8.11.4.3. High Aspect Shots

High aspect shots are very fleeting in nature and are currently restricted above 135° aspect angle. However, in a
multi-bogey environment, a high aspect shot and a separation may be the best alternative if you're unable to get a missile
shot and are merging at high aspect. Employing the gun in a high aspect attack first requires that the pilot recognize the
opportunity for such a shot early on. A pursuit course withthe target near the top of the funnel should be initiated so that
the shot does not take place with too small a heading crossing angle for a separation during the disengagement. As you
approach maximum range(about 5000' at 120 ), you should now establish the required lead and open fire. Open fire with
the pipper(either Level V pipper or 1 G pipper) coming up from behind the target, pull the pipper through the target, then
relax your G's so as to let the target now track back through the pipper. This will create a burst pattern from behind to
forward to behind the target. This technique will compensate for any leadangle errors and again make lateral control the
critical task. Without a radar lock, the pilot must now analyze range to determine when to open fire. This can be
approximated by keeping the target near the lower third of the funnel until the wingspan approaches the size of the bottom
of the funnel (approximately 3000'). Now open fire and track the target until the wingspan is larger than the funnel, then
relax the G and let the target track up the funnel to ensure su cient separation.

The gun is an e ective, short-range, all-aspect weapon if properly used. You must be mentally aware of what you
want to see in terms of gunshot opportunities and take advantage of them as they arise or when you make them happen.
Target aspect and geometry are prime players. Know the logic and inherent errors of your gunsight and where to put it for
maximum e ectiveness.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 109

Chapter 9: FIGHTER PROFICIENCY EXERCISES

Maneuvering during proficiency exercises entails a basic objective in addition to "rolling out at six." During each of
the following exercises, weapons switchology ("playing the piccolo") should be practiced.

9.1. Gun Exercises

The following gun exercises are designed to practice pipper placement, pipper control, symbology awareness, and
maneuvering in respect to another aircraft. While accomplishing these exercises, do not fail to continually cross-check your
range and overtake. Do not get padlocked on the green stu and forget what's happening spatially around you. Think
situational awareness. Know your airspeed, altitude, and fuel.

9.1.1. O ensive Ranging Exercise

Start 3000' - 7000' in trail and close comfortably to 500’, noting size comparisons at di erent ranges (lock and no
lock) and angles o .

9.1.2. Basic Tracking Exercise

The defender sets speed at 300 - 350 KCAS. The attacker sets up co-speed in a position 2000' - 2500' at six o'clock
at the same altitude (Figure 9.1). At the call "Begin maneuver," the defender goes into 3 - 4 G turns, approximately 45º -
60º either side of course. The attacker attempts to maintain between 1000' - 2000' back in a tracking position. The
attacker will reposition on reversals as necessary so as to stay out of jet wash, or if inside or outside of weapons
parameters. The defender will use the vertical and vary power settings as proficiency dictates. The attacker should practice
with various gunsight modes and lock-on/no lock-on as proficiency permits. Throughout the maneuver, the attacker should
attempt to maintain good aircraft position and pipper placement while controlling range and overtake with small
out-of-plane maneuvers and power. The attacker gains practice in recognizing the need for a reposition (using the vertical)
when either inside or outside of gun tracking parameters.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 110

9.1.3. Cine Track Exercise

The defender sets speed at 400 KCAS, altitude approximately 20,000' (Figure 9.2). The attacker establishes
approximately 50 knots of overtake from a perch position (five - seven o'clock) about 3500' - 4000' aft. While closing, the
attacker should call any AIM-9 shots on the radio. At approximately 2000', the attacker calls "Begin maneuver." The
defender should add power but allow the attacker a slight thrust advantage (non-AB), and, with a constant tally, enter a 4 G
turn. After turning approximately 120º, the defender will reduce AOB to 30º - 45º and begin a climb. The maneuver
continues until the defender reaches 250 - 300 KCAS, at which time he should do a slick back while accelerating to 350 -
400 KCAS. Maneuvering by the defender
should not be at max performance nor at
such a low G that tracking is di cult. The
maneuver may continue to a barrel roll
(approximately 30º nose high and 3 G's)
followed by a horizontal turn. The maneuver
may be terminated at any time during the
profile. This exercise will allow the attacker
to practice short range AIM-9 employment
on a non-maneuvering target and
continuous gun employment under varying
flight conditions (level, climbing,
descending, accelerating, decelerating
and/or rolling). The defender must maintain
a tally and remain predictable through the
exercise.

9.1.4. Roll-Slide Attacks

Defender sets speed at 300 to 400 KCAS (Figure 9.3). The attacker initially positions approximately line abreast, at
least 3000' out, with an airspeed and altitude advantage. At "begin maneuver," the defender flies a non-maneuvering flight
path. The attacker performs a roll-slide gun attack by initially pulling his nose into lead pursuit, and then adjusting G and
roll rate so as to set up a controlled rate of movement of the pipper towards and finally through the defender. The trigger
should be squeezed at the appropriate time and out-of-plane maneuvers may be performed. Multiple passes may also be
performed. This maneuver teaches the
attacker to establish required lead and to
plan roll rate and G to achieve snapshot
parameters on a non-maneuvering target
from a beam or front hemisphere start.
The skill is of primary importance when
attacking tail-armed opponents or during
gun attacks at very high angle-o . One of
the primary skills to be emphasized is to
e ectively employ the gun without
violating training rules/minimum range.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 111

9.1.5. Snapshot Exercise

Attacker starts 6000' line abreast with defender and airspeed approximately 400 KCAS (Figure 9.4). At the "Begin
maneuver" call, the defender starts a level turn into the attacker using G as necessary to create moderate (90º - 110º)
angle-o . The attacker establishes lead and maneuvers for a snapshot, after which he repositions for another shot.
Excessive G by the defender may result in HCAs greater than 135º in which case the maneuver will be discontinued. This
maneuver forces the attacker to assess aspect angle, angle-o , and LOS rate, and to predict target motion; it allows
practice of the switchology required for snapshooting in a controlled environment.

CAUTION:
Min-range bubble integrity must be maintained; if line-of-sight stops, you are on a collision
course and should immediately correct and/or knock-it-o . Sight must be maintained at all
times during maneuvering to ensure safe practice.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 112

9.1.6. Heat to Guns Exercise (Belly/Guns)

Begin the maneuver by flying line abreast, 4000' - 6000' apart, 350 - 400 KCAS (Figure 9.5). Each aircraft will call
"ready." The flight lead will call "Begin maneuver." The defender will then make a 3 - 4 G, 90º level turn away from the
attacking aircraft. The attacker will attempt to achieve a valid AIM-9 shot during this turn. After the defender has
completed 90º of turn, he may continue or reverse his turn, allowing the attacker to close for either a tracking shot, or a
snapshot/separation, as briefed. The exercise will be terminated with a valid gun shot or after the pre briefed objective is
attained. Exercise may also transition into cine track exercise as briefed. This exercise forces the attacker to practice
weapons switchology while maneuvering to achieve firing parameters first for the missile and then for the gun. This skill has
application in all phases of air-to-air but is particularly useful for teaching defensive two-ship "sandwich" situations. While
rapid lock radar acquisition is nice, no-lock self-track shots are definitely a combat-oriented objective with the "sandwich"
in mind.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 113

9.1.7. Vertical Roll to Six (Snatch Back)

With the defender flying straight ahead, the attacker obtains 50 to 75 knots of overtake and pulls up to a line
abreast position, about 3000' out (Figure 9.6). Once obtaining this position, the attacker pulls into the vertical to stop his
forward vector. Once the defender is moving forward on the canopy, the attacker rolls to the defender's high six. The last
portion of the roll is unloaded. Once behind and above the defender, the attacker settles into a guns tracking position,
ideally 1000' - 1500' behind the defender. This maneuver allows practice of rolling maneuvers and the use of combined G
and roll rate to maneuver from a neutral to an o ensive position.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 114

9.1.8. Cross Turn Exercise

The exercise starts with a line abreast formation, wingman 5000' - 7000' out (Figure 9.7). The flight lead initiates
the exercise by calling "cross turn" and a normal, MIL power, 3 - 3.5 G cross turn is performed, except that at approximately
120º of turn the leader calls "cleared to maneuver." At the cleared to maneuver call, the attacker attempts to attain an
entry to Fox II or guns parameters while the defender continues his 3 G turn. The attacker attempts to get his shot prior to
the defender completing 360º of turn. KIO at the shot call. The attacker basically has three avenues to arrive in shot
parameters:

1. An immediate pitch to point and drive inside the defender's predictable turn circle, followed by a slice into
weapons parameters (high to low entry);

2. An immediate slice to point and drive inside the defender's turn circle, pitching up into weapons parameters
(low to high entry);

3. An unloaded extension for lateral turning room (approximately 3 seconds) followed by a pull to point at the
defender in weapons parameters (belly entry). This exercise teaches the prediction of a bandit's turn circle
and recognition of su cient turning room and lead turning.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 115

9.1.9. High Aspect Gun Exercise

Start at 15,000' - 20,000' MSL, 400+ KCAS (Figure

9.8). The attacker should be 9000' behind the defender,
o set far enough to the side so the defender can maintain
sight throughout the exercise. The defender initiates a 6 G,
level, MIL power turn into the attacker. The defender pulls
as required to place the attacker forward of 90º of aspect.
(The lift vector is 90º of aspect. Placing the attacker in the
HUD equates to 180º of aspect. The defender places the
attacker between the lift vector and halfway to the HUD,
resulting in 90º - 135º of aspect. Remember that 90º of
aspect is the most di cult shot, as it requires the greatest
amount of lead angle, and has the highest LOS rate.) The
attacker remains in plane with the defender, and closes
toward the defender for a high aspect shot. The defender
plays the G as required to maintain 90º - 135º of aspect.
The attacker should be able to take his shot by 3000' -
5000' out, assuming the defender is at greater than 90º of
aspect. Once the shot is taken, the attacker rolls wings
level and passes behind the defender, Both aircraft unload
and extend away from each other. As both aircraft
approach 9000º of separation, they initiate a turn toward
each other. The defender again pulls enough G to place the attacker at 90º - 135º of aspect. The attacker again closes for a
high aspect shot. (The above sequence can normally be repeated 3 -4 times before getting low on airspeed and altitude. This
exercise o ers the opportunity to practice using many of the sight's features to accomplish a high aspect gun shot.

9.2. Missile Exercises

9.2.1. Random Missile/Gun Exercise

This exercise (same as roll-slide) is designed to allow the latitude of "playing the piccolo." While the defender may
go straight ahead or randomly turn into you or away from you, you will need to quickly evaluate which weapon to
use, Guns or Missiles. Each pass normally starts from 6000' line abreast. Turn in and take whatever shot(s) are
available. Once the pass is complete, you simply float to the other side and begin again. Be constantly aware of the
min-range bubble and maneuver as necessary to abide by it.

9.2.2. Defensive Awareness Exercise

The flight begins from a perch setup. The attacker calls "in" and the defender should enter a level turn at 3 - 4 G's
using power to maintain 400 KCAS. The attacker will perform various o ensive maneuvers. The defender maintains the turn,
maneuvering as necessary to keep sight during overshoots and practices defensive ranging. After one or two complete turns,
the attacker calls "cleared to reverse." At this time, the defender reverses and varies G-loading as necessary to maintain a
visual.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 116

Chapter 10. - AIR COMBAT MANEUVERS (ACM)

ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill, defend or separate
from one or more bandits in a visual merge. The engaged phase can be the outcome of the intercept phase or an undetected
bandit entry, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-air engagement. Distinct roles, or an "ACM Contract," must be briefed
and established between the two fighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure e ective ACM.
This contract defines "engaged" and "supporting" roles. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivability and
lethality. Any breakdown in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrous outcomes! (i.e. Midair).

10.1. ACM Objectives

● Develop proficiency in two-ship coordinated maneuvering.

● Teach specific engaged and supporting fighter roles in a visual fight.

● Develop enhanced situation awareness.

An F/A-18C is capable of rapid kills from an o ensive start. Consequently, the role of the supporting fighter is not
the same when his element mate is o ensive as when the other F/A-18C is defensive. This Adjustment in priorities resulting
from the other F/A-18C’s positional advantage/disadvantage requires focused, concentrated training in the visual
environment. There are four cornerstones to e ective element employment: communications, formation integrity, flight
discipline, and weapons employment.

10.2. Communications
Calm, clear, and concise communications are vital for e ective element employment. Each pilot must firmly
understand brevity terms, unit standard terminology, and be able to use the correct terms at the correct moment in a fight.
If the situation cannot be addressed brevity or unit standard phrasing, use clear text to accurately describe your intentions
or maneuvers. Proficiency in one's communications skill is gained only by daily practice and constant critique. The time to
start improving your comm is not after the first "Break right" call. The planned cadence, comm procedures, and brevity
terms that are expected to be used during the flight should be reviewed in the flight briefing to enhance their e ectiveness.
Shortening communications too much is a bad habit that fighter pilots need to avoid. Nonstandard radio terminology (i.e.
lack of proper call sign), and excessive verbiage can cause confusion and misinterpretation at a critical time. This could
result in fatal consequences. Use full call signs when beginning radio transmissions to gain the attention of flight members
requiring the information you have and allowing non involved flights to "tune out" your transmission. All missions (not just
air-to-air) should focus on communications discipline!

As part of a fighting team, you will see situations develop quickly as you maneuver. As the bandit maneuvers you
will have to communicate what you see in the most e cient way. As the wingman, you may have to tell lead what to do if
you have a tally and he doesn't. If your information isn't critical, your radio call should be descriptive and the lead will use it
to make decisions while maintaining control of the flight. When the flight is definitely threatened, a directive transmission is
called for.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 117

Directive Transmissions - A directive call is required when a threat warrants an immediate reaction for survival.
Directive radio transmissions must be prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft being addressed, i.e., "Hornet One, break
right!" After making the directive transmission "Hornet One, break right," pause, look and see if the lead is doing what was
directed. If not, re-transmit the directive call. The priorities need to be placed on the execution of the directed action. All
other mission tasks are secondary until the threat has been negated or defeated. The supporting fighter may be required to
make a series of directive calls due to limited time. "Hornet One, break right," "Hornet One, jink now," "Hornet One extend,"
if the supporting fighter has the tally and there is no time to describe the bandit's position without jeopardizing the safety of
Hornet One.

Descriptive Transmission - Descriptive transmission are normally prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft doing the
talking, (i.e. "Hornet One, tally bandit, left 10, 5 miles, level.") When a directive action is required the descriptive comm must
come after the directive transmission and action is taken. Then, describe why you made the directive call. The bandit
descriptive call is important for it will allow Hornet One, in this example, to acquire the tally and perform the proper BFM to
defend himself. The bandit call has been standardized into the following format, which should always be used:

● Call Sign.

● Type aircraft, or threat (Bandit /Bogey).

● Left or Right (side of aircraft.)

● Clock position.

● Range.

● High/ Low/ Level.

● Amplifying remarks.

Here’s an example of the above format: "Hornet Two, bandit, right 2, 3 miles, high." A modification of this format is
used to follow up a directive call if your element mate is under attack. Here’s an example: "Hornet One, break, right," pause,
as the directive action being taken, then continue with the descriptive comm: "Bandit, right, 5, 9,000’, level." In this case,
the position of the bandit is described with reference to the aircraft under attack. Continue descriptive comm until the
engaged fighter is tally.

Sometimes subsequent descriptive calls may include the word "continue." This informs all flight members that the
only reaction required is the maneuver that is being performed. For example Hornet One Calls, "Hornet flight, hook right,"
"Hornet One, bandit, right 4, 5 miles, slightly high, continue right."

10.3. Formation Integrity

Formation integrity is an integral part of all element maneuvering. In the ACM environment, formation integrity
allows both the engaged and supporting fighters to maneuver synergistically to defeat the bandit‘s attack. Mutual support
and formation integrity are critical to success. The engaged fighter must do his best one versus one BFM to kill or survive
the bandit’s attack, while the supporting fighter maneuvers to kill the bandit or support the engaged fighter based on the
criteria defined by the flight lead.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 118

10.4. Flight Discipline

Flight discipline is an important factor a ecting the success of fighter employment. This requires adherence to
clearly defined responsibilities and decisions based on the flight lead’s overall game plan and philosophy of employment.
The flight contract is fulfilled by executing your duties based on the flight lead’s plan (i.e. set of assumptions and
guidelines). The flight lead can assess the success of the plan or failure and make changes to the plan. Obviously, no pilot
should do anything to place himself or his wingman in a defensive situation. However, changing or ignoring the flight lead’s
directions based on personal preference is unacceptable!

10.5. Weapons Employment

Knowledge of your weapon system capabilities and limitations will allow you to make accurate decisions concerning
weapons employment. You must apply your BFM skills to maneuver to a WeaponsEmployment Zone (WEZ) then e ectively
put weapons on target to kill. The status of your element mate and yourself will a ect your decision to maneuver
immediately to a WEZ, defend, or reposition.

10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter Contract

Most units have "standards" that provide essential, clear, and unique procedures to: ensure success in training and
combat sorties, minimize briefing time, clarify ambiguities, and establish a common point of reference. These "standards"
need to be fully understood by every pilot in that unit. An e ective "ACM Contract" assigns responsibilities between two
aircraft that are essential to take full advantage of the element's capabilities during an air-to-air engagement. In the flight
briefing it’s the flight lead responsibility to ensure complete understanding of the "ACM Contract." The division of
responsibilities serves two basic purposes: killing the bandit and ensuring element survival. The ingredients required for
successful execution of the "Contract" is mutual understanding of the game plan and a correct balance of communication,
mutual support, executions of responsibilities, and weapons employment.

Engaged Fighter - During o ensive maneuvering there can only be ONE actively engaged fighter (fighter that is
maneuvering specifically in relationship to the bandit) at a time. While defensive, the bandit will choose who is the engaged
fighter. In a dynamic environment, such as air-to-air, the roles may change rapidly from one to the other several times.
Flight members MUST fully understand their responsibilities and how they will be handed o , (whether by radio calls or
aircraft maneuvers).

Engaged Fighter Responsibilities:

● Maneuver to kill the bandit (o ensively) or negate the bandit’s attack (defensively) in the minimum time. Fly your
best o ensive/defensive BFM.

● Clear the supporting fighter to engage if he is in a better position to shoot, or if defensive and the engaged fighter is
not safely outside the supporting fighter’s weapons FOV or target debris would be factor, again clear the supporting
fighter to shoot.

● Keep the supporting fighter informed of intentions, capabilities, and future tactical plans.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 119

Supporting Fighter - As the supporting fighter you may have to perform two or more tasks/ responsibilities at the
sametime. Time sharing between the tasks at hand is required to e ectively support the engaged fighter. The Time allowed
to perform a given set of tasks will be scenario dependent. As a rule of thumb (ROT) the supporting fighter needs to first
maneuver to sanitize the area about the fight through visual (tally/visual)and electronic means (radar, GCI, RWR). Next be
prepared to commit against any bandit that threatens the element, whether o ensively or defensively. Lastly, maintain a
high situational awareness to direct the egress in a safe direction.

Supporting Fighter Responsibilities:

● Maintain visual and strive for tally.

● Inform engaged fighter of posit (potential for mid-air in the ACM environment makes this extra comma important)

● Sanitize the area about the fight through visual and electronic means (check your own six).

● Maneuver to avoid the fight and gain or maintain entry parameters on the bandit.

● Employ ordnance if the bandit is in a WEZ, consistent with the flight leads game plan, and without compromising the
engaged fighter’s safety.

● Engage other bandits that are a factor to the element and keep the engaged fighter informed.

● Maintain overall situational awareness to include area orientation, fuel, and exit avenues.

● Direct the egress.

10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman Relationship

The previous discussion does not equate engaged and supporting roles with leader and wingman positions; this is
intentional. Our tactics are designed to allow the best positioned fighter to engage the bandit o ensively. While on defense,
the driving factor for whom is engaged will obviously belong to the bandit. This should not imply break down within the
basic flight lead/wingman responsibilities. The Flight lead still has the ultimate responsibility for mission accomplishment
and flight survival. The flight lead also makes the decisions about whether or not to engage, what tactics will be used, and
who will do the engaging or separating. While the wingman is engaged, the flight lead supports him but retains the authority
to direct the engagement, to terminate the engagement, to assume the engaged role, or to revert his wingman to the
supporting role.

The engaged/supporting responsibilities work e ectively in most 2 v 1 situations; however, when the contract
breaks down, the flight may present a danger to itself. Confusion of roles is the most common problem. Two fighters, each
thinking they are engaged, can easily end up occupying the same airspace. For this reason, flight and element leads will
brief engaged and supporting responsibilities, maneuvering deconfliction, role changes and desired engaged
communications prior to any flight with the potential forACBT maneuvering. Element or wingman deconfliction subsequent
to a blind call or planned loss of sight tactic will be briefed for any planned intercept or ACBT flight where more than one
element or more than one fighter may be maneuvering against the same bandit or bandits. Elements/wingman will not begin
visual o ensive maneuvering against an adversary unless cleared to engage by the flight/element lead. Formal
squadron/wing standards covering this requirement are adequate if all flight members are fully aware of the standards.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 120

10.8. Two v. One O ensive Visual Maneuvering

The visual phase of maneuvering is really the "meat of the mission" where ACM is concerned. The Tactical intercept
gets the element to the merge, usually in an o ensive position. Once there, our two airplanes must work together in
accomplishing the primary goal which is to destroy the enemy ASAP, while maintaining mutual support. There must be
complete understanding between the leader and wingman of their obligations towards one another. This understanding
forms the basis of the contract which governs two-ship visual maneuvering.

The termination of the intercept phase is when the element arrives in position to begin visual maneuvering against
the bandit. It is imperative that the element establish roles ASAP. The flight leadshould transmit his intentions (i.e. "Hornet
1, engaged, nose 3 miles.") This not only anchors the fight but establishes the engaged and supporting roles. If the bandit
detects your attack and maneuvers to counter it, the tactical wingman may be in a better position to engage. If so the flight
lead should direct the wingman to engage, (i.e. "Hornet 2, cleared to engage bandit nose 3 miles, press.")

The engaged fighter needs to perform his best one versus one BFM, place the bandit in a WEZ as quickly as possible,
and employ ordnance to kill the bandit. If the bandit negates your attack, continue to perform BFM forcing the bandit to
react defensively and remain predictable. If you lose the o ensive (i.e. neutral), due to bandit reaction, communicate this to
the supporting fighter ASAP.

The supporting fighter needs to pick-up the supporting role, perform supporting fighter responsibilities, and set up
the support structure. To set up the support structure the supporting fighter needs to o -set himself from the fight both
horizontally and vertically. Fly BFM through the bandit’s TCwhile lagging the engaged fighter. Then extend past the fight.
Ensure the afterburner has been selected to maintain 450 knots or greater and extend through the fight arena quickly build
needed separation. Nomatter which plane you merge with the fight, stay there and continue to split plane in that direction,
to visual constraints (i.e. if already high above the fight, stay there and not on or near the horizon).

Maintain sight of the fight by placing it at your 7 - 9 o’clock or 5 - 3 o’clock whichever way is easiest to maintain
sight with the fight once to the outside of the fight. Roll out wings level and extend for about 5 -10 seconds and then check
back into the fight with 4 - 6 G's. Be sure not to arc in a climbing turn since this will not allow you to gain the desired
separation from the fight and will highlight you to the bandit.

Fly straight lines and check turns to achieve your goal range of 2 to 3 miles with at least a 4000 foot altitude split
between you and the fight. This range and altitude split from the fight will allow the supporting fighter time to radar and
visually sanitize, and preserve maneuvering room for a shot of opportunity or a role change. Additionally, this position will
make it hard for the bandit to acquire the supporting fighter and threaten him. Bandit maneuvering, visual acquisition, and
environmental conditions must be taken into consideration.

Never place yourself in a position where you could become defensively engaged with the bandit that your flight
member is engaged with (i.e. allow the bandit to point at you aft of your 3/9 line). That will not support killing the bandit
and may get you killed. To avoid this, put yourself in a position that will make it hard for the bandit to acquire you (split
plane). Continue to maneuver away from the fight and sanitize the area for as long as the bandit's turn rate will allow.
Visually confirm that the area around the fight is free from other bandits. A good technique is to first focus on an object at
range (such as a mountain, or cloud). From there do a sector scan looking not for a specific aircraft, but movement. Force
Yourself to search not only along the horizon but high 12 and deep 6 o'clock as well. The radar should be in ACM with
Slewable selected and biased to the outside of the fight or 20-mile scope minimum, with theel-strobe biased in the
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 121

direction of the expected threat. After that volume of airspace has been sanitized, you are going to have to change the
el-strobe to sanitize the remainder of the airspace. Listen closely to GCI for threat calls and sanitize that avenue of
approach accordingly. Do not lose sight of the fight in the process. Time share between the supporting tasks is a must. As
the bandit's extended 3 - 9 line approaches your jet (beam plan form), start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or
right 2-O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintain sight. A bandit that is aware and maintains the tally on both fighters
may fight the fighter in front of him as opposed to defending against the fighter at his 6-O’Clock. As the supporting fighter,
you must ensure that the bandit doesn't engage you and force you to react defensively. The bandit's nose generally will
telegraph his intent. The engaged fighter can also helpby informing the supporting fighter of bandit maneuvers. If the bandit
stops turning and points at you, maneuver to deny a WEZ. The range you are from the bandit will dictate either staying in the
beam or checking into him to make it a 180 degree pass. Avoiding the engaged fighter with an altitude delta, as you extend
through the fight, cannot be overemphasized. Power should be back and you should expend cha and flares as needed. The
bandit's extension towards you should provide a shot opportunity for the engaged fighter. If not, then continue with your
supporting duties. However, if the bandit continues to turn defending himself against the engaged fighter, it should, based
on range and aspect, o er a shot of opportunity, or a position from which an entry into the fight can be made if the engaged
fighter needs your help.

Areas to Avoid - The supporting fighter must avoid three areas in order to fulfill his responsibilities: staying directly above
or below, and within 2 NM of the fight.

Flying directly above or below the fight forces the supporting fighter to focus his attention on the fight instead of
clearing the area for other bandits. If an entry is attempted, the supporting fighter must fit histurn into an already tight and,
most likely, slow turning fight. Although possible, this maneuver is very di cult and often results in an overshoot because of
the inability to slow down in a very nose low attitude or extend away from the fight after being extremely nose high.

Trying to stay inside 12,000 feet of the fight may allow the bandit opportunities to employ ordnance against the
supporting fighter. This range may also not provide the supporting fighter with the needed turning room to employ ordnance.
This causes (at best) rushed shot opportunities and (at worst) missed shot opportunities due to minimum range.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 122

10.9 Break Away Turn Away

If the bandit breaks away from the supporting
fighter (Figure 10.1), the quickest way to achieve fight
separation and a supporting position is to simple check
30 degrees away and extend with afterburner. Again
attempt to maintain 450 knots or greater during the
extension and build needed separation.

10.10. Break Into

If the bandit breaks into the element (Figure 10.2 & Figure 10.3), the supporting fighter has three basic options to
option the desired fight separation; Straight Ahead Extension, Lag the fight, and Bracket
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 123

10.10.1. Straight Ahead Extension

Fly BFM to meet the bandit with high-aspect(Figure 10.4) and split plane to extend through the fight. Once to the
outside of the fight the
supporting fighter should turn in
the direction that is easiest to
maintain tally/visual with the
fight. Whether your turn places
you Co-Flow, same turn direction
as the fight, or Counter-Flow,
opposite turn direction as the
fight, it doesn't matter. The point
is your position away from the
fight will o er you an entry if the
engaged fighter needs your help.
Advantage of this is it allows the
supporting fighter to unload and
extend gaining knots while the
bandit is bleeding down energy
due to the defensive turn. Also, if
the bandit blows up, the element
is in an excellent position to
egress the fight with good mutual
support.

Lag The Fight - This option has the supporting fighter point at the lag entry window (as you did in o ensive BFM) andflying
behind the engaged fighter. This will place the engaged fighter and the bandit on the same side of your canopy and place
you in lag with the fight. A high tactical airspeed is required to fly the larger circle about the fight. Ensure to select the
afterburner at the beginning of the maneuver. Again attempt to split plane in the opposite direction as the fight. This
position will allow the supporting fighter to visually check the six of the engaged fighter and radar sanitize the supporting
fighter's soon to be six as he turns to keep the fight on the beam. A Co-flow/Fan geometry is set up from this maneuver.

Bracket - Bracket is similar to the break away turn away initial move however, a vertical split is definitely required. Simply
check away from the fight to place the bandit between the engaged fighter and you.

Once the bandit's nose rotates through you are outside the fight and can maneuver accordingly based on flight
status. Advantage of this is if the engaged fighter is denied an o ensive position due to e ective bandit reactions the
supporting fighter is in a good position to engage quickly for a shot of opportunity or an exchange of roles. The disadvantage
to this maneuver is that without a vertical split the supporting fighter can find himself in the bandit's WEZ and possibly have
to defensively react to survive.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 124

10.11. Fight Entries

The supporting fighter may need to engage the bandit in several situations. These can be classified into two cases:

1. When the engaged fighter is defensive

2. When the engaged fighter is in a high aspect hence neutral fight that may take a long time to resolve.

There are two types of entries, entries from the

1. Vertical (above or below)

2. Outside the bandit's TC

They both can come in the form of:

● Co-Flow (turning in the same direction as the fight) or

● Counter-Flow (turning in the opposite direction of the fight).

Both entries require vertical turning room to be tactically sound. During an engagement where the engaged fighter
is o ensive the supporting fighter should not be primarily concerned with shots of opportunity unless the engaged fighter
either requests it or survival requires it. A survival issue occurs when the engaged fighter has lost the o ensive, hence
neutral, or as in a high-aspect pass, or a greater number of threats are inbound that the supporting fighter can't split to
engage o ensive (i.e. the motherload is 10 miles away and heading your way). The reasonable amount of time the engaged
fighter now has to maneuver to achieve a kill has been constrained and the flight needs to communicate this to each other.
If the engaged fighter cannot immediately place the bandit in a WEZ and shoot, then the engaged fighter should ask for help
and clear the supporting fighter to shoot.

10.11.1. Vertical Entry

The supporting fighter has set up the support structure and is in a position of advantage, usually high to the inside
of the fight. This out of plane position, not normally seen in the BFM phase, o ers an entry from above. The entry from below
is di cult since most turning engagements go downhill very quickly taking away any turning room you’ve gained. If the
bandit elects to take it up, an entry from below may be available. Vertical entries are fleeting opportunities and must be
accurately timed in order for an o ensive entry to achieve a WEZ on the Bandit.

10.11.2. Outside Entry

The other type of entry is from the outside of the Bandit's TC. The supporting fighter gets to this position either
because he is outside the Bandit's TC at the initial merge or because he passed through theTC once the fight started. There
are two types of outside entries Co-Flow and the Counter-Flow.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 125

10.11.3. Co-Flow Entry

As the name implies both the

supporting fighter and the Bandit are turning
in the same direction(Figure 10.5). You can
get a Co-Flow entry if you are outside the
Bandit's TC and as the Bandit's Extended 3-9
line passes through your aircraft. As you
make the entry it resembles the Heat portion
of theHeat-To-Guns exercise. For this entry
to work the supporting fighter has to be split
plane with the Bandit.

If the supporting fighter is in plane

with the Bandit, then the potential of getting
shot as the Bandit's nosepasses through you
is very likely. That will probably result in the
supporting fighter reacting defensively to the
Bandit's threatening nose and does nothing
to support killing the Bandit. If in the proper supporting position 2-3 NM o set and with 4000 feet of split plane, the
supporting fighter is turning in the same direction as the fight, flying straight lines and hooks. As the bandit's turn brings his
3 - 9 line to your jet, start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2 O’Clock, whichever way is easier to
maintain sight. Remember you’re supporting and at this moment all you should be doing is denying the Bandit aWEZ by
rotating your heat source away from the Bandit. As the Bandit's nose rotates through you it should, based on range and
aspect, it may o er a shot of opportunity, or a position from which a Co-Flowentry into the fight can be made if the engaged
fighter needs your help. If the engaged fighter does not need help, continue to sanitize with the radar and visually sanitize
your 6 o'clock and the engaged fighters. If no entry is available or
required, check away from the fight by placing it at your 5 or
7o'clock. The bottom line: don't put the fight on the nose unless
you are taking a shot.

10.11.4. Counter-Flow Entry

As the name implies the supporting fighter and the

Bandit's turn are opposite of each other (Figure 8.50).This entry is
very similar to the Co-Flow entry. The major di erence between
the two is the frequency at which an entry opportunity occurs.
Since the supporting fighter is flying in the opposite direction the
fight is turning, the bandit’s 3 - 9 line will pass through him more
often than in a Co-Flowentry. The supporting fighter must strive
for lateral and vertical o set quickly. The cues for when to turn in
are similar to the Co-Flow except you can turn slightly earlier
(lead turn). The geometry is similar to the way gears mesh
together. Play the turn to get a belly entry to the control zone.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 126

10.12. Role Exchange

Role changes must be positive, clearly communicated, and properly executed by BOTH fighters or grave
consequences will arise. Even during IRL training, aircraft sometimes run into one another because two fighters are trying to
o ensively engage the same bandit simultaneously. The key to success is that both fighters are maneuvering in relationship
to the bandit. The engaged fighter is maneuvering to employ ordnance from the "Classic" engaged BFM position and the
other is supporting him, not actively employed ordnance until called upon by the engaged fighter. Prolonged turning
engagements will only decrease the flight members’ situational awareness and could jeopardize survival. The engaged
fighter communicating the need for assistance, during o ensive maneuvering, is the key for the supporting fighter to
actively work for an entry or take a shot of opportunity. The engaged fighter's proximity to the bandit, and weapon FOV, will
dictate when the supporting fighter needs to maneuver for an entry or for a shot of opportunity. The supporting fighter,
when not o ered a shot of opportunity, should be able to maneuver to the control position at the role exchange. If the
engaged fighter asks for assistance, ("Hornet One, Neutral"). The supporting fighter tells the engaged fighter where the entry
will come from (i.e. "HornetTwo, entry high, from the north"). The "Standard" engaged fighter reaction should be to
acknowledge the supporting fighter's radio call immediately, (because the supporting fighter's entry is fleeting and may not
exist in 5 - 10 seconds), with either "Cleared In" or "Negative". The engaged fighter should respondwith "negative" if he is
again able to maneuver to employ ordnance on the bandit. If the engaged fighter clears the supporting fighter to enter, the
"standard" reaction should be for him to aggressively maneuver low to the outside of the fight and assume the supporting
role. During the exchange the supportingfighter continues to be responsible for flight path deconfliction between himself
and the engaged fighter until the roles have been positively exchanged and the engaged fighter is visual (Figure 10.7).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 127

In this case Hornet One called o with “Blind”, therefore as Hornet Two assumes the engaged role he has to provide
Hornet One with the visual. The role change is complete only when the previously engaged fighter transmits either, “Press,”
or calls “Tally/ Visual, press”, whichever was briefed as “standard.” The Previously engaged fighter can't simply disregard
the bandit during this phase, he must still maneuver in relation to the bandit until the bandit either blows up, or is no longer
a factor (i.e. the bandit sees the supporting fighter attacking that attack, or disregards the disengaging fighter and attempts
to extend from the fight). The flight members must thoroughly understand these roles and, most importantly, how to change
roles, especially in a degraded communication environment or if the visual can not be maintained.
The following is another example:

1. “Hornet 1, Engaged, bandit, right 2, 2 miles.”

“Hornet 2, Press.”

2. “Hornet 1, Neutral.”

“Hornet 2, Entry high from the north.”

3. “Hornet 2 Cleared-in, 1's blind.”

“Hornet 2, Engaged. Your visual 10 o’clock, high, 1 mile.” NOTE: In this situation, eventhough Hornet 2 is
now the engaged fighter, he is still responsible for element deconfliction until Hornet 1 is visual. If the
rapidly changing situation prevents this, call blind.

4. “Hornet 1, Press.” (Hornet 1 now assumes responsibility for element deconfliction)

10.13. Shots Of Opportunity

A shot of opportunity for the supporting fighter exists whenever the bandit is in a WEZ, the engaged fighter is not in
the field of view (FOV) of the weapon during its entire time of flight, the bandit's debris will not be a factor to the engaged
fighter and the supporting fighter will NOT enter the engaged fightercontrol zone ( that airspace between the engaged
fighter's nose to the bandit). If adequate distance is not provided for, the bandit's debris could endanger the engaged fighter.
As a ROT for a missile shot of opportunity, the bandit's aspect to the supporting fighter should be approaching the beam.
The engaged fighter should not be within the supporting fighter's HUD FOV, and the engaged fighter should be approximately
a turn radius (4-6,000 feet) from the bandit, and the supporting fighter is about 9-12,000feet away from the bandit with
altitude deconfliction. This distance will change in regards to airspeeds and closure between the bandit, the engaged fighter,
and the supporting fighter. To employ the gun the supporting fighter is going to have to perform a role exchange to be
allowed the engaged fighter's airspace. Under most circumstances the gun opportunity will be fleeting and should only be
attempted if it's the only shot available due to being Winchester missiles. During a shot of opportunity the supporting
fighter is always responsible for deconfliction with the engaged fighter. Shots of opportunity support killing the bandit
quickly, thus minimizing a turning engagement and allows for higher SA (exactly what you want to do in a combat situation).
It is important that flight leads brief in detail, the contract for shots of opportunity.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 128

10.14. Egress
When the bandit has been destroyed, the fighter who has the highest situational awareness should initiate the
egress. Normally after a turning engagement this will be the supporting fighter's responsibility. By listening to GCI (real
world) and maintaining overall situation awareness choose an avenue to egress. Getting the flight moving in the same
direction away from the expected threat is the priority (In the MOA/TRA pick a heading, any heading just get the flight
moving to the egress). Remember to use directive then descriptive comm ("Hornet 1 reference 180," . . .pause. . "Hornet 1
visual right 3 O’Clock slightly high" ). Have the afterburner in and get low to isolate the threats above you. It is not
imperative that the element be in perfect 6-9,000 LAB formation, but at least visual and heading in the same direction. The
fastest fighter will be the one to adjust the formation to regain visual mutual support. Don't have the slow fighter doing
excessive maneuvering close to the fireball. Wait until you are3 - 5 miles away from the fireball and then maneuver the
formation to achieve line-abreast. If the slowfighter is out front, the fighter with the higher airspeed will be able close the
range and simply fly into position. Get the radar in ACM Slewable or Range While Search (RWS) mode and visually check 6
o'clock. Once you are assured there are no threats within 10 miles, then resume pre-briefed search responsibilities. GCI
should be queried for a new picture to start building your situational awareness outside of 20 miles. Now continue with your
mission objectives.

10.15. Two v. One Defensive Visual Maneuvering

There are four priorities which the element must satisfy in order to survive a defensive situation. They are;
detection, negating the threat, maintaining flight integrity/ mutual support through role execution, and lethal weapons
employment against the bandit.

When the flight finds itself under attack, the obvious concern is survival (negating the bandit's initial attack).
Because fractions of a second are very important, the flight must have some preplanned initial moves; actions that they are
very familiar with and have thoroughly practiced. As you would expect, these moves will be based on defensive turns. Once
the initial attack has been negated, the immediate concern of the flight should be to go o ensive or separate. Reestablish
visual and positional support and maintain tally on the bandit to be sure he is out of range. If the separation is not going to
achieve su cient range, the element will need to continue defensive maneuvering to deny the bandit weapons parameters.
The element should use cha /flares as appropriate. If it is apparent from the beginning that the flight cannot separate, we
have to sandwich the bandit and kill him or force him to separate. Engaged and supporting fighter tactics are now in order.
In this case, however, the bandit determines who is engaged (the one he attacks); the other fighter then maneuvers to
sandwich the attacker and bring ordnance to bear. If both fighters are tally and blind, it is imperative that roles be
established. Positive communication and e ective maneuvering must be accomplished by both fighters to ensure friendly
flight path deconfliction. The flight lead is ultimately responsible for establishing these roles, element survival, andtraining
rule compliance. References o the bandit and/or separate altitudes to ensure deconfliction will help both fighters achieve
the visual while increasing SA.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 129

10.16.1. Pre-Engagement Considerations

Your highest chance of being engaged defensively is with loss of situational awareness. This may occur due
performing other tasks and not realizing the fact that you're detected. Prevent this by performing a good cross check of the
radar, RWR, and visual lookout. Detecting the threat at range (out of a WEZ) is a lot better than noticing a MiG at missile or
jinking at gun range reacting defensively for survival. The use of good formation position, visual search, on-board and
o -board sensors are required to provide the needed detection of the threat early enough to avoid a defensive situation. As
a member of a flight you must make it a priority to maintain the briefed formation, visual and radar search responsibilities
within the formations.

Line abreast formation is desired. The formation flown will provide a common reference forcommunications,
targeting, and firepower. The lateral distance between the two fighters depends on several factors (turn radius of the
fighters, WEZ of the fighters, and depth of visual coverage needed for"threat" detection). There are known "blind" zones and
human factors that come into play here. The"blind" zone is the area at your extreme deep six that you just can't see due to
cockpit field of view. By Being in a line abreast formation at least one of the fighters can see into the others "blind" zone and
provide the necessary warning when the "threat" is detected. Visual lookout or search must be disciplined: the guns area, IR
missiles area, and the All-Aspect Missile area. These areas must be searched using a timeshare approach. Start with
formation position. A look at your flight mate will do three things for the visual search right away. It will assure you are in
formation position, correct your"biological" limitation of refocus, and search the area beyond the flight mate for a threat.
Next check your flight mate's deep six for a threat in guns range first, then IR missiles. Don't just look for an aircraft. Look
for apparent motion, canopy glints, cons, and angel hair. Don't forget to check high 12, low (Belly checks), and level 3 - 9 as
well - a BIG TASK ! If during a look inside the cockpit a "spike" is observed, don't keep it to yourself, communicate that fact
to the flight ("Hornet Two, Spiked, 10 o'clock). Now start a dedicated search in the avenue of attack. But, don’t' forget
everywhere else like inside the formation, 6, 12 o’clock and outside the formation. That "spike" at 10 o'clock may be 20 or
30 miles away and the real threat that is going to kill you is at your 3 o'clock for 2 miles attempting a silent intercept.

Disciplined radar search will ensure that a specific airspace out to a specific range has been sanitized. Through
overlapping of elevation and azimuth coverage early detection of the threat is permitted. However, expect the unexpected.
The radar doesn't paint all targets that are out there; in any case, it can’t see what's behind rocks and so forth. Early
detection allows you the ability to prosecute the attack o ensively rather than reacting defensively to the unseen attack,
thus increasing your chances for survival. When a "contact" is observed on the radar, again communicate this to the flight
(Hornet 2, contact 5 Southeast Bullseye, 15 Thousand, Head). Together all three of these, formation position, visual and
radar search provides for immediate positional awareness of the other flight members.

When the bandit is located (dependent on range and relative position), either split the element laterally and
vertically and increase your airspeed, or perform a hard turn or break turn into the bandit. Hard turn is used when the
Bandit is not yet in range to employ ordnance. A "Break" turn is used when you locate the threat and someone is in a WEZ. If
you are unsure, call for a "Break" turn. The directive call for a break turn implies that on board counter measure will also be
automatically employed, (i.e. cha and flares are expended). Never do anything with two that you wouldn't do by yourself, i.e.
dragging the bandit at your 6 , holding him o , using yourself as bait, - DEFEND YOURSELF NOW! Radio calls will normally
initiate any move the formation takes. The key to e ective communication is to spit out the information IN ORDER using
directive then descriptive comments, as discussed earlier.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 130

Attempt to assess which fighter the bandit is trying to attack. Avoid flying too close together or level, allowing the
bandit to simultaneously detect both fighters in the formation. Adhere to the briefed formation and perform split plane
maneuvering. You must negate the threat by employing sound defensive BFM. If Your flight mate can assist you by killing the
bandit, that’s great but never depend on assistance from the outside to SURVIVE an attack!

Maintaining Flight Integrity/Mutual Support and Role Execution - Remember what was briefed by the flight lead as
"The Contract" and adhere to it. Fulfill your formation responsibilities (Formation position, Visual and radar search), Engaged
and Supporting roles, and use proper radio communications. Survive First, then provide all the support you can. Understand
the rendezvous/reform plan your flight will use ifstripped (i.e. outside of briefed formation parameters) and use them to
regain mutual support as quickly as possible.

The basis of our successful two-ship defense is a system of well thought out initial moves. The movie must
e ectively negate the initial attack, so they must be aggressive and designed to rotate our vulnerable come away from the
threat. There is no room for error, so the moves should be simple and easy to remember. Lastly, the moves need to become
almost second nature; only practice will help here.

The Main principles to follow in accomplishing initial moves when the bandit is sighted in the aft quadrant
approaching missile range are:

● When defensive, avoid putting both aircraft in the same area at the same time. When possible, utilize split
plane maneuvering

● The pilot with the tally should always:

● Do sound BFM by starting a hard/break turn into the bandit.

● Direct the flight to turn (left or right).

● Dispense cha and flares if threatened.

NOTE:
Attempts should be made to accomplish all of the above items simultaneously.

The pilot without the tally should:

● Perform the turn directed in the direction called.

● Dispense cha and flares.

● Attempt to acquire the tally

10.32. Lethal Weapons Employment

If you are the supporting fighter while your flight mate is defensive, you must maneuver immediately for a shot of
opportunity. Attempt to obtain a radar lock by using Bore Sight or WACQ. A radar lock is not required to employ an AIM-9.
Ensure the range, angles, and tone are satisfied then shoot the bandit. Don't forget all the BFM skills you've learned.
Remember to assess the range and aspect, andmaneuver accordingly. Remember the lessons learned in O ensive BFM
regarding WEZ management and the recognition that the Bandit is in a WEZ. Now is the time to utilize those skills.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 131

10.33. Execution of Duties

If the flight is in a WEZ then "break" all flight members in the direction that will allow the best defensive BFM to
defeat the attack (i.e. if you see the bandit break the formation so you can maintain sight). Now the task of the defensive
fighter, the "engaged fighter," is to fly his best BFM to survive the attack. The supporting fighter needs to maneuver to a WEZ
to employ ordnance quickly.

10.34. Classic Sandwich (No Switch)

A bandit shows up (Figure 10.8) at your flight mate's 6 O’Clock ("Hornet break left"). If the bandit continues to
attack the initially engaged fighter (in this case your flight mate), the bandit should quickly become sandwiched by the
supporting fighter. The "sandwich" is an ideal defensive maneuver and should allow the supporting fighter an opportunity to
achieve weapon parameters and kill the bandit. Attempt to obtain a radar lock by using Bore Sight. Do not allow the lack of
a radar lock hinder you from employing the AIM-9. Ensure the range, angles, and tone are satisfied, then shoot the bandit,
especially if the bandit is in close and employing ordnance against your flight mate. Flight path deconfliction with the
defensively engaged fighter is the responsibility of the supporting fighter just as in an o ensive engagement.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 132

10.35. Early/Late Switch

If the bandit is aware of the other fighter a

"switch" is probable. The switch must be communicated
so the engaged and supporting roles can be fulfilled and
deconfliction can be assured.

An early switch(bandit switch prior to turn

circle entry) will enable the initially defensively engaged
fighter to change to a constant turn defense or an
extension since the bandit's nose will definitely come o
and threaten the other fighter (Figure 10.9). The
constant turn allows him to back o on the turn rate to
keep the same airspeed, keep the bandit in sight, and
continue to rotate his vulnerable area away from the
bandit while he o sets his turn circle and looks for an
entry or shot of opportunity. The extension attempts to
regain tactical maneuvering airspeed before attacking
the bandit.

A late switch (bandit switch inside the turn

circle) may allow the supporting fighter to meet the
bandit at high-aspect and provide the flight an
opportunity to separate from the fight (Figure 10.10).
This all depends on the bandit's and defenders BFM. If
the supporting fighter meets the bandit close aboard and
the bandit's lead turn is denied, a separation opportunity
generally is available depending on energy (>300 Kts)
and bandit aircraft/ordnance capabilities. The supporting
fighter needs to communicate the separation opportunity
to the engaged fighter and get the flight going in the
best direction (i.e. the way that maximizes the range
between the fighters and the bandit.) It is imperative to
keep the bandit in sight and to do your best extension. If
the bandit chooses to turn and point at the fighters his
range and ordnance capabilities must be assessed. If he
still appears to be in range and /or you see missiles in
the air another defensive reaction is required. If not,
keep the tally and keep running until the tactical
scenario demands you do something di erent.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 133

10.36. Engaged Fighter Unknown/Uncommitted Bandit

The bandit's position may not clearly identify which fighter is

under attack. The bandit can come from any aspect. A quick assessment
of the bandit's lethality must be made based on range and nose position.
If The bandit has not reached a WEZ, an extension (while monitoring the
bandit) may be appropriate. If the bandit is a threat, or continues to close,
a prompt flight reaction is required. This discussion addresses the
principles valid for all potential bandit attack axes. The initial move
should accomplish five things: deny a shot, present the bandit with
maximum BFM problems, force the bandit to commit on one or the other
fighter, maximize the element's o ensive potential after the initial move,
and clearly establish engaged and supporting fighter roles. In the example
(Figure 10.11), the bandit enjoys a unique positional relationship in which
his o ensive potential against each fighter is identical. The element has
two choices in their initial defensive reaction.

The first option is to break the element in the

same direction (Figure 10.12) This is the preferred
option if the bandit is detected outside of weapons
parameters, or has not yet closed inside either fighter's
turn circle. If the bandit is allowed to close to either (or
both) fighter's turn circle, the possibility the bandit can
take a shot on Hornet Two before Hornet One can
threaten the bandit is increased. The bandit may be in a
better position on one fighter and may not allow the
other to separate.

Advantages to this option include:

● Hornet One is able to maintain tally throughout

his turn.

● The bandit must immediately commit against

one fighter or the other.

● His o ensive potential versus each fighter is no longer identical.

● Each element member can isolate the threat axis on the same side of their respective aircraft.

The element is in a position to establish engaged and supporting fighter roles based on bandit reaction. Hornet One
can devote full attention to his best 1v1 BFM against the bandit. He does not have to be concerned with a flight path conflict
with his wingman. Hornet Two starts with the bandit's nose in lag and may be able to rotate his vulnerable cone completely
through the bandit before the bandit can bring his nose to bear.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 134

Disadvantages are:

● Hornet Two may lose tally as he kicks the bandit across the
tail.

● The bandit has a possible shot opportunity as Hornet Two

starts his initial turn.

The second option is to break the element toward each other

in a cross-turn or hard-to-six turn. (Figure 10.13). This option is not
the preferred one when the bandit is detected outside of weapons
parameters or when the bandit is not inside either fighter's turn circle.

If the bandit is allowed to close before he is detected, the

cross turn option becomes less viable (Figure 10.14). At ranges
approaching turn circle diameter, the bandit retains the option to
employ a gun shot against either fighter, to meet either fighter at high
aspect and separate, or switch the attack from one to the other.

Advantages are:

● Each fighter maximizes the BFM problem for the bandit.

● Neither fighter rotates his vulnerable cone through the bandit's

position.

● Both fighters have an increased probability of maintaining tally.

Disadvantages are:

● The bandit is not forced to commit to either fighter.

● The bandit’s decision to commit can be delayed until he is closer

to (and perhaps inside) both fighters' turn circles.

● The bandit is able to meet one fighter at high aspect and isolate
both fighters on one side of his aircraft.

● The assignment of engaged and supporting fighter roles within the

element is delayed.

● If both fighters perform hard turns in the bandit's plane of motion, the potential for flight path conflict increases.

● If both fighters maneuver to isolate the threat axis on one side of their aircraft, their flight path vectors are in
Opposite directions.

● Mutual support is di cult to maintain.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 135

10.37. Cross-Court

Bandit asymmetrically positioned between the

fighters. In this case, the bandit is in a more threatening
position relative to one fighter than the other, but is positioned
between the fighters (Figure 10.15). Considerations are similar
to the engaged fighter unknown or uncommitted bandit
discussion and the options remain similar.

One option is to break in the same direction (Figure

10.16). The direction of break should be determined by the
most threatened fighter. That fighter should be directed to
break into the bandit. This Option is the preferred one if the
bandit is detected outside of weapons parameters, or if both
fighters havetally. Advantages and disadvantages are the same
as previously discussed.

The second option is to break the most threatened

fighter into the bandit, and to also turn the other fighter toward
the bandit (Figure 10.17). The advantages and disadvantages to
this option are similar to those in the engaged fighter
unknown/uncommitted bandit discussion. However, the bandit
is probably already committed to the most threatened fighter.
This makes the determination of engaged and supporting
fighter roles easier. In the case where Hornet Two is the only
fighter with a tally, it may be viable for him to turn toward the
bandit to maintain tally as Hornet One begins his defensive
turn. In this case, if Hornet Two decides to turn into the bandit,
the turn must be at a rate that will keep the bandit outside
Hornet Two's turn circle, if possible. Floating the turn when the
bandit is at close range may allow the bandit to switch the attack and arrive
inside two's turn circle. Hornet Two should direct Hornet One in his no sight
defense and direct an extension if the bandit switches or is no longer a
threat to Hornet One. Additionally, Hornet Two must default to Hornet One
during Hornet One's defensive turn to preclude a flight path conflict from
developing. This option is viable if Hornet Two is the only one with a tally, or
if the bandit is already established inside Hornet Two's turn circle.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 136

10.38. Re-Entry

Re-entry into a fight where a fighter is defensive is the highest priority of the supporting fighter. Place the fight at
your 10 o'clock or 2 o'clock and strive to have at least a turn radius and a half of room(around 1 NM) between you and the
bandit. Split plane maneuvering may allow you to get outside the bandit's FOV. If the bandit doesn't point at you and
continues his turn a shot of opportunity should be available. Be ready to employ ordnance as soon as possible. If the fight
has gravitated to a scissors you can expect extremely slow airspeeds. The AIM-9 is the weapon of choice. Allow the fight to
drift aft to about 7 or 4 o'clock and then turn in to the fight looking for a low-aspect missile shot as the distance between
the bandit and the engaged fighter increases and is greater then the HUD FOV. The entry is just like a Co-Flow or
Counter-Flow entry. If winchester missiles and the only ordnance available is the gunthen maintain at least over-the-top
airspeed as you enter the fight and anticipate a high angle gun attack to a high reposition. You don't want to be co-airspeed
with the fight and get anchored in the scissors. But being greater than 400 KTAS is also not advantageous to entering a
scissors. It doesn’t allow enough time for the shot. Refer to the section on role exchanges for additional information and
comm procedures.

8.13. High-Aspect ACM

An optimum entry against a high-aspect threat is the bracket. The goal is to sandwich the bandit similar to that
discussed in the defensive ACM section. The only di erence is that the bandit starts out ahead of the 3/9 line and with high
aspect. A 2-ship spread out to 3-4 miles will allow the flight to maintain visual mutual support and determine which fighter
will have the best advantage to engage o ensively or take a shot of opportunity at the merge. Communications are critical
to determine which fighter will be the engaged fighter. A going-in position that should be briefed is that the flight lead will
be the primary engaged fighter. Here is a classic situation that allows for a pre-merge role change to allow the most
o ensive fighter the engaged role.

As the flight lead analyzes the aspect of the bandit and continues to the merge performing a single side o set
intercept, the wingman maneuvers away from the flight to obtain turning room. If the aspect between the bandit and the
flight lead remains high the flight lead should clear his wingman to engage the bandit. The fighter who meets the bandit
high-aspect assumes the supporting role. As he approaches themerge he should still attempt to achieve a front quarter shot
and then pass the bandit as close aboard as possible, preferably placing the bandit between himself and the engaged
fighter. This should force the bandit to turn belly up to the engaged fighter. The engaged fighter maneuvers o ensively to
employ ordnance or pressure the bandit to make him predictable. Any fighter the bandit engages post merger should allow a
shot of opportunity to the other.

O axis bandits pose additional problems. We want to avoid letting the bandit meet both of us closeboard and then
maneuvering to place both of us ahead of his three-nine line. The solution here is to have one fighter engage and get the
bandit turning while the other maneuvers to a supporting position and subsequently into a shot of opportunity or a role swap
when clearly able to be o ensive.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 137

Chapter 11: BEYOND VISUAL RANGE / INTERCEPTS

An intercept, also commonly known as BVR (Beyond Visual Range), is the series of maneuvers, using a ground
controlled intercept (GCI), Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS), on-board systems, or dead reckoning, which
places the aircraft in a position from which a weapon may be employed, visual identification (VID) can be made, or a visual
engagement can be initiated. The type of intercept geometry utilized is based on experience, proficiency, avionics, weather/
night, ECM and tactical considerations. This manual will review some intercept basics and the baseline intercept. Some
tactical considerations will also be discussed, however reference to CNATRA P-825 is necessary for a complete
understanding of tactical intercepts.

The BVR game is usually won even before the missile leaves the rail. A successful BVR setup allows to, for example:

● Maximize the PK of the missiles used;

● Maintain Situation Awareness during every phase of the engagement;

● Achieve an advantageous firing position leads to a much greater chance to score a hit, and lowers the odds to be hit
in return;

● Improve the possibility of maintaining the initiative (e.g. follow-up shot, degrading the target’s SA, etc.);

● Transition to WVR

● Properly coordinate with the AIC / GCI and other flights;

● Ensure proper sorting (no missiles are aimed to the same targets, unless specifically requested);

11.1. Intercept Terminology

11.1. Terminology
Explanations of some terms and acronyms used in BVR, plus others you may run into at some point. I added the
source of the definitions. Some meanings may vary depending on the age of the document and the military branch (id est
navy vs air force).

● DR = Decision Range: “The minimum range at which a fighter can execute the briefed notch maneuver, remain
there for a pre-briefed period of time in an attempt to defeat spikes, and then execute an abort maneuver. This
maneuver will kinematically defeat any missiles shot at the fighter and momentarily keep the fighter outside the
threat’s maximum stern weapons employment zone (WEZ) once the abort maneuver is completed.

● FR = FR (factor range)—During merge tactics, the minimum acceptable distance between the group being
merged with and the next nearest group. Groups outside of this range are unlikely to a ect the merge with the
targeted group. FR should allow engaging and killing the targeted group, egressing tail aspect to the second group,
and remaining outside that group’s maximum stern WEZ. FR is driven by threat weapons capability, fighter weapons
capability, closure, and proficiency.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 138

● MAR = Minimum abort range (MAR) – The range at which an aircraft can execute a maximum performance
out/abort maneuver and kinematically defeat any missiles and remain outside an adversary’s WEZ.

● DOR = “DOR (desired out range)/MOR (minimum out range)—Range from the closest bandit where an
aircraft’s “out” will defeat any bandit’s weapons in the air or still on the jet and preserve enough distance to make
an “in” decision with su cient time to re-engage the same group with launch-and-decide tactics. This also gives
trailing elements a “clean” picture, reducing identification problems when targeting.

● LAR = A three dimensional volume of space around a hostile aircraft into which the fighter must fly in order to have
a chance to successfully employ its weapons. The fighter will maneuver in altitude, airspeed, and heading in order to
achieve the best weapon solution for his opponent. The LAR is largest (i.e., longest RMAX) with 0 TA, at high
airspeed and high altitude and is smallest (i.e.,shortest RMAX) in the rear quarter at low altitude and low airspeed.
Missiles like altitude, airspeed, and closure to achieve maximum kinematics.

● Banzai = Informative/directive call to execute launch and decide tactics.

● Out (w/direction)= Informative call indicating a turn to a cold aspect relative to the known threat.

● Abort (w/direction)= Abort is maximum performance, 135 degree overbank, nose slicing turn to put the threat at
the6 o’clock position and accelerating to .7 IMN

● Crank (w/direction) = A maneuver in the direction indicated. Implies illuminating the target at or near radar
GIMBAL limits.

● Notch (w/direction) = Directive (informative) for an all-aspect missile defensive maneuver to place threat
radar/missile near the beam.

● Pump (w/direction) = A briefed maneuver to low aspect to stop closure on the threat or geographical boundary
with the intent to reengage

● Bugout (w/direction) = Separation from that particular engagement / attack / operation; no intent to
reengage/return.

● Extend (w/direction) = Short-term maneuver to gain energy, distance, or separation normally with the intent of
reengaging.

● A-Pole = The distance from the launching aircraft to the target when a missile begins active guidance.

● E-Pole = The range from a threat aircraft that an abort maneuver must be accomplished to kinematically defeat
any missile the bandit could have launched or is launching.

● F-Pole = F-Pole is the separation between the launch aircraft and the target at missile endgame/impact.

● N-Pole = Notch-Pole.

● WEZ = Weapons Engagement Zone. The three-dimensional volume of airspace around a fighter into which the
hostile aircraft must fly to employ weapons.

● Group = Defined as two or more contacts within 5 NM range, 5 NM azimuth and within 5,000 feet in elevation
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 139

11.2. The Baseline Intercept

The baseline intercept is the basic BVR intercept. Although you will almost never use it in combat, the principles and
techniques are used in other useful intercepts.
The baseline (as it will be referred to from now on) assumes a lack of IFF, so a VID (Visual IDentification) is required.
You might think that simply flying head-to-head with the bandit and VIDing at the merge. However, by the time you get
close enough to VID, you may be too close to employ weapons. This means that you will have to merge high-aspect, and turn
at least 180° to get in a WEZ. Also, if he spots you in the merge, the fight quickly becomes a neutral high-aspect merge. By
flying an intercept that takes you behind the target at a low aspect you allow yourself time and room to employ without
worrying about getting shot. An illustration is below: high-aspect merge. By flying an intercept that takes you behind the
target at a low aspect you allow yourself time and room to employ without worrying about getting shot.

The baseline intercept has 4 basic steps:

1. Point and Assess: Before

performing the intercept,
you obviously need to have
a radar contact on the
desired target, and detect
him. You need to then
assess his aspect. If he is
HOT or FLANK, go pure
pursuit. If he is BEAM, fly a
CATA intercept and skip to
the last step. If he is
dragging, you need to use a
tail-chase gameplan. Get
an Advantage: Once you
have radar SA on him, you
need to get a speed
advantage, and an altitude
di erence to make him
detecting you a lot harder.

2. Take an O set: Once you hit 20 nm, take an o set that takes you to about 40-50° ATA. Which direction to go is a
common question. You take an o set away from the bandits flight path. The reason to take an o set is because in
the baseline, you start at high aspect, and are attempting to reduce it to 120° AA (60° TA). This means you need to
fly away from a collision course and away from his flight past, as you learned in the intercept section.

3. Control Aspect: Once you have o set, you need to monitor the target aspect. The goal is to reach 120° AA (60°
TA) before reaching 10nm. If you reach 120° aspect, switch to a CATA intercept.

4. Go Pure Pursuit: Regardless of aspect, at 5nm, transition to pure pursuit. This step is known as a stern
conversion. If you executed the above steps correctly, you should arrive in his rear quadrant, with a VID, and ready
to employ weapons.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 140

During Step 4 and after is when you begin to employ ACM tactics and considerations. From the moment you go pure pursuit
you must already be implementing the ACM game plan.

Vertical o set, or vertical turning room, can actually be obtained as soon as you know the target altitude. You don't have to
wait until 20 NM. Vertical turning room should be at least several thousand feet, weather/terrain permitting.

The following advantages of an altitude split may or may not apply to each tactical situation:

● To get out of his radar coverage vertically.

● To use the ground clutter to help hide from his radar.

● To get the most favorable background to pick him up visually and/or hide your jet visually.

● To get an energy advantage.

● To hide in his blind areas.

● To reduce the horizontal turning room required; makes you less susceptible to a maneuvering target.

● To gain airspeed quickly by going low.

● Or to slow your closure by climbing above the bandit.

The disadvantages of an altitude split are:

● Elevation strobe control is more di cult at high look-up/down angles.

● If your radar breaks lock, it's harder to re-acquire the target at closer ranges.

● It is easier to lose radar contact on a no-lock intercept.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 141

11.3. BVR Time-Line

The timeline covered is not a hard rule. It’s more of a guideline. Commit, Launch, and defensive maneuvers can
occur at di erent ranges, it’s completely situation, weapon system and threat dependent. The ranges used in this chapter
are merely general guidelines for the discussion and are approximate ideas. These are general conceptual ideas, and can
flex quite a bit depending on mission objectives, and which Air-to-Air missiles are equipped.

11.3.1 Pre-Commit (~60+ NM )

Usually the Timeline starts with a Picture call to the Controller (AIC):

Voodoo 1-1 (F-18) = Darkstar, Voodoo 1-1, picture

Darkstar (E-2 Hawkeye) = Voodoo 1-1, Darkstar, Group, BE 110 for 80, 33 thousand, tracking South, hostile.

At this point, the sensors are configured for covering as much of the sector of airspace indicated as possible. The target
should appear on the radar, if needed by turning into the target, in order to build SA (Point and Assess). The Controller can
also assign a specific target group to the Section and the Section later commits to it.
11.3.2 Commit (~50+ NM)

The commit criteria is the range you begin maneuvering to engage a specific group. Commit criteria is very flexible, and
varies quite a bit between mission types. A sweep mission has much more permissive commit criteria than an escort
mission, as in an escort you cannot get dragged too far away from the group you are escorting. A commit decision usually
has several steps that come with it, adjusting formation and fencing in.

Voodoo 1-1 = Darkstar, Voodoo 1-1 , Commit

Voodoo 1-1 = Voodoo Flight, Combat Spread, Fence-In
Voodoo 1-2 = 2
Voodoo 1-1 = Voodoo 1-1, Fenced-In, 15.5
Voodoo 1-2 = Voodoo 1-2, Fenced-In, 15.3

As a general rule, commit criteria should be no closer than missile employment range
or
Missile Employment Range + 15nm for HOT/FLANK aspect targets.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 142

A consideration that needs to BE kept in mind is to maintain a wide SA during this phase. As the old saying from
the days of the Wild Wild West, “If you see one Indian, there are usually more”. Keep looking and scanning.
Game Plan Development
The flight crew should also start asking:
● What other assets do they have? What other assets do I have?
● What’s my play time? What’s their play time?
● What kind of threat could they present?

By answering these questions you start developing a game plan for the upcoming engagement. There are a number of
di erent options. You start thinking and making the plan now, so the flight knows what to execute later.

● Crank (w/direction) =Maneuver in the direction indicated. Illuminating target at or near radar GIMBAL limits

● Skate = Launch-and-leave tactics and be out no later than desired out range (DOR)/minimum out range (MOR).

● Short Skate = Launch-and-leave tactics and be out no later than minimum abort range (MAR)/decision range (DR).

11.3.3 Sort (~45 NM)

During this stage, the flight lead will “sort” or assign targets to Flight members in order to e ciently use the
missiles available. There are several questions that need to be answered at this stage in order to plan the next steps, and
know HOW to sort the targets with the flight.
● How many are out there?
● What Formation are they?
● What are they doing?

As soon as each fighter in the flight completes his sort, he must pass the information to the rest of the flight. This
communication serves several purposes. First, you are passing along your radar situational awareness (SA) to the other
flight members, which will build their SA. Second, you are comparing radar pictures of the air battle, which helps you
confirm that you are seeing what you think you are seeing.
Here is an example of the radio calls during a sort.

Voodoo 1-1 (RIO)= Voodoo 1, Contact, two-ship, line-abreast, high-aspect, West target is at angels 22.
East target is at angels 20.

Voodoo 1-2 (RIO)= Voodoo 2, Contact, two-ship, line-abreast, high-aspect, angels 22 & 20.

Voodoo 1-1 = Voodoo Flight, Sort, 2, East Target

Voodoo 1-2 = 2, Sorted

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 143

11.3.4 MELD (~30 NM)

The flight is now dedicating all of its attention and sensors to the selected targets and target area. No longer
sanitation, now it’s prosecution. If the flight crew has done their job properly, they already have developed an SA picture of
the larger area. As the range closes between them and the contact, so does their SA awareness bubble.
This is where you start “setting the chess board” so to speak and begin thinking about maneuvering for angles
advantage in an ACM engagement. You start maneuvering your flight and flight members for advantageous positions in case
of ACM situation. Level Bracket, High/Lo, O set Left or Right, etc.
11.3.5 STT / Fox 3 or 1 / Crank (~15-20 NM)

At this point you ensure all Targets are locked up and launch a Radar guided missile at the target. As well as
assume they have launched or are about to launch one at you, and begin defensive maneuvering. This is the engagement
range for most MRM’s.
11.3.6 Assess Target Status (~10-20 NM)

Here is where you assess the success or failure of the launch at 15-20 NM range. A choice also needs to be made at this
point.
A. Do you disengage and gain distance or separation?

B. Do you continue to close the distance and risk a BFM engagement? If so, begin game planning the set up for an
ACM engagement.

● Banzai = Launch and decide tactics. Drive closer to VID Range

11.3.7 Visual/Tally (~10 NM)

Visually acquire targets and begin visually sorting.

11.3.8 Fox-2 (4 NM)

Fire IR missiles to try and gain early victory or at a minimum put them on the defensive early.
11.3.9 Merge or Bug-Out (<4 NM)

Continue the Engagement or Extend and Escape?

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 144

11.4. Wingman Responsibilities

The wingman's primary job during an intercept is to support lead to the merge. This includes: checking six o'clock
for the flight, targeting threats to lead's merge, engaging bandits not targeted by lead that are a factor, or calling lead o an
engagement to deal with a higher threat. To perform these functions, the wingman must be able to do three things: (1)
maintain formation, (2) communicate on the radio, and (3) employ valid weapons to kill.

Maintain Formation - A typical deployed formation for a tactical intercept is 5000' to 7000' out, 30° to 45° back with an
altitude stack (see trail formation). If deployed to the inside of the turn, stacking high may cause loss of visual under the
canopy rail during the conversion turn. A low stack solves this problem. If deployed to the outside, strive for the most
forward position possible and maintain an energy advantage by stacking high. As lead converts on the bandit, flying in the
low/inside position requires caution to not be pushed out in front of lead's 3/9 line. On the other hand, the high/outside
position requires anticipation to use altitude to accelerate and avoid being trapped at lead's six o'clock as the merge occurs.

Communicate on the Radio - E cient communications mean a rapid, meaningful exchange of information occurs to
enhance everyone's SA on the problem at hand. When GCI talks to the flight, lead should answer. If all he can say is "Tomcat
One, clean", then at least GCI knows comm is good. When interflight communication occurs, both element members must
say what they know or don't know. "Tomcat One, contact two groups, 10 NM west bull's eye," followed by silence is not
communication. Tomcat Two must respond with "TomcatTwo, clean/same" or whatever he has. As the intercept progresses,
any changes in what the element sees must be communicated and acknowledged. The ability to intercept what is on the
radar is a prerequisite to communicating what you see. Remember, when lead talks or something changes in the radar
scope, a radio call is required. Radio calls should be as complete as possible. "Tomcat Two, contact" tells lead nothing about
the contact's position, altitude, formation, maneuvering, or possible intentions. Often a wingman will only give part of the
information available in an attempt to be brief. An incomplete radio call that begs a question will require extra radio calls.

Weapons Employment - Valid weapons employment is the only thing that will kill threats to the formation. A precise
knowledge of the weapons envelopes, as well as the leader's criteria for engaging, will allow e cient weapon employment.
For example, lead may brief the wingman to shoot any confirmed target within 45° of the nose and 5000' of altitude. This
rather restrictive criteria allows the wingman to engage threats within those parameters while maintaining formation
integrity.

11.5. Night or IMC Intercepts

As an intercept is primarily a sensor and instrument guided actions, Night or IMC Intercepts are fundamentally the
same as day intercepts. Except that maintaining sensor lock is now more important as visual cues, i.e. Contrails or visual
acquisition, might not be available.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 145

Chapter 12 - AIR–TO–SURFACE
10.1. The Air–to–Surface Mission
The surface attack mission is the "bread and butter" mission of the F/A-18C. "Hauling iron" is a challenging mission
that requires complete knowledge of your aircraft systems, handling characteristics, and ordnance. Given current
surface-to-air and air-to-air threat capabilities, the surface attack role is demanding. This chapter presents discussions on
premission planning, delivery parameters, surface attack checks, low and medium altitude considerations, visual and
non-visual bombing, controlled range patterns, and pop-up deliveries.

12.2. Preparation
Contact the flight lead the day prior to the mission and arrive well before brief time ready to mission plan. The
game plan and subsequent execution is a direct reflection of the e ort put into mission planning. Considerations include but
are not limited to:
● Target and desired objectives.

● Threats (surface, air, en route and terminal).

● Aircraft configuration and ordnance load.

With this information, the planning phase can begin. It's important that everyone in the flight participates in the
mission planning. Expect duties to be delegated to each member of the flight. Data required to be gathered and produced
include the following:

● Weather. Note winds, ceilings, visibilities, and sun angles for the target area and route. Obtain Tactical Decision Aid
(TDA) for EO weapon planning and employment.

● Takeo data should reflect the increased weight and drag of the loaded aircraft.

● Weapons employment data.

● Route and target maps.

● Attack parameters.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 146

12.3. Air-To-Ground Mission Planning

Several factors must be considered when planning air-to-ground weapons employment. First, target-munition
compatibility must be determined. For example, dropping CBU to destroy a concrete bridge won't work. Second, the
delivery must be compatible with the desired weapons e ect. If 60ºimpact angle is desired, it's easy to see that a 5º LDGP
delivery won't su ce.

Delivery parameters must be planned with several factors in mind. The release altitude is based on meeting fuze
arming requirements, avoiding frag damage/ safe escape, preventing ground clobber, and avoiding the threat as applicable,
as well planned escape maneuvers or routes.

12.3.1. DMPI Selection

Potential adversaries have the capability of employing camouflage, concealment, and deception (CCD) techniques to
confuse the attacker, causing him to miss the DMPI or even abort the attack. These are particularly e ective against visual
attacks where viewing time is very restricted. Typical of inexpensive, easily employed disruptive techniques are toned down,
disruption of geometric shapes and patterns, and the introduction of a false aimpoint in the target vicinity. Expect to
encounter a combination of these techniques protecting fixed or relocatable ground facilities.

12.3.2. Dive Recovery

Any ordnance delivery requires a proper recovery for two basic reasons: (1) to avoid the weapon frag envelope and
(2) to avoid hitting the ground. Perform the correct planned recovery maneuver on every pass, as described in the Dash 31.
If you release below the planned altitude to compensate for incorrect release parameters, the standard recovery may no
longer be valid. You will have to use more G to e ect a safe recovery, and this is not the right answer. Plan to release at or
above the minimum release altitude or abort the delivery.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 147

12.4. Surface Attack Checks

Ordnance Check - Allow extra time for ordnance preflight. Be sure the load matches the planned configuration. After
engine start, verify the SMS inventory.

INS "Swing" Check - When the INS alignment is complete, it is a good technique to run through all the programmed
destinations and compare bearing and distance from present positions with precomputed values on your card.

Ground Speed (GS) Check - GS on the INS should read zero after alignment.

Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI) - Check Note the position of the VVI in the HUD. Any reading other than zero indicates
a bad vertical accelerometer which will result in erratic twelve and six o'clock errors.

End Of Runway (EOR) Check - After stopping at EOR, conduct Before Take-O Checks.

12.5. Ingress/Egress
12.5.1. Fence Check

Certain items should be checked to ensure that switches and avionics are set up properly prior to entering a hostile
area. This may be just beyond the field boundary, so it may be necessary to do some of these checks prior to takeo . Others
may be delayed until just prior to the push out of the orbit, mission dependent. The following items should be checked as a
minimum. Whether you use the following example is not the point, accomplishing the items is. One way to assure you make
a thorough check of your combat capabilities and are ready to fight, is by using the word FENCE as an acronym:

● F - Fuel. Check balance, total.

● E - Emitters. Use the acronym TRAIL
○ T - TACAN. Check operation. A/A set as briefed.
○ R - Radar. Set CCR and altitude coverage as briefed.
○ A - ALQ & ALR. Set proper ECM and RWR settings as required.
○ I - IFF. Set modes, codes, and Auto/Man as required.
○ L - Lights. All exterior o .
● N - Navigation. INS check/verify steerpoints. Confirm GPS/Nav status.
● C - Cha and flares. ARM and check operation airborne.
● E - Employment. Recheck weapons programming set as briefed. Check arming options to include weapon, fuze
arming option, release pulses, spacing, and delivery modes. Ensure Master Arm is set as required. Confirm TGP
laser code is set IAW mission requirements and Arm as required. Turn up volumes on missile, RWR, UHF, VHF, and
secure voice to desired levels.

As you can see, a complex mission will also have a complex FENCE check. Omission of even a single item could
result in a dry pass, a missed shot opportunity, or even risk being shot down due to no flares or ECM. It may be helpful to
write down critical FENCE check items on your mission card.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 148

12.5.2. Low Altitude Considerations

The use of the low altitude structure is one method of target area ingress and egress. How low to fly and how long
to fly there is determined by the objective for using the low altitude structure. Flying low reduces the lethal engagement
zone of some surface-to-air threats. Flying low reduces some early warning capabilities and o ers a degree of tactical
surprise. Selective use of the low altitude structure is an e ective method of getting to and from target areas, when
thoroughly planned and executed. Flying low is not a panacea for every tactical problem. Do not fly lower than the altitude
where you can safely and e ectively perform all assigned tasks. Refer to Chapter 5 for low altitude navigation operations.

Depending on the threat scenario, fly at an altitude that safely balances detection, threat avoidance, and cockpit
operations. This regime allows the flight to avoid the ground, navigate, and conduct visual look out. Maneuvering tactical
formations at low altitude is a di cult task requiring a high degree of skill and proficiency. Checking six, monitoring the
radar, and interpreting defensive systems are di cult and become degraded when compared to these activities at higher
altitudes. The advantages of operating at low altitude must be weighed against the inherent disadvantages when deciding to
maneuver in this regime. Flying at extremely low altitude (100 feet AGL) should only be performed when absolutely
necessary.

Advantages of low altitude operations:

● Detection by threats may be delayed.

● Exposure time to surface-to-air threats is reduced. Threat systems are restricted to line-of-sight. Terrain degrades
the detection and tracking capabilities of many systems.

● Many air-to-air threats have little or no radar and missile capability at low and very low altitudes. Look down/shoot
down fighters provide a low altitude capability, but all weapons systems have reduced e ectiveness at low altitude.

● Below the weather operations are possible if the threat allows.

Disadvantages of low altitude operations:

● Proximity to the ground is the most significant disadvantage. Demand on your flying skills is greater than at higher
altitudes.

● Navigation can be more di cult. You see much less of the "big picture" and can quickly become disoriented
regarding your position, or confused by intentional alterations of the target area. Task Saturation, due to low
altitude operations, degrades time available to concentrate on position analysis.

● Fuel flow increases significantly at low altitude. As such, combat radius is reduced. Missions Requiring extended
periods of low altitude operations require thorough mission planning to ensure su cient fuel is available. Tankers
may or may not be available.

● Low altitude operations put you in the heart of AAA engagement zones.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 149

12.5.3. Medium Altitude Considerations

Flying at medium altitude is another viable option for target area ingress and egress in certain circumstances. The
same planning process must occur when selecting the altitude flown. Threat avoidance, early warning detection and aircraft
performance are but a few considerations.

The same techniques for dead reckoning and map reading at low altitude apply at medium altitude with the
exception of these qualifiers at higher altitudes. It's easier to see the "big picture" in front of the jet. However, the
road/bridge turnpoint may be di cult to see from medium altitude. Turnpoints must be selected on the basis of distinct
identification from higher altitudes. For example, choose the major highway interchange versus the dirt road/railroad
intersection, or the mountain peak versus the small ridge. Weather must be considered as well (for example, low fog).

Medium altitude ingress allows the pilot, based on task load, to look inside for longer periods of time. Radar work
will be easier because more time is available to monitor the display. Medium altitude may be the correct option when the
major threat is AAA.

Advantages of Medium Altitude:

● Better range/endurance potential.

● Threat avoidance from certain systems; especially light AAA.

● Easier navigation when weather is not a factor.

● Higher potential energy.

● More time available to work aircraft systems and to interpret and recognize details from target study.

● Simpler attack geometry is possible.

Disadvantages of Medium Altitude:

● Vulnerable to certain threat systems.

● Easier detection by threat due to radar LOS.

● Threat is not isolated above you; 3D threat attack axis exists.

● Less aircraft performance dependent on configuration.

● A-A missiles have longer ranges.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 150

12.6. Computed Visual Bombing

Although the computed weapons delivery capability of the F/A-18C can make up for sloppy pilots, the system can
get bombs closer to the target by flying smooth, accurate parameters. The planned parameters ensure frag clearance,
desired impact angle, fuze arming, or burst/function altitude for weapons. Varying dive angles changes fuze, arm, safe
escape, and minimum recovery altitudes. A running aim-o distance(AOD) due to improper dive angle G can produce an
excessively fast pipper ground track and prevent agood bombing solution. Holding AOD slows the pipper ground track rate
and provides a better bombing solution which improves accuracy.

12.6.1. Choosing a Delivery Option

The F/A-18C, with its sophisticated avionics package, gives the pilot several visual bomb delivery options. The
method of delivery is dependent upon the aircraft systems available. Specifically, the ordinance can be released in the
following ways:

● CCIP(Continuously Computed IMPACT Point)

● Auto(CCRP - Continuously Computed RELEASE Point)

● MAN

Full computed delivery is preferred due to its accuracy and independence from precalculated dive angles, airspeeds,
altitudes, and winds. Computed delivery is dependent, however, upon the following:

● An operable computer.

● Accurate INS fine alignment (good INS velocities).

● An accurate ranging reference (radar or system altitude).

If the FCC computer is inoperative, there is no choice other than to deliver manually. This can be done with the help
of the HUD, which will still provide airspeed and altitude scales along with pitch lines and TVV.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 151

12.6.2. Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP)

Initiate the CCIP delivery mode by selecting AG Mode, select the correct weapon and on the SMS page under mode
select CCIP. Verify the weapon is programmed correctly, single/pair option, qty, mult, and both mechanical and electronic
fuzing selection. Place the master arm switch to MASTER ARM and check for a RDY indication in the SMS and CCIP in the
HUD. Select the target steerpoint to ensure correct target elevation if the system reverts to BARO.

Use a smooth roll in and roll out, compensating for the wind and turn radius. Disregard the bomb fall line (BFL) and
CCIP pipper during the roll in. Concentrate on rolling out with the VVI on your aim-o point (no wind), for crosswind
conditions, aim slightly upwind of the aim-o point. After roll-out and HUD symbology settles, set the aim-o distance
(AOD) by the target-to-BFL relationship. This will pay o in the tactical environment. Once the initial pipper
placement/aim-o point has been set, hold the TVV on that spot and allow the CCIP pipper to approach the target as you
steer out any azimuth errors. Don't pull the TVV up in an e ort to rush the pass. This “banana pass” will result in a higher
than planned release, and degrades delivery accuracy.

Remember, 3 to 5 seconds on final is fast enough, don't rush it any more than that by "pulling" the pipper up to the
target (Figure 12.1). If you find the pipper
will not get to the target prior to minimum
release altitude, decrease the dive angle by
raising the AOD to ensure pickle by the
minimum release altitude. Once
established wings level with the TVV at
twelve o'clock to the target, the BFL should
be near the target. Fly the aircraft to put
the target under the BFL. Correct as
necessary to keep the BFL through the
target and allow the CCIP pipper to
smoothly track up to the target. Avoid the
common error of allowing the nose to rise
and thus move the TVV beyond the desired aim-o point.

Pickle when the CCIP pipper reaches the target. Pickle and hold your release G until all bombs arereleased. Avoid
the tendency to “quick pickle” as this could inhibit release with a delay cue or result in partial release.

Since the CCIP mode is a computed bombing mode, the e ects of winds are automatically compensated for by the
wind model in the FCC. Your job as the pilot is to get the pipper over the target and to do that, you need to consider the
winds. The headwind/tailwind component is corrected for in the computer by moving the CCIP pipper up or down along the
BFL and thus is not of main concern to the pilot. Most of the crosswind correction is made by drift stabilization of the TVV
and associated symbology. However, with strong winds and/or high drag weapons, there will be additional corrections
required to account for bomb trail. The BFL will be sloped to the downwind side. Under these conditions you may wish to
place the BFL slightly upwind of the target on the initial roll out.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 152

12.6.3. Auto(CCRP - Continuously Computed RELEASE Point)

Where bombing belivery in CCIP is very hands-on and stick and rudder skills dependent, there’s almost an
art-like quality to it. Auto mode is more about system administration and flying the parameters, and the system calculates
all other variables. The AUTO mode provides computed, automatic release of bombs. It computes release solutions for dive,
dive toss, level, and low angle lofts up to 45°. This mode requires a ground designation point from which to build the
bombing solution. Command steering is provided to the appropriate weapon release point and the weapon will release
automatically at the proper time such that the weapons hit the target.

To calculate a bombing solution in AUTO mode, a target first must be designated. This can be done by:

● Flying to place the HUD/JHMCS reticle pipper over the target and designate it with the TDC button.

● Designating a waypoint location as the target as set on the HSI using the WPDSG option.

12.6.3.1. HUD / JHMCS Designation

The Mission Computer (MC) provides an Azimuth Steering Line (ASL) to provide steering to the designated target.
Designation is accomplished pressing and holding the Weapon Release Button when the HUD Reticle is over the target. By
placing the Velocity Vector on the ASL and holding down the Weapon Release Button, the weapon will release at the proper
time and account for wind.

When the JHMCS is on, Castle Switch forward assigns the TDC to either the HMD or the HUD. TDC assignment then
automatically switches between the HMD and the HUD until the TDC is assigned to an DDI. When the pilot LOS is within the
HMD blanking area (in other words, generally looking forward towards the HUD), TDC assignment moves to the HUD. When
the pilot LOS is outside of the HMD blanking area, TDC assignment moves to the HMD.
12.6.3.2. Waypoint Designation

The Mission Computer (MC) provides an Azimuth Steering Line (ASL) to provide steering to the designated target
based on a designated waypoint. Designation is accomplished by selecting a waypoint on the HSI and selecting the Waypoint
Designation (WPDSG) option on push button 18. This will in turn set the selecting waypoint as a target (TGT) waypoint from
which the AUTO bomb delivery is calculated.
12.6.3.3. Bombing Delivery

Once the target is designated using either the HUD/JMCS or a waypoint and the SMS page is set for AUTO delivery,
the Azimuth Steering Line (ASL) is displayed on the HUD and provides steering direction to the target as indicated by the
Steering Pointer on the Heading Scale. When within the HUD field of view, the target will also be marked with a diamond
Target Designator that denotes the target's line of sight location. By flying the aircraft to keep the Velocity Vector on the
ASL, the aircraft will assume the correct azimuth steering to satisfy the bombing solution. By flying to maintain the Velocity
Vector over the Pullup Cue, adequate release altitude is also assured to avoid weapon fragmentation and weapon fuzing.

12.6.4 Manual (MAN) Bombing Mode HUD

Manual mode is a backup mode for visual delivery. From the A/G SMS page with MAN selected as the delivery mode,
the UFC function allows the pilot to adjust the HUD reticle position in mils. By understanding the bombing table data for a
weapon (release angle, altitude, and airspeed), the manual mode can be an e ective means to place bombs on target.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 153

12.7. Bombing Angles

A critical factor in attaining preplanned parameters is interception of the planned dive angle while pointed at the
aim-o point. Minor deviations in attack heading are usually acceptable. As you complete the pull-down, the delivery
problems are those of a normal weapons delivery pass (i.e., power modulation, roll out, tracking, weapons delivery and
recovery). For computed deliveries, CCIP is probably the optimum delivery mode to minimize exposure time and provide
desired ordnance accuracy. DTOS point blank aiming may also be used. In fact, one technique for a low drag bomb is to pop
in DTOS. If you're wide, you can toss the bombs to the target. At any time, you can change to CCIP by depressing the NWS
button.

12.7.1. Visual Level Delivery (VLD) (0°-5°)

This type of delivery is flown when the weather or threat precludes steeper dive angles. Ingress the target area at
low altitude, terrain masking and constantly jinking until just prior to weapon release. It can be done in either CCIP or AUTO
modes. Since your approach to the target is a random flight path, good planning is required to arrive at an action point
where target acquisition is initiated and weapons delivery commenced. If a level delivery is planned, simply arrive at the
target on your proper altitude with the CCIP pipper properly positioned. If a 5o diving delivery is planned, initiate a 10°
pull-up followed by a pull-down/bunt approximately 500' below planned apex. Pay particularly close attention to precise
release parameters and to the fuze arming/pull-up anticipation cue to ensure adequate fuze arming time-of-fall,
fragmentation clearance and ground avoidance. The recovery portion of this delivery must be emphasized to ensure safe
escape criteria from your munition!

12.7.2. Low Angle Low Drag Bombing (LALD) (10°-20°)

The delivery is designed for low-angle delivery of low-drag weapons. Exercise care in computing release altitudes to
assure fuze arming and safe escape. Planned angle-o for this type of delivery can vary from 15°-90°, although optimum
angle is approximately 2 x climb angle. Accomplish pull-up to the planned climb angle (15°+5° and 20°+10%) and
pull-down at the preplanned pull-down altitude. Take care to properly monitor the altimeter to determine the proper
pull-down point since the apex altitude for a LALD delivery is considerably higher than for a LAHD delivery and visual cues
can be deceiving. For CCIP deliveries roll out with the target approximately halfway between the TVV and CCIP pipper. For
DTOS, roll out with caged symbology slightly short of the target. Monitor slant range to ensure proper release parameters.
Pay special attention to the altimeter to assure you deliver at or above the planned altitude.

12.7.3. High Altitude Dive Bombing (HADB) (30°-45°)

This delivery is designed for high angle delivery of low-drag weapons in a high threat environment. During mission
planning, aircraft configuration must be taken into account to ensure this type of approach is feasible. The approach to the
target is normally at 450 KCAS (minimum) to an action point 4–5 NM short of the target. At this point, a check turn
between 20°—30° is required to obtain the necessary o set. At the desired pop point, a 4 G pull-up is initiated to the
planning climb angle (usually dive angle plus 159) in full AB. Once the pop-up is established, time should be devoted to
target acquisition which can be di cult since you will be looking down over the canopy rail. Monitor the altimeter as the
pull down altitude approaches due to the rapid climb rate to ensure correct parameters. At the apex, the aircraft will be at
or nearly inverted, so care must be taken to roll out with the proper AOD. Attacks should be planned to provide 5 seconds of
tracking/designate time prior to arriving at the release altitude. For CCIP deliveries, roll out with the target approximately
two thirds of the way down between the TVV and CCIP pipper.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 154

If the parameters are bad or you have doubts about continuing the pass, either abort the pass or reposition. After
releasing weapons, the threat will dictate the type of recovery, but for peacetime training recover with a 4–5 G pull until
the nose is above the horizon then execute the egress plan.

12.8 High Drag (HD) Bomb Delivery

The Hornet has the option to delivery high drag bombs that either use a ballute chute or fold-out brakes. This allows
the bomb to fall well behind the aircraft when dropped at low-altitudes and fast airspeeds. In addition to the high-drag
option, these bombs also have “slick” options that allow them to behave as standard free-fall bombs. The Hornet’s high drag
bombs include:

● Mk-82 Snake Eye, that is a Mk-82, 500-pound class bomb that has the option for four, fold-out air-brakes to slow
the weapon. The SMS code is 82XT.

● MK-82 with BSU-49 ballute is a Mk-82, 500-pound class bomb that uses an inflatable bag that retards the weapon.
Its SMS code is 82YT.

High drag weapons can be delivered in CCIP, AUTO, and MAN modes. When DRAG is set to RET, guidelines for an
accurate delivery are as follows:

● Ensure that aircraft barometric pressure altimeter match the mission

● Level flight between 300 to 500 feet AGL

● Maintain flight path marker on or just above the horizon line on the HUD. Letting it dip below the horizon line will
result in a Break X.

● Airspeed above 450 knots

12.8.1. Low Angle High Drag Bombing (LAHD) (10°-15°)

This attack maneuver is very similar to that of low-angle strafe. It is designed for low-angle delivery of high drag
weapons. The approach to the target is normally planned to be made from a run-in heading o set 150–30° from the attack
heading at a minimum of 450 KCAS. At the desired pop point, a 3–4 G pull-up is initiated to the planned climb angle
(usually dive angle plus 59). At the preplanned pull-down altitude, the aircraft should be rolled towards the target and the
nose pulled down to roll out just as you would in any low angle bomb delivery. Normally, this type of delivery is planned to
allow 3–5 seconds of tracking/designate time prior to arriving at planned release altitude. For CCIP deliveries, roll out with
the target approximately one-third down between the TVV and CCIP pipper. For manual deliveries, roll out with the flight
path marker on the correct aim-o point or plan the roll out to place the standby reticle the precomputed number of mils
short of the target/upwind aimpoint.

12.9 Air-to-Ground Gun & Rocket

Two modes for the A/G gun and rockets are available from the A/G Stores page: CCIP and MAN. These can be
enabled by selecting the weapon from the A/G SMS page and then selecting the desired delivery mode. They feature either a
“point and shoot” CCIP reticle or a manually adjusted manual sight based on a manual mil setting. Both the A/G Gun and
Rockets are very similar in their programming, HUD, and delivery modes.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 155

Since the computer merely presents a continuous prediction of bullet impact in the HUD, the fundamental
techniques of manual strafe must still be applied. The primary advantages of computed strafe over manual strafe are the
automatic calculation of an upwind aimpoint and the freedom to fire at any range within the e ective gun envelope. These
features permit reliable impacts even in high or changing crosswinds. When in CCIP mode and the gun/rocket is within
maximum slant range of the pipper’s aim point, the “IN RNG” cue is provided. If, however, there is a designated ground
target, the “SHOOT” cue will be displayed if the gun/rocket is within range of the target.

12.9.1. Low-Angle Computed Strafe

On downwind Select gun mode and strafe option on the SMS. Check master arm to MASTER ARM and ARM in HUD
(local restrictions permitting). Verify air-to-surface gun symbology and declutter theHUD as necessary. Fly the base leg and
roll in as described for low angle bomb. One technique is to roll out with the bottom of the gun cross on the target. Lead the
roll in to final in order to line up on the run-in line (if applicable) of your target. The following steps are a technique used by
many Hornet pilots to achieve maximum strafe hits:

● Check the dive angle at 10º–15º.

● Note the pipper relationship to the run-in line to determine crosswind.
● O set gun cross into the wind and note pipper tracking up the run-in line.
● Set power to maintain 420-450 KCAS maximum.
● Track > Shoot > Track > Recover
Regardless of the tracking method you use, it is still a good idea to fire a short sighter burst on the first hot pass.
Note the CCIP pipper position when you fire. If the impacts were not through the CCIP pipper, use an adjusted aimpoint on
subsequent passes. Remember, on each pass you are wasting ammo if youfire when your CCIP pipper is o the aimpoint.
Remember, Track - Shoot - Track.

12.9.2. High Angle Computed Strafe

This delivery is used tactically much more frequently than low-angle strafe to avoid small arms fire and allow bullet
penetration into revetted or entrenched positions. Open-fire slant range is slightly more than two times that of low-angle
strafe (6200'). Consequently, computed impact prediction greatly improves results in an environment of unknown winds and
extreme slant range.

Perform the roll in from 8000' AGL as you would for a 30º dive with point-blank aiming. The VV should initially be
short of the target with the CCIP pipper some 50 plus mils below it. This roll in is significantly more nose low than it is for
DB because your AOD is actually a negative value (short of the target). Using the gun cross as an initial aiming reference
will help until the VV and CCIP pipper become stabilized.

Note your altitude and set power for release airspeed at open-fire range (normally idle). Monitor your descent rate
toward open-fire altitude. Control the rate of CCIP pipper movement toward the target with back stick and bank so as to
have it there as you arrive at 4000'–3500' open-fire altitude. Since the in range cue does not appear until 4000' (6000’ for
PGU-28) slant range, it may not be above the CCIP pipper at open-fire altitude.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 156

12.10 Tactical Considerations

12.10.1. Visual Level Delivery (VLD)

This delivery profile is essentially a level delivery or very shallow dive similar to that used for high drag weapons.
However, parameters for adequate fuze arming and safe escape become much more critical due to the weapon time of
flight. F/A-18C ballistics tables have minimum release parameters for various fuze settings. CCIP is the recommended
delivery mode.

Advantages:

● Exposure time is minimal.

● Navigation is direct to the target. No o set is required.

● Reduces acquisition time for threat systems.

Disadvantages:

● Target acquisition is di cult.

● Low impact angle may reduce weapons e ectiveness.

● The minimum altitude for fuze arming and frag clearance is easy to violate.

12.10.2. Dive Bomb (DB)

Dive bomb is a delivery from medium altitude using 20º or steeper dive. Roll-in altitude is achieved through a
pop-up, combat climb, or medium-altitude ingress.

Advantages:

● Increased bomb impact angle with improved penetration e ectiveness over low angle deliveries.

● Increased accuracy due to slower movement of the pipper across the ground and increased radar grazing angle.
Baro bombing system altitude errors have less e ect.

● Increased time for target acquisition.

● Radar-fuzed CBU weapons may be delivered e ectively.

● Recoveries may be accomplished above some small AAA threats.

Disadvantage:

● Exposure to the SAM and air-to-air threat increases significantly.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 157

12.10.3. High Altitude Release Bomb (HARB) and High Altitude Dive Bomb (HADB)

HARB and HADB are deliveries from medium or high altitude preferably using 30º or steeper dive. Roll-in altitude is
typically achieved from a high altitude ingress. Problems associated with HARB andHADB include high crosswinds, lateral
miss bomb release inhibit (if using CCRP), delay cues, and high Greleases due to delay cues. In addition, weapons e ects
may vary greatly from those expected at lowerrelease altitudes. Increased slant ranges, longer radar ranging, and high
transonic release airspeeds all result in unpredictable bomb separation e ects, cluster munition patterns and unpredictable
weapon impact points. Above 15,000 feet AGL, GPS equipped aircraft with a high navigation system status and accurate
target coordinates, should consider dropping in CCRP in order to minimize visual aiming errors. When dropping GP bombs,
release intervals should be at the minimum, due to increased bomb time of fall, long release intervals, and separation
e ects. For cluster bombs, use the lowest HOB compatible with the ordnance and desired weapons e ects to minimize
dispersion of submunitions due to wind e ects.

Advantages:
● Increased bomb impact angle and penetration.
● Increased time for target acquisition.
● Recoveries may be accomplished above small arms/light AAA threats.
Disadvantages:
● Increased exposure to SAM and air-to-air threats.
● Unpredictable weapons e ects.
● Decreased accuracy with free fall munitions; especially CBU.
● Di cult to maintain visual mutual support during recovery and egress due to large altitude changes.

12.10.4. Low Altitude Toss (LAT)

This profile allows accurate visual deliveries of low drag munitions at stando ranges.

Advantages:
● Provides lateral spacing for frag deconfliction.
● Allows stando from several lethal defensive systems.
● Increased defensive maneuvering time against SAMs in the target area.
● Increased availability of tracking time.
● Allows considerable flexibility in meeting planned parameters.
● Eliminates problems associated with being inside the MAP/PUP.
Disadvantages:
● Accuracy is degraded over a CCIP delivery.
● Long slant ranges can cause di culties with target acquisition.
● Increased exposure time but at longer slant ranges.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 158

12.11 Controlled Range Patterns

Basic/Initial qualification may be accomplished using the "box" pattern (Figure 12.2). Curvilinear patterns are
suitable for tactical deliveries. Once mission ready, pilots are required to use tactical patterns, such as curvilinear or
pop-up, for valid weapons delivery "Hits."

12.11.1. The Box Pattern

The pattern activities described here will span approximately 80-90 seconds.

12.11.1.1. Crosswind
When turning crosswind (or any other place in the pattern), realize that you may be turning inside the preceding
aircraft (the "co n corner"). Roll out or ease o momentarily and look outside as well as inside your turn until you are sure
your turn is clear. If you are still not sure who is where, ask! Example: “Stinger 1, say posit”. All other flight members
should stay o the radio except to resolve the situation: “Stinger 1 is turning base”. Once the visual is regained, or SA
confirms there is no conflict, the a ected fighter should transmit “Stinger 2 is visual” or “Stinger 2, continue". If the
situation can not be immediately resolved, a knock-it-o will be called. Maintain altitude separation until the confusion is
resolved to avoid passing or colliding with the preceding aircraft. This will also aid in keeping the pattern from becoming
uncomfortably tight. The preceding aircraft will normally be in your ten or two o'clock position.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 159

12.11.1.2. Downwind

The flight leader will establish the downwind leg ground track. This is not a hard and fast position and may be
varied by individual pilots to adjust spacing. Downwind should be wide enough to allow for wings-level stabilization on the
base leg. Plan to arrive at base leg altitude prior to actually turning base. On hot days or with higher gross weights,
afterburner may be required.
While on downwind, prepare armament systems as necessary. Evaluate pattern spacing and analyze delivery errors.
Analyze winds and adjust pattern as necessary to fly the correct ground track. A four-ship is properly spaced when an
aircraft is at each of the four corners of the pattern. Alter the distance a beam the target on downwind as necessary to
adjust pattern spacing.
In low-angle patterns (20° or less), adhere closely to the pattern airspeeds and altitudes. In higher altitude delivery
patterns, climb at an airspeed no slower than the planned base leg airspeed.
12.11.1.3. Base

Base position is one of the most critical positions in the pattern. It determines proper dive parameters and is
normally the largest cause of poor parameters when improperly flown. There are three major conditions required to begin a
successful roll-in. Airspeed, altitude and base position. Two of these are controlled in the cockpit (airspeed and altitude).
Base position can be an ambiguous point determined through calculations done during pre-flight planning. These
calculations can be applied in the cockpit through two sources-eyeballs (visual point on the ground or visual assessment of
the wire) or the HUD. With an accurate INS, the base position calculation can be used in the HUD in the CCRP mode. This
can be an accurate base position range used for not only a box/curve pattern, but also a pop-up and roll-in point for low and
high altitude attacks. A practice of using CCRP with a pre-planned roll-in range could enhance your attack parameters. The
following procedures should be used when flying the conventional range pattern:

● DO NOT vary base leg position to adjust pattern spacing. If you are too close behind the aircraft ahead, turn base at
the normal point and plan to go through dry on final. Adjust your pattern on downwind.

● Call turning base (e.g., "Three, base").

● Delay your base call (not the turn), if necessary, until the aircraft ahead has received clearance from the range
o cer.

● When established on base, make last-minute adjustments in heading to compensate for winds or actual ground
track. Adjust airspeed.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 160

12.11.1.4. Roll In

Consider the winds at pattern altitude and adjust the final roll-in point as necessary. As you begin your final turn,
should you determine that you are too close or too wide on base, you may still achieve a proper dive angle by adjusting nose
attitude during roll in. Compensate for being too close by over banking and lowering the nose sooner. Avoid an extreme
nose-low attitude. Abort the pass if the dive angle is over 50 steeper than planned (10° if the planned recovery altitude is
above 10,000 feet AGL). Compensate for being too wide by reducing bank and maintaining the nose level longer in the final
turn. Realize that airspeed on final approach depends largely on power setting. You may choose to set power prior to roll in
or you may wish to use military power throughout the turn, retarding the throttle to the proper setting on final. Most pilots
prefer to use military power for the roll in to preclude an inadvertent slow speed/high AOA situation. Lead your roll in by one
turn radius (usually about 3300' to 4500' depending on TAS) to prevent angling. The amount of allowable angling varies for
di erent ranges, and depends on range o cer judgment. However, up to 10° is normally allowable. Never overfly manned
range towers. If it looks and/or feels bad, go through dry.

12.11.1.5 Final

When rolling out on final during any attack, make certain you know exactly which is your target and release
ordnance only when you are positive of its identification.

12.11.1.6 Recovery

Recover your aircraft above the minimum recovery altitude regardless of whether your ordnance is away or not,
with the appropriate SEM. Recoveries should be flown at or above minimum altitude for AAA, based on the type of munition,
threat, and target area tactics.

12.11.1.7 Turn to Crosswind

Begin the turn to crosswind as soon as your aircraft's nose is definitely above the horizon and power has been
advanced for the climb back to base altitude. Any delay will extend the pattern and present the risk of the following aircraft
turning inside you.

11.11.2.1 Climbing Safe Escape Maneuver

Normally, a climbing safe escape maneuver (CLM) is used for dive angles greater than 20°. After release, obtain 5.0
G's in 2 seconds. As the nose approaches the horizon, apply military power. G is maintained to a 20° climbing flight path
angle and then relaxed until 30°.

11.11.2.2 Turning Safe Escape Maneuver

For dive angles 20° or less, a CLM or turning safe escape maneuver (TSEM) is recommended.

CAUTION:
There are two types of TSEMs: Level Turn and Descending Turn; ensure you refer to the appropriate one.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 161

12.11.3 Curvilinear Deliveries

Curvilinear deliveries are used primarily for delivering ordnance from shallow dive angles at relatively low release
altitudes (Figure 10.3). The use of shallower dive angles and lower release altitudes may be necessitated by the type of
ordnance being delivered, weather in the target area, or other tactical considerations. A curvilinear approach consists of
constantly changing heading, altitude, airspeed, and G loading to arrive on final for a short tracking solution, thus
decreasing AAA hit probability. It may consist of almost any flight path which will allow you to get from roll-in altitude to
wings level on final at the planned track point. The most common technique is a descending turn in 30°-60° of bank using
MIL power initially. Approaching desired release airspeed, retard the throttle as required to hold airspeed. Play the last half
of the turn to arrive on final with the bomb fall line through the target for CCIP deliveries. For TOSS deliveries fly the TD box
to, or just short of, the target. Cross-check your parameters and make any adjustments necessary to meet your planned
release minimums. Designate/pickle and initiate the recovery. This technique is good for LAS, LAHD, LALD, and LLLD
deliveries. Curvilinear deliveries may be flown as follows:

● The crosswind, downwind, and base leg are similar to the basic box pattern.

● Begin the curvilinear approach to final at approximately twice the distance of the basic delivery turn to

● final—6000' prior to an imaginary extended centerline through the target—by lowering the nose slightly,
increasing power, and simultaneously establishing a 30°-60° bank.

● Adjust dive angle, power and bank angle throughout the final turn to arrive wings level on final with the target
approximately two-thirds of the way down the bomb fall line between the TVV and the CCIP pipper for CCIP.
Wings-level tracking time on final should not exceed 5 seconds with 3–4 seconds desired.

Curvilinear deliveries may also be flown by initiating the turn to final from a modified downwind position. The key to
starting the pattern from other than the base leg position is to adjust the downwind altitude and position so that a turn can
be made to put you at or near the curvilinear base leg position. You may fly a higher downwind altitude and make your turn
to final a continuous 180° turn. However you get there, whether a descending turn or a level turn, the desired objective is to
arrive at the planned track point with the proper parameters (Figures 12.3 & 12.4).
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 162

Figure 12.3 Curvilinear Pattern

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 163

Figure 12.4 Curvilinear Pattern (Continuous Turn)

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 164

12.11.4. Pop-up Deliveries

Patterns should be established to enable

pilots to fly pop-up deliveries as those discussed
previously. Figure 12.5 depicts a typical pop pattern.
Use caution for descending turns at low altitude.
Pop-up deliveries may be flown as follows:

● The base position should be based on a DME

range from the target that will allow a
descending MIL power turn to point at the
target NLT 1-2 NM prior to the action point.

● Accelerate to 480-540 KCAS or as required

for the delivery and action at the specified
range.

● Fly the attack as discussed previously.

12.11.5. Range Departure

When recovering from his last pass, the flight lead will climb while slowing to the planned rejoin airspeed. Prior to
rolling in on final for your last pass, attempt to acquire the preceding aircraft. This will make later acquisition easier.
Execute a normal pass and recovery. Report all aircraft you have in sight.
Examples:

● "Reaper Two o , one aircraft in sight."

● "Reaper Three o , two aircraft in sight."

● "Reaper Four o , three aircraft in sight."

If you don't have visual contact with all preceding aircraft, say so immediately. Do not begin a turn until you have
visual contact or until positive altitude separation is assured. Realize that angle-o can be rather high during o -range
rejoins. When coupled with high airspeeds, this situation often requires more judgment and skill than do normal rejoins.
Avoid dropping low during rejoin. Should a frequency change be necessary prior to your rejoin, remember aircraft control
takes precedence over a channel change.

At your earliest convenience, safe all your armament switches. The flight lead will call for an armament safety
check and all wingmen will confirm their switches are safe and acknowledge. Complete an ordnance check when directed.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 165

12.11.6. No Release

A no release is most commonly caused by incorrectly set switches, releasing the pickle button early (quick pickle),
malfunctioning SUU/TER's, or an SMS problem. More than likely your first indication of no release will be the range o cer's
declaration of a no-spot. If your switches were correct, you should suspect hung ordnance. On downwind, recheck the SMS
for a RDY indication and note the quantity remaining. If the quantity did not step down, then the SMS never delivered a fire
signal. A "quick pickle" (releasing the pickle button too soon) can cause this indication and will result in a no release.
Continue in the appropriate delivery pattern, executing dry passes if necessary while analyzing the problem. Reattempts to
expend may be accomplished as long as there are no other apparent malfunctions. Use caution not to become so engrossed
in manipulating switches that you exceed pattern parameters.

12.11.7. Jettison Procedures

Refer to pgs 45-46 of the DCS Manual for jettison of external fuel tanks or any unsecure heavyweight/ live
ordnance. Wingmen should notify their flight leader as soon as they think a jettison may be required because it will take
time and fuel to set up for jettison. Bingo fuel is not the time to start jettison procedures. Know the NATOPS jettison limits
for the ordnance/suspension equipment you are carrying. Refer to your checklist, if you are forced to land with
asymmetrical stores.

12.12. Pop-Up Deliveries

A highly sophisticated and integrated SAM/AAA/air-to-air threat environment or weather may force a low-level
ingress and pop-up attack. While such tactics place us within the AAA and small arms environment, a properly planned and
executed pop-up attack should give us our best possible odds against SAM or air-to-air threats and, in addition, can provide
surprise and deception to enhance survivability against AAA. There are many variations of pop-up attacks. It is important
that you understand the basics of the maneuver; namely how to plan and execute each type of attack. You will be
establishing habit patterns and using rules of thumb which will ensure successful and safe attacks.

12.12.1. Pop-Up Definitions

● Approach Heading — The heading flown during wings-level pull-up and climb.

● Attack Heading — The heading flown during the wings level attack. Also called the attack axis.

● Angle-O — The di erence between approach and attack heading.

● Direct Pop-up —
Angle-o less than 150.

● O set Pop-up —
Angle-o greater than
15°.

● Indirect Pop-up —
Angle-o greater than
90°.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 166

12.12.2. O set pop-up definitions

● Initial Point (IP) — The point where the last leg to the target begins. Normally, the IP is prominent, unique, and
10 to 20 NM out from the target.

● Action Point/Range — The point/range from the target where you take o set for an o set or indirect pop-up
attack.

● Pop Point — A position at which the pop-up attack is initiated. The point where climb is initiated.

● Climb Angle — The angle of climb to be achieved following the initiation of the pop-up. Good rule of thumb is 15°
+ planned dive angle = Climb Angle.

● Pop-to-Pull-Down Distance — Distance from the pop point to the pull-down point. This distance is predictable
for a specific set of delivery parameters.

● Pull-Down Point (PDP) — A maneuver point where you transition from the climbing to the diving portion of a
pop-up delivery.

● Dive Angle — The selected angle of dive for weapons delivery.

● Apex — The highest altitude in the pop-up delivery profile.

● Minimum Attack Perimeter (MAP) — An imaginary circle centered on the target equal to the distance from the
target at which tracking begins. The radius of this circle varies with planned delivery parameters.

● Tracking Time — Wings level time from roll out to weapons release.

● Aim-o Distance (AOD)

The ground distance at
12:00 from the target
where you point your nose
during tracking.

● Release Altitude
The altitude above the
ground at which weapons
delivery is accomplished.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 167

12.12.3. Typical O set Pop-Up

In this maneuver, the pop-up approach course is at an angle from 15° to 90° from the final attack heading. The
approach course angle-o varies with the planned climb angle to permit the pilot to acquire the target as soon as possible
and maintain visual contact until completion of weapons delivery.

The pop-up is initiated over a preplanned pop point at a minimum airspeed of 450 KCAS, with training restrictions
and ordnance loads usually being the limiting factors. The system can help you find the planned pop-up point. The
air-to-surface target locator line helps to confirm desired angle-o . The pop point may be coincidental with this ground
reference, or adjacent to it. At the pop point, select desired power (AB or military) make a 3–4 G wings-level pull to the
desired climb angle and initiate cha /flare program. The target should become visible in the front quarter of the canopy
slightly o to the side of the planned roll-in direction. After popping you must maintain planned climb angle and monitor
altitude gained. Approaching the preplanned pull-down altitude, make an unloaded roll in the direction of the target.
Perform a 3–5 G pull-down to intercept the planned dive angle. Make corrections during the maneuver to compensate for
minor errors in the pop point or unexpected winds in the climb to apex at the desired altitude. You normally achieve your
planned apex altitude about half way through the pull-down maneuver.

12.13. Pop-Up Planning

Precise planning is the key to destroying the target in low altitude pop-up mission deliveries. Planning begins with
the fragged target and ordnance load. The target and its environment may drive some attack parameters. For example, a
cave at the base of a hill will drastically limit your choice of attack headings. Weather and threat are also significant
factors. Similarly, assigned ordnance may determine attack parameters. If you'll have MK 82 LDGP, you must allow yourself
enough time to visually acquire a pinpoint target. On the other hand, CBU may require less time on final to fine-tune your
aiming. Once you have analyzed target and ordnance related restrictions, you can determine the release parameters.

Determine how much time you'll need on final. Normally, 3–5 seconds of wings-level time is enough for most
deliveries. Specialized types of ordnance may require you to spend more time on final. Don't try to minimize exposure time
to the point that you won't have time to acquire the target. Compute the MAP distance and then go back to the chart and
choose a prominent and unique IP that will allow you to get to the MAP on an acceptable attack heading. Normally choose
an IP 1 to 2 minutes from the target. There are two basic options you can use to get from the IP to the target.

One choice is to fly from the IP

directly to the PUP. As Figure 12.8 shows,
this approach course will take you to the side
of the target.

The other choice is to depart the IP

and fly directly at the target. At a given
range from the target, turn to the side for
o set and then pop up (Figure 12.9).
Although it looks more complicated, this
choice is often quicker to plan and is the
much more common choice among pilots. The
reason is that the pop portion of the attack is
the same for all IP-to-target distances
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 168

(assuming the IP-to-target distance is outside the action range). Moreover, at any time, you can put the target on the nose
and at the action range, turn a pre planned number of degrees to the side, go a preplanned distance, pop, pull-down, and
attack. Consider the high-threat CAS situation where you don't know the target location prior to contacting the FAC. In this
case, the simplest way to make a pop-up attack is to depart the IP (if you have one) with the target on the nose and, at a pre
planned action range, turn for o set and execute the attack. Over-reliance on the INS could prevent the safe execution of
the attack. A faulty INS could cause you to action late resulting in attack parameters well in excess of that planned. Use all
available navigation aids to determine the proper action point, i.e., clock, ground reference points, etc.

12.13.1. Planning Element Attacks

When adding a second

aircraft to an attack, we encounter
complications due to frag and aircraft
deconfliction. When multiple aircraft
are tasked to attack a target and TOT
compression is desired, a potential
flight path and fragmentation conflict
exists. The fragmentation problem
depends on type of ordnance, delivery
profile, and number of aircraft
attacking the target. Deconfliction
can be achieved through time,
altitude, lateral separation of
aimpoints (Figure 12.10), distance separation from target, or a combination of each.

First, let's look at the maximum bomb fragmentation travel chart in Table 12.3. This data must be used to determine
fragment deconfliction between multiple aircraft attacks. The envelopes present the maximum altitude and maximum
horizontal range anticipated for the worst-case fragment of the bomb case, and the time from detonation until all bomb
case fragments have settled to the ground. Data is provided for sea level and 5000' target density altitudes. Interpolation
between sea level and 5000' and extrapolation up to 10,000' are permissible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 169

MAXIMUM BOMB FRAGMENT TRAVEL

MUNITION ALTITUDE (FT) HORIZONTAL RANGE (FT) TIME OF FLIGHT (sec)

S/L 5000’ S/L 5000’ S/L 5000’

UNITARY WARHEADS

MK-82 2140 2500 2550 2900 24.4 25.9

MK-84 2770 3150 3260 3715 28.0 29.7

INTACT CLUSTER MUNITIONS

CBU-87 1895 2140 2290 2595 23.0 24.4

CBU-97* 2340 2655 2780 3165 26.2 27.6

CLUSTER SUBMUNITIONS

BLU-97 545 620 635 725 12.8 13.7

BLU-108* 695 620 635 725 12.8 13.7

*Estimated figures based on publicly available information

12.13.1.1 Time Deconfliction

Time separation between aircraft deliveries must be equal to or greater than the time the preceding weapon's
fragments are in the air, plus the delivery TOF of the preceding munition. To ensure frag deconfliction from the last weapon
in the string, attack intervals should include the time required for the ripple/train release.

The classic method to achieve time separation is to space the aircraft in elements 4 to 5 nm in trail. Line abreast to
a trail formation of 4-5 nm can be accomplished quickly using variations of a 90/90 maneuver:

● The wingman turns 90° o the ingress heading for approximately 20 seconds.

● After 20 seconds, the flight leader should have traveled 5 nm and the wingman then turns back to the
target.

● Some visual contact may be lost; initiate close to the target but far enough out to avoid getting jammed.
Advantages:

● A more flexible attack is possible if navigation accuracy or target acquisition is questionable.

● Subsequent flight members can bomb o of lead's bomb impact. Disadvantages:

● The wingman flies single-ship close to the target area.

● The flight strings out, which reduces visual mutual support and complicates post-attack rejoin.

● Too much turning near the terminal threat area.

● Disorienting to the wingman requiring a 90° turn to the target.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 170

12.13.1.2 Altitude Deconfliction

Following aircraft must recover above the maximum altitude for the fragment envelope for the preceding attacker's
munition.

Advantages:
● The wingman will have more time to acquire the target.
● High release enables a direct, radar-fuzed CBU delivery.
● Weapon e ects improve with increased impact angle.
● Allows simultaneous attacks on a point target.

Disadvantages:
● Weather must permit higher-altitude deliveries.
● Exposure time for wingmen is increased.
● Depending on release altitude, puts the wingman in the heart of threat envelopes.

12.13.1.3 Horizontal Deconfliction

Based on data from the same chart, targets separated by a lateral distance of more than 3715' (TDA 5000') are
clear of the frag envelope. This means that no portion of the delivery/recovery by succeeding aircraft should be closer to the
target than the 3715' minimum. If attack headings are not parallel, more lateral spacing between targets is required.

Advantages:
● Visual contact is maintained throughout.
● Simultaneous attack saturates defenses.
● Reduces flight exposure time.

Disadvantages:

● Large target is required.

● Flight path conflict over the target is possible.

12.13.1.4 Aircraft Deconfliction

● Depending on target separation, planning for the attack must deconflict aircraft within the attacking
element. Types of deconfliction include time, altitude, and horizontal as mentioned above plus attack
geometry.

● The direct IP-to-target pop-up planning approach must be modified for a wingman who's in tactical
formation.

● The flight leader must plan the attack so each pilot regains mutual support after the attack while egressing
the target area as fast as possible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 171

12.14. Flying A Tactical Pop-Up

Whether you'll be a leader or wingman, there are three things you can
do that will greatly improve your chances of success: know the profile,
navigate precisely, and recognize and correct for errors. It helps to have a
sketch of the attack on your leg (Figure 12.11).

Navigate precisely and be on speed before the IP. Choose an IP you

can easily find and use all available cues to position yourself exactly over it.
Use F/A-18C avionics to improve situational awareness. There are few things
worse than to have a threat divert your attention during an IP-to-target run
and then try to determine just where you were in the attack. While DR is still
important, there are few minds faster than the FCC in determining the what,
where, and when of target information. The FCC can significantly enhance
situational awareness by providing accurate target location. You must,
however, know what to load, what help is available, and where to look for it.

12.14.1. Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception (CCD)

Considerations

Potential adversaries have the capability of using camouflage, concealment and deception techniques to apparently
relocate visual IP's and DMPI's. If your INS appears to be performing well, and you have confidence in your IP and target
coordinates, you should carefully study INS designated IP's and DMPI's for tone-down or false target insertions.
Redesignating on false targets would cause you to miss the target; updating the INS on a falsified IP would degrade an
otherwise accurate navigation system.

12.15. Flyup Attacks

Flyup attacks are a derivative of the pop-up attack and are primarily used in the low threat environment where AAA,
small arms, and IR SAMs are the only threats in the target area. Ingress is at low altitude due to en route threat or to e ect
tactical surprise. The flyup is initiated 6 to 8 NM from the target where both the wingman and leader begin an aggressive
pull up to the base altitude of the planned delivery. Once at base altitude, use the appropriate delivery technique with
emphasis placed on recovery above the AAA/small arms envelope. Emphasis must be on element mutual support and
accurate weapons delivery.

● The flight should use radars to sanitize the target area for airborne threats prior to the fly-up.

● Fly-up at 6–8 NM from the target. The flight lead will check 10°20° away from the target and initiate a climb (use
burner if necessary) to arrive at base altitude in a position to execute a high angle delivery.

● When lead executes the fly-up, the wingman's primary job is visual lookout. Fly-up to place yourself in a position to
visually support lead and execute the planned attack.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 172

12.16. Two Ship Employment Considerations

Deconfliction methods can include split, echelon, trail, shooter cover, and loft.

12.16.1. Split Pop Attack

This option is designed for minimum exposure while splitting the defenses. Deconfliction can be achieved through
altitude, distance, or timing. To achieve altitude separation, the first aircraft can use a level, low angle pop up, VLB delivery,
o setting as necessary for the planned delivery. The second aircraft splits at a predetermined point and pops to a high LALD
or dive bomb delivery and pulls out above the frag envelope (Figure 12.12). To achieve distance deconfliction, the second
aircraft can use LAT or a loft delivery pulling out with separation from the frag (Figure 12.13). For timing separation a split
at su cient distance to achieve the desired spacing is e ective but reduces mutual support after the split. A split closer to
the target requires arcing to remain within visual range and achieve timing separation. This allows the second aircraft to
drop from a low altitude delivery. The distance of the arc from the target depends on the turning room necessary to achieve
delivery parameters. As an example, the second aircraft arcs at 3 NM until the first aircraft's bombs explode, counts 5
seconds, turns to place the target at 10 or 2 o'clock, then executes a LALD, or VLB delivery to give approximately 30 seconds
spacing (Figure 12.14). Timing deconfliction forces an excessive amount of time in the target area. This technique should
only be used for a single point target.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 173

Figure 12.12 Two-Ship Split Pop Attack, Altitude Deconfliction

WARNING:
Altitude deconfliction may put the wingman into the heart of some threats. Use altitudes that recover above the
threat versus frag to the maximum extent possible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 174

Figure 12.13 Two-Ship Split Pop Attack, Distance Deconfliction

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 175

Figure 12.14 Two-Ship Split Pop Attack, Time Deconfliction

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 176

12.16.2. Echelon Pop Attack

An echelon pop has both aircraft o set to one side of the target. This attack allows the element to maintain visual
contact during the ingress, and allows the wingman to fly a visual formation during the attack. Deconfliction can be
achieved through altitude, timing, and distance. Both aircraft turn away from the target at a predetermined point for o set
pops. The lead aircraft can use a minimum exposure delivery such as VLB. The second aircraft can achieve altitude
separation by popping to a high LALD or dive bomb delivery and pulling out above the frag (Figure 12.15). Timing separation
by distance deconfliction by using LAT (Figure 12.16) or arcing (Figure 12.17)may also be used.

Figure 12.15 Two-Ship Echelon Attack, Altitude Deconfliction

WARNING:
Altitude deconfliction may put the wingman into the heart of some threats. Use altitudes that recover above the
threat versus frag to the maximum extent possible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 177

Figure 12.16 Two-Ship Echelon Attack, Altitude Deconfliction

WARNING:
Altitude deconfliction may put the wingman into the heart of some threats. Use altitudes that recover above the threat
versus frag to the maximum extent possible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 178

Figure 12.17 Two-Ship Echelon Attack, Time Deconfliction

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 179

12.16.3. Trail Attacks

A trail attack provides timing

deconfliction but gives up visual
support for the second aircraft during
ingress. Trail formation can be achieved
by a spacing maneuver such as a 90/90
(Figure 12.18) or by airspeed. Both
aircraft use deliveries such as VLB or
loft that minimize exposure to the
terminal threats. The first aircraft
breaks away from the target after
release with the second aircraft
watching for SAM launches. To provide
visual support for the second aircraft,
the first aircraft turns back across the
ingress heading. This helps him
reacquire the second aircraft while
beaming the threats (Figure 12.19).

12.16.4. Shooter - Cover

The shooter cover option can

be flown by a two-ship and allows one
aircraft to attack the target using a
preplanned profile. The second aircraft
stays low and provides visual support
by flying an arcing pattern outside the
terminal threat. After the first aircraft
has delivered ordnance, the second
aircraft has the option of executing its
own attack, or egressing with his
element mate. This option is especially
viable in a very high threat arena.

The shooter's role is to find

and destroy the target. If necessary,
inform cover on target specifics and
egress intentions. The shooter should
adjust any follow-on attacks based on first-look observations.

The cover role includes providing visual look-out for air and surface threats. The cover may engage or suppress
pop-up threats according to prebriefed criteria. The cover should maintain overall battle situation awareness to include new
threat locations (to avoid during egress and re-attacks), egress direction, and target location.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 180

12.17. Loft Attacks

Loft deliveries allow weapons to be delivered simultaneously. In case of a degraded system aboard one aircraft, a
loft can be made on the wing. Another option is the individual loft delivery.

12.17.1. Simultaneous Loft

Both aircraft loft the ordnance from wedge (Figure

12.20). The formation should be spread 6,000 to 9,000 feet to
compensate for convergence during the loft maneuver. Prior to
pull-up, the wingman steers out azimuth errors displayed on his
HUD. An immediate roll/dive recovery after weapon release is
recommended. Avoid a perfect 180 degree reversal as this
would ease the tracking solution for ground threat systems.

Advantages:

● The laterally spread formation causes confusion for

ground threats.

● Provides stand-o from target area threats.

● Each F/A-18C has independent loft accuracy.

● GPS-equipped aircraft can make accurate deliveries if

target coordinates are accurate.

● Egress formation can be established quickly.

Disadvantages:

● Accurate deliveries may not be possible.

● Target coordinates may not be accurate.

● No good against mobile targets.

● Requires an accurate system.

● Relatively good weather is necessary to maintain visual formation during pull.

● Mutual support is limited during the loft maneuver,

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 181

12.17.2. Loft on the Wing

One aircraft may be required to bomb using the computed solution of the other aircraft due to system malfunction
or weather constraints. In this case, the wingman flies within 500 feet of the lead aircraft, matches his pith rate during the
pull-up, and manually releases his own weapons in sequence with the
leader's release.

12.17.3. Trail Loft

The wingman is positioned approximately 3 miles in trail. This distance puts ordnance on target for a longer time
period and reduces the potential for conflict between the leader's egress maneuver and the wingman's loft maneuver. Lead
should call the direction of break o after delivery if this has not been prebriefed.

Advantages:

● Individual aircraft are free to maneuver during ingress and egress.

● Individual system accuracy increases the total mission Pk.

Disadvantages:

● Both aircraft must have full-up systems.

● Mutual support between aircraft is limited.

● Rejoin o target is di cult.

12.17.4. Aircraft and Ordnance Deconfliction

Consideration must be given for deconfliction from lofted bombs during their time of fall.
For element lofts, it is critical that the wingman not fly further forward than wedge and the leader must turn away from the
wingman during the egress turn. Failure to do so could result in the leader having a mid-air with the wingman's bombs.

For single-ship loft, following release, maneuver away from the bomb's trajectory. Maintain this lateral separation.
There have been cases where after release, aircraft have turned back toward the target area and subsequently had a mid-air
with their own lofted bombs.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 182

12.18. Egress
The target area egress plan must be flexible, simple, and fully understood by all flight members. Reasons for
egress/abort are:

● Target destruction.

● Poor weather.

● Unacceptable target area defenses.

● Low fuel.

● Loss of mutual support.

● Loss of required aircraft systems.

● Target acquisition problems.

● Battle damage.

Egress priorities should be based on target area threat (type, intensity, lethality), weather, follow-on attacks, status
of follow-on attackers (engaged-o ensive/defensive/neutral). General priorities are:

● Leave the target area.

● Get away from the threat envelope.

● Regain mutual support.

If a pilot becomes separated from the flight, he should follow the egress plan and provide his own threat lookout
while proceeding to the prebriefed tactical rendezvous point. This point should be relatively free of defenses, allow for
battle-damage checks, and provide possible initiation of a reattack. Most importantly, join with someone as soon as
possible.

12.18.1. Two-Ship Egress

Following ordnance delivery, both aircraft should turn toward their prebriefed egress heading. Line abreast formation
provides the most e ective defensive lookout. However, it may be impractical to maneuver in the immediate target area to
gain a line abreast position due to target area defenses. Therefore, adhere to the egress game plan with an accepted loss of
visual cross coverage. A weave back to line abreast is advised when tactically acceptable.

12.18.2. Three-Ship Egress

If a three-ship is employed in the target area, the first aircraft o target should turn the shortest direction to the egress
heading and provide his own lookout. The two-ship element provides its own threat detection and maneuvers to cover the
first aircraft's 6 o'clock when possible.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 183

12.18.3. Four-Ship Egress

When a four-ship is employed in the target area, the elements will normally be separated by time or geographical reference
within the target area for weapons deconfliction. They should maintain element integrity throughout the attack and egress
as an element with visual mutual support. When clear of the target area, both elements should rejoin in an area relatively
free of enemy defenses. Avoid excessive turning in the target area while attempting to rejoin a four-ship flight.

12.18.4. Egress Factors

● The egress must be flexible, consider terrain, battle damage, communication, and flight responsibilities.

● In mountainous terrain, an in-trail option may be appropriate to mask defenses. Flat terrain allows for good visual
cross coverage while using a line abreast formation to provide threat warning.

● Perform a battle damage check on each flight member.

Perform "wounded bird” procedures when egress cannot be flown at the prebriefed airspeed. If the aircraft is
flyable, initiate egress immediately. Prior to the FEBA, RTB. Past the FEBA, if unable to cross back over the FEBA, ejection in
the safe area(s) should be considered. If unable to cross, initiate "wounded bird” procedures.
Pilots should be prepared to fly the entire egress plan without radios due to the possibility of comm jamming and to keep
the frequency clear for other aircraft. Visual is assumed unless wingmen make a blind call. Adhere to prebriefed flight paths
and visual signals to reduce confusion during egress.

12.18.5. Wounded Bird

The first priority for the wounded bird's pilot is to communicate the aircraft's status. If the level of damage is severe
and the enemy threat is high enough to greatly endanger escort aircraft, the decision may have to be made to leave the
battle damaged aircraft on its own to preclude further and unnecessary losses.

If the a ected aircraft can maintain a minimum of 400 knots (or .8M at high altitude), then it can be escorted in a
standard formation, even though the escort aircraft will have to throttle back. The escort aircraft and the damaged aircraft
should clean o any nonessential drag. If the damaged aircraft cannot maintain minimum speed, then the supporting
aircraft will have to stand o from the damaged aircraft in a position from which the six o'clock can be protected. Weaves
of 30° to 45° for the egress heading will allow the supporting aircraft to maintain a minimum of 400 knots while
maintaining a protective position on the slow aircraft. Using 400 knots and a 45° weave means that the escorted aircraft is
flying at only 280 knots. Weaves up to 60° will allow escort of a 200 knot aircraft. Weaves can be disorienting and may
highlight the escort and/or the wounded bird. Another pattern option is for the escort to fly a racetrack o set from the
wounded bird, on course. This pattern allows the escort to look both at the wounded bird's 6 and 12 o'clock while giving the
escort time to visually reacquire the wounded bird and check his progress. If the damaged aircraft has avionics, the pilot
can assume the navigation and radar search responsibilities. This allows the protector to concentrate on visual lookout for
both aircraft. o ensive commit criteria will be more constrained than normal On the commit, the escort will take the lead in
the acceleration maneuver and merge with bandit(s) first. The damaged aircraft should use avionics an/or descriptive
commentary to get a tally and possibly some ordnance in the air after it has a positive ID from the escort (engaged) fighter.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 184

If at any time during the egress, an active engagement ensues and a bandit approaches ordnance parameters on the
damaged aircraft, the pilot must make the decision either to try a last-ditch maneuver, or to eject. If the capability exists to
spoil an attempted gunshot, the pilot should direct that move above the horizon in order to preserve altitude for a safe
ejection.

In a three-ship formation with a slow damaged aircraft, firepower is improved, but the escorting pattern is more
complicated. Weaving behind a slow aircraft as a two-ship may do more to attract a bandit's attention. A close-tied
racetrack pattern around the damaged aircraft using the radars to sanitize the 6 and 12 o'clock avenues of approach may be
e ective.

In a four-ship, consideration should be given to the threat arena as well ordnance and fuel available. Although you
should never jeopardize all four to save one, the healthy element could be used to sweep for the damaged aircraft while his
element mate escorts.

As the flight approaches the FEBA or any heavily defended surface-to-air arena, the healthy aircraft must
accelerate to penetrate the defenses. If it is any consolation, the pilot of the disabled aircraft can observe the active threats
as they attempt to engage the other flight member(s). This will allow course changes to make his aircraft less vulnerable to
the observed threats.

Once across the FEBA, the flight member should orbit to pick up the damaged aircraft. The enemy's air order of
battle (AOB) is still a threat, so "wounded bird” procedures must continue. Close to the landing base, appropriate emergency
procedures should be accomplished.

12.19. Recovery
Recovery options should be based on factors such as fuel, safe passage procedures, and threat detection.

12.19.1. Fuel

Fuel is a primary concern on recovery. The engagement of an unexpected threat during egress may result in a fuel
state that makes recovery to the primary base impossible. Pilots must have pre-planned fuel states during the entire
recovery profile; know when to climb, when to divert, and when to jettison external tanks or suspension equipment in order
to increase range.

12.19.2. Safe Passage

These procedures di er by theater. A knowledge of recovery options is mandatory. Inoperative IFF/SIF equipment,
radio out, etc., may force rendezvous with other friendly aircraft for recovery.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 185

Attachment 1 - AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS

Span (Wings Spread): w/ missiles: 40 feet 5 inches

w/o missiles: 37 feet 6 inches

Span (Wings Folded) 27 feet 6 inches

Length: 56 feet

Height: (To Top of Fins): 15 feet 3 inches

(To Top of Closed Canopy): 10 feet 6 inches

Engines: Two - F404-GE-402

Weights: Basic Empty: 25,000 lbs / MAX GW: 45,000lbs

Empty includes trapped fuel, oil, gun, pylons (without missile rails/launchers) and aircrew

Max CV Recovery Weight: 33,000lbs

Max Rate Instantaneous = .5M with 45K FT/Min Descent @ 25° deg/sec

Max Rate Sustained = 0.5 M @ 17° deg/sec

Min Radius = 0.35 M @ 1200 ft

Never Exceed 35,000ft MSL 2.0 MACH

Speed (VNE)
15,000ft MSL 780 KCAS

REFUELING PROBE Extended 400 KIAS

Extension / Retraction 300 KIAS

LANDING GEAR(VLO) Extension / Retraction / Extended 250 KIAS

TRAILING EDGE FLAPS (VFE) HALF / FULL 250 KIAS

TIRES Main Gear 210 kts GS

Nose Gear 190 kts GS

STALL Max Gross Weight 144 KCAS

(POWER OFF)
Max Trap Weight 122 KCAS

STALL Max Gross Weight 115 KCAS

(MAX POWER)
Max Trap Weight 90 KCAS

CANOPY Open 60 KIAS

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 186

Attachment 2 - ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND SYMBOLS

AA........................aspect angle ALT .....................altitude

A-A.......................air-to-air (master mode or TACAN) AMRAAM...........advanced medium range air-to-air missile

AAA.....................anti-aircraft artillery AOA.....................angle of attack

AAM....................air-to-air missile AOD.....................aim-o distance

AB........................afterburner APC......................armored personnel carrier

ACAL...................altitude calibration API.......................armor piercing incendiary

ABCCC................airborne battlefield command and control AR........................action range

center
ARCT...................air refueling contact time
ACM....................air combat maneuvering or air combat
ASAP................... as soon as possible
mode (radar mode)
ASOC.................. air support operations center
AD........................arming delay
ATA..................... antenna train angle
ADC.....................air data converter
ATC..................... air tra c control
ADI ......................attitude director indicator
ATO .................... air tasking order
AFAC...................airborne forward air controller
ATT..................... attitude
AFTO...................Air Force Technical Order
AUTO.................. automatic
AG........................air-to-ground switch position
AWACS............... airborne warning and control system
A-G ......................air-to-ground (master mode)
AZ ....................... azimuth
AGL.....................above ground level
BA ....................... burst altitude
AGM....................air-to-ground missile
BARO.................. barometric
AGR.....................air-to-ground ranging
BATR.................. bullets at target range
AHC.....................aircraft handling characteristics
BCN..................... beacon mnemonic
AI.........................air interdiction
BDA..................... battle damage assessment
AIM .....................air intercept missile (e.g., AIM-9L/M)
BDU..................... bomb dummy unit
ALB .....................air land battle
BFL ..................... bomb fall line
ALO.....................altitude low mnemonic
BFM.................... basic fighter maneuver
ALOW.................automatic altitude low warning
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 187

BL ....................... bomb live CRC.....................control and reporting center

BLK .................... block C.S. ......................call sign

BLU..................... bomb live unit CSAR...................combat search and rescue

BORE.................. boresight CTVS...................cockpit television sensor

BP........................ bypass CZ........................cursor zero

BR ....................... bomb range DB........................dive bomb

BSU ..................... bomb stabilizing unit DBS......................doppler beam sharpening

BUC..................... backup fuel control DDI………………….. Digital Display Indicator (A.k.a MFD)

BVR..................... beyond visual range DED .....................data entry display

C3I....................... command, control, communications, and DEG.....................degree

intelligence
DEST ...................destination
CADC.................. central air data computer
DGFT...................dogfight (master mode)
CARA.................. combined altitude radar altimeter
DIR ......................direct aim
CAS..................... close air support or calibrated airspeed
DME ....................distance measuring equipment
CAT..................... category
DMPI...................desired munitions point of impact
CATA.................. collision antenna train angle
DNIF....................duty not involving flying
CBU..................... cluster bomb unit
DR........................dead reckoning
CCD .................... camouflage, concealment, and deception
DTC .....................data transfer cartridge
CCIL....................continuously computed impact line
DTOS...................dive toss
CCIP....................continuously computed impact point
Es .........................specific energy
CCRP...................continuously computed release point
ECM ....................electronic countermeasures
CENTAF..............Central Air Forces
ECS......................environmental control system
CENTCOM .........Central Command
EEGS...................enhanced envelope gunsight
CEP......................circular error probable
EID.......................electronic identification
CLM ....................climbing safe escape maneuver
EL BAR...............elevation bar
COMSEC.............communications security
ELV .....................elevation
cos ........................cosine
EO........................electro-optical
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 188

EOR.....................end of runway GBU .................... guided bomb unit

EPU..................... emergency power unit GCI ..................... ground controlled intercept

EU ....................... electronic unit GE....................... General Electric

FAC..................... forward air controller GFI...................... ground forces intelligence

FCC..................... fire control computer GFIS.................... ground forces intelligence survey

FCNP................... fire control navigation panel GLOC ................. G-induced loss of consciousness

FCR..................... fire control radar GLO.................... ground liaison o cer

FEBA .................. forward edge of the battle area GM...................... ground map

FEDS................... firing evaluation display system GMT ................... ground moving target

FL........................ flight level GP ....................... general purpose

FLCS................... flight control system GPS ..................... global positioning system

FLIR.................... forward looking infrared GR........................radial G

FM....................... frequency modulation GS........................ground speed/glide slope

FMU.................... field maintenance unit HADB..................high altitude dive bomb

FO ....................... flame out HARTS................horn awareness and recovery training

series
FOV..................... field of view
HCA.....................heading crossing angle
FPM .................... flight path marker/feet per minute
HEI ......................high explosive incendiary
FPS/fps ............. feet per second
HHQ....................higher headquarters
FRAG.................. fragmentation
HOM....................home mnemonic
FRL. .................... fuselage reference line
HSI.......................horizontal situation indicator
FSCL................... fire support coordination line
HST......................target history mnemonic
FTIT.................... fan turbine inlet temperature
HUD.....................head-up display
FTT ..................... fixed target track
IAW .....................in accordance with
FWD.................... forward
IMC .....................instrument meteorological conditions
FZ........................ freeze
INS.......................inertial navigation system/set
g........................... in math formula (32'/sec2)
INSM ...................inertial navigation system memory
G.......................... total G on aircraft/pilot
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 189

IP..........................initial point or instructor pilot MAP.................... minimum attack perimeter

IPP .......................initial pipper placement MD...................... miss distance

IR.........................infrared METRO.............. pilot to metro voice call

JETT....................jettison MFD ……………… MultiFunction Display (a.k.a DDI)

JFS.......................jet fuel starter MFL.................... maintenance fault list

JMEM..................Joint Munitions Employment Manual MiG..................... Mikoyan Gurevich

(Soviet aircraft designator)
KCAS...................knots calibrated airspeed
MIL..................... military power
KIAS....................knots indicated airspeed
mil(s) ................... milliradian(s)
KIO......................knock it o
min ...................... minute or minimum
KTAS...................knots true airspeed
MISC................... miscellaneous
Kt(s) .....................knot(s)
MK...................... mark (Navy weapon designation)
LAB .....................low angle bomb
MPC.................... mission planning cell
LADD...................low altitude drogue delivery
MRA.................... minimum release altitude
LAHD ..................low angle high drag
MRGS................. multiple reference gunsight
LALD...................low angle low drag
MSA.................... minimum safe altitude
LAS......................low angle strafe
MSL .................... missile mode or missile or mean sea level
LAT/LNG............latitude/longitude
MSS..................... mission support system
LCOS...................lead computing optical sight
MTR.................... moving target reject
LDGP...................low drag general purpose
MTT.................... multi-target track
LLLD...................low level low drag
NAM.................... normal air mode
LMD.................... left miscellaneous display
(FCNP mnemonic) NAV .................... navigation mode

LOC .................... line of communication NB ....................... narrow band

LOS..................... line of sight NLT..................... not later than

LUU..................... launch unit universal NM...................... nautical miles

M......................... fuze designator NORDO .............. .no operative radio

MM..................... millimeter NORM................. normal

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 190

NSTL................... nose/tail arming mnemonic RWR....................radar warning receiver

NWS.................... nose wheel steering RWS.....................range while search

OA1..................... o set aimpoint #1 SA ........................surface attack or situation(al) awareness

OA2..................... o set aimpoint #2 SACM..................selectable air combat mode

OAP..................... o set aimpoint SAM.....................surface-to-air missile

OPSEC................ operations security SBC......................symbology, brightness, and contrast

OPT .....................option SCAN...................AIM-9L/M nutating mode mnemonics

OVRD..................override SCP ......................stores control panel

PDP......................pull-down point SEA......................sea search mode

PIREP..................pilot report SEAD...................suppression of enemy air defenses

Pk.........................probability of kill SEL......................select or selective

Ps..........................specific power SFO......................simulated flameout pattern and approach

PGM ....................precision guided munition SGL......................single

POM ....................plane of motion SID ...................... standard instrument departure

PUP......................pull-up point or pop-up point SIM ..................... simulated

PW.......................Pratt and Whitney sin. ....................... sine

R...........................turn radius SLAV................... slaved AIM-9L/M SMS mnemonics

RCP......................radar control panel SMS..................... stores management system or set

RDR.....................radar SNAP................... snapshoot

RDY.....................ready mnemonic SOI...................... sensor of interest

REL .....................release mnemonic SPOT................... AIM-9L/M non-nutating mode

REO.....................radar/electro-optical SS ........................ snapshoot

ROE.....................rules of engagement STBY................... standby mnemonic

RP ........................release point STRF................... strafe mnemonic

RTB .....................return to base STT ..................... single target track

RTN TO SRCH ...return to search (switch position) TACAN............... tactical air navigation

RTS......................return to search TAS ..................... true air speed

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 191

tan ....................... tangent V.......................... velocity

TCTO.................. time compliance technical order Vc ........................ closing velocity

TD ....................... target designate VAH.................... velocity/altitude/heading (switch)

TDA..................... tactical decision aid VHF .....................very high frequency (radio)

TF........................ terrain following VID ......................visual identification

TFR..................... terrain following radar VIP.......................visual initial point

TGP..................... targeting pod VMC....................visual meteorological conditions

TGT..................... target VR........................visual reconnaissance

TIMS................... time/inertial/map/scope VRP......................visual release point

TLL..................... target locator line VTR..................... video tape recorder

TOF..................... time-of-flight; time-of-fall VVI...................... vertical velocity indicator

TOS..................... time over steerpoint or time on station WB...................... wide band

TOT..................... time over target WEZ.................... weapons employment zones

TWS.................... track-while-scan WOC................... wing operations center

UAP..................... upwind aimpoint WPN.................... weapon (mnemonic)

UFC..................... upfront controls WPN DEL........... weapon delivery (switch position)

UHF..................... ultra-high frequency WR...................... weapon release

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 192

Attachment 3 - GLOSSARY

The following is a glossary of terms and definitions commonly used.

ACA (Airspace Coordination Area) A three-dimensional box in the sky defined by grid and/or
land references and an altitude block (AGL). The intent of
an ACA is to allow simultaneous attack of targets near
each other by multiple fire support means, one of which is
air.

ACBT Air Combat Training; a general term which includes (D)BFM, (D)ACM, and
(D)ACT.

Acceleration Maneuver An o ensive or defensive maneuver, flown in the vertical

plane, if possible, designed to increase or reduce distance
from an object. A low yo-yo is an acceleration maneuver.

ACM Air combat maneuvering; training designed to achieve

proficiency in element formation maneuvering and the
coordinated application of BFM to achieve a simulated kill
or e ectively defend against one or more aircraft from a
preplanned starting position.

ACO Airspace Control Order; document that details all

approved airspace requests. The ACO will complement the
ATO cycle and serve as a single planning document for
airspace considerations.

ACT Air combat tactics; training in the application of BFM and

ACM skills to achieve a tactical air-to-air objective.

Adverse Yaw The tendency of an aircraft to yaw away from the applied
aileron while at high angles of attack.

Advisory Control A mode of control in which the controlling agency has

communications but no radar capability.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 193

Aerodynamic Center (A point on the wing chord through which aircraft lift is
directed.) This definition is really for the center of
pressure. The aerodynamic center is usually defined as
the point on the longitudinal axis of the airplane where
the lift vector is centered. The distance between the
aerodynamic center and the center of gravity is static
margin, and is the major factor a ecting the longitudinal
static stability of the aircraft.

AHC Aircraft handling characteristics; training designed to

gain proficiency in and to exploit the flight envelope of
the aircraft, consistent with operational and safety
constraints.

Air Refueling Time Planned lapsed time from the ARCT to drop o .

Air Refueling Track A flight path designated for air refueling.

Airborne Order A command authorization for tactical flight (departure

time will be specified).

Angle of Attack (AOA) The angle between the mean chord line and the relative
wind.

Angle O The angle formed by the extension of the longitudinal

axes of two aircraft. Angle is measured from defender's
six o'clock. Also called track crossing angle.

Arcing Flying a circular flight path which allows another aircraft

the use of cuto to gain closure.

ARCP Air refueling control point; the planned geographic point

over which the receiver(s) arrive in the
observation/precontact position with respect to the
assigned tanker.

ARCT Air refueling control time; the planned time that the
receiver and tanker will arrive over the ARCP.

ARIP Air refueling initial point; a point located upstream from

the ARCP.

Armament Safety Check Action taken by an aircrew to review armament selection

switches to preclude the inadvertent launch/release of
armament (switches safe).

Aspect Angle Angle between defender's longitudinal axis and the line of
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 194

sight to the attacker. The angle is measured from the

defender's six o'clock. Attacker heading is irrelevant.

Attack Restriction Ingress, ordnance delivery, or egress restrictions

depending on situation, i.e., threats, weather, terrain,
training rules, etc.

BANDIT A contact positively identified as enemy in accordance

with command rules of engagement.

BFM Basic Fighter Maneuvers; training designed to apply

aircraft handling skills to gain proficiency in recognizing
and solving range, closure, aspect, angle o , and turning
room problems in relation to another aircraft to either
attain a position from which weapons may be employed,
deny the adversary a position from which weapons may
be launched, or defeat weapons employed by the
adversary.

BRAA Bearing, range, altitude and Aspect of the target.

Break Away Tanker/receiver call indicating immediate vertical and

horizontal separation between tanker and receiver is
required.

Broadcast Control A mode of control that passes target information by

referencing a designated location, series of locations, or
grid system.

Bu er Zone (BZ) Airspace of defined dimension and adjacent to or near

orders which may have special restrictions.

CAP Combat Air Patrol; Refers to either a specific phase of an

air-to-air mission or the geographic location of the
fighter's surveillance orbit during an air-to-air mission
prior to committing against a threat.

Center of Gravity (CG) That point along the horizontal axis, fore and aft of which
airplane weight is equal.

Cha Cha is a passive form of electronic countermeasures

used to deceive airborne or ground based radar.

CL Max Maximum coe cient of lift; occurs at that angle of attack

at which lift is maximum, thereby creating the maximum
turn rate and maximum G loading for any condition of
flight.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 195

Clock code Description of position using the aircraft as a reference;

the nose is twelve o'clock, the tail is six o'clock.

Close Control A mode of control varying from providing vectors to

providing complete assistance including altitude, speed,
and heading.

Closure Relative velocity of one aircraft in relation to another.

Collision Course A flight path along which an aircraft is directed towards a

point at which it will collide with another aircraft.

Comm Jamming Attempt to interrupt communications.

Comparison Diagram A chart comparing turn rate, radius, and excess power for
two di erent aircraft.

Compass Call A C3CM platform.

Composite Force Training Scenarios employing multiple flights of the same or

di erent types of aircraft, each under the direction of its
own flight leader, and performing the same or di erent
roles. Requires a minimum of three di erent types of
aircraft in three di erent mission roles.

Condition of Vulnerability A condition with the defender in the lethal envelope of

the attacker's weapon system. It is possible for
combatants to arrive at a mutual condition of
vulnerability, particularly during a head-on pass.

Corner Velocity The minimum airspeed at which the maximum allowable

aircraft G limit can be generated.

Defensive Maneuvering Maneuvers designed to negate the attack/ordnance of a

threat.

Defensive Spiral A descending, accelerating dive using high G and

continuous roll to negate an attack and gain lateral
separation.

DR Dead reckoning; navigation technique estimating position

based on last known position, heading, speed, and time.

E-Pole The range from a threat aircraft that a drag must be

accomplished to kinematically defeat any missile the
bandit could have launched or is launching.

ECM Electronic countermeasures; actions taken to prevent or

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 196

reduce the e ective use of the electro-magnetic

spectrum.

Element A flight of two aircraft.

Engagement Maneuvers by opposing aircraft attempting to

achieve/prevent weapons firing positions.

F-Pole The distance from the launching aircraft to the target at

missile impact.

HCA Heading crossing angle; the angle formed by the

intersection of the fighter's present heading and the
target's present heading.

High Angle (Snap) Shot A gun shot made with a high track crossing angle,
normally attempted because a tracking shot was not
possible or desired.

Hostile Same as BANDIT

Hunter-Killer Flight mix of F-4G Wild Weasel and other aircraft

employed in SEAD operations.

Intercept A phase of an air-to-air mission between the commit and

engagement.

Jinking Aircraft maneuvers designed to change the flight path of

the aircraft in all planes at random intervals (usually to
negate a gun attack).

Lag Pursuit An attack geometry that will cause the attacker to fly

behind the target.

Lateral (Pitch) Axis A reference line running left and right through the center
of gravity of an airplane.

Lead Pursuit An attack geometry that will cause the attacker to fly in

front of the target.

Lethal Envelope The envelope within which the parameters can be met for
successful employment of a munition by a particular
weapons system.

Line of Sight A line from the pilot's eye to the object (usually target)
being viewed.
Line of Sight Rate An image's rate of movement across the canopy.

Line Up Fighter briefing to a FAC.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 197

Longitudinal (Roll) Axis A reference line running fore and aft through the center
of gravity of an airplane.

Lufberry A circular stagnated fight with no participant having an

advantage.

Maneuverability The ability to change direction and/or magnitude if the

velocity vector.

Maximum Performance The best possible performance without exceeding aircraft

limitations.

Maximum Rate Turn That turn at which the maximum number of degrees per
second is achieved.

MiG Fighter aircraft designed and produced by the Mikoyan

Gurovich Aircraft Bureau.

Military Crest A position along a ridge or hill two-thirds the distance

from the base to the summit.

Mixed Force
The employment of a single flight of di erent types of
aircraft, performing the same tactical role, under the
direction of a single flight leader.
Mutual Support The coordinated e orts of two or more aircraft to provide
combined firepower and survivability.

O -Station Not in position.

O ensive Maneuvering Maneuvers against an opponent to achieve weapons

parameters.

On-Station In position, ready for mission employment.

Ops Check Periodic check of aircraft systems performed by the

aircrew (including fuel) for safety of flight.

Popeye/IMC Flying in clouds or area of reduced visibility.

Primary Force The flight(s) that are being protected/escorted.

Pure Pursuit An attack geometry that will cause the attacker to fly

directly at the target.

Radial G E ective "turning" G.

Rate of Turn Rate of change of heading, normally measured in degrees

per second.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 198

Relative Wind The oncoming, instantaneous wind. For practical

purposes, the direction of the relative wind is exactly
opposite the flight path of the airplane.

Sandwich A situation where the defending aircraft/element finds

itself in between the attacking element.

Sanitize Clear area of threats.

Scissors A maneuver in which a series of hard turn reversals are

executed in an attempt to achieve the o ensive after an
overshoot by an attacker.

Scramble Takeo as quickly as possible.

Scramble Order Command authorization for combat flight establishing an

immediate departure time.

SEAD Suppression of enemy air defenses.

Semi-Active A system wherein the receiver uses radiation or

reflections from the target which has been illuminated by
an outside source.

Separation Distance between an attacker and defender; can be

lateral, longitudinal, or vertical.

Slice Maximum performance, nose-low turn. Usually performed

at or near maneuver speed (corner velocity) with nose
lowered su ciently to maintain airspeed. This maneuver
falls between a horizontal turn and a split-S.

Sorting Using any available information such as radar

presentation, GCI information, etc., to determine which
bandit to attack.

Specific Energy Total Mechanical energy per pound. Can be loosely

described as an airplane's total energy resulting from
airspeed and altitude.

Specific Excess Power (Ps) A measure of an airplane's ability to gain or lose energy in
terms of altitude, airspeed, or combination thereof. Also
called energy rate and expressed in feet per second or
knots per second.

Split-Plane Maneuvering Aircraft or elements maneuvering in relation

to one another, but in di erent planes and/or altitudes.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 199

Strike An attack which is intended to inflict damage, seize, or

destroy an objective.

Suppressor Aircraft designated to employ ordnance against defenses.

TAC-A (Tactical Air Coordinator-Airborne) An airborne agency located far enough away from threats
and jamming to provide a communications relay between
fighters, FACs, and ground agencies. Typically aboard a
FAC aircraft, ABCCC, or AWACS.

Tactical Control A mode of control similar to close control with regard to

type information provided except vectors are not provided
to the aircrew by the weapons controller.

Velocity Vector A line representing the direction and magnitude of the

path of travel.

Vertical (Yaw) Axis A reference line running up and down through the center
of gravity of an airplane.

Vertical Rolling Scissors A defensive descending rolling maneuver in the vertical

plane executed in an attempt to achieve an o ensive
position on the attacker.

Weapons System In regard to an airplane, weapons system refers to the

combination of airplane/pilot/ordnance/ground
crew/avionics, etc. (See USAF Glossary of Standardized
Terms for complete definition.)

Whi erdill A maneuver used to change direction approximately

180°. Nose is raised 30° to 60°, then 90° + bank is used
to reverse direction of flight and pull nose down below
horizon.

Wild Weasel Dedicated radar defense suppression aircraft.

Willy Pete A white phosphorus smoke, rocket, grenade, or artillery

round used to provide a ground reference. Can be
employed as a bomb to provide a smokescreen.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 200

Attachment 4 - CODE AND BREVITY WORDS

The following is a list code and brevity words for use during combat and daily training flights. It is intended to provide
common understanding and minimize radio transmissions. This common understanding is dependent on the following rules:

● These lists are not all inclusive.

● Words listed below should be used in lieu of words or phrases with similar definitions.

● Some words are informational in nature while others are intended to direct action.

● When a flight lead makes directive calls, the wingman must respond with the directed action to the best of his
ability.

● If the wingman uses a "directive" term/word, it is a request and the flight lead reserves the right to approve/deny
the wingman's requested action.

● When working with allied nations, remember that some of the terms/words listed here may have di erent
meanings.

ABORT Directive to cease action/attack/event/mission.

ACTION Directive to perform a pre-briefed attack sequence or maneuver.

ALPHA CHECK Request for bearing and range to described point.

ANCHOR Orbit about a specific point; ground track flown by tanker. Information call
indicates a turning engagement about a specific location.

ANGELS Height of friendly aircraft in thousands of feet.

APEX/ALAMO Training term used to denote simulated launch of enemy, all-aspect radar
missile.

ARM/ARMED (Safe/Hot) Select armament (safe/hot), or armament is safe/hot.

AS FRAGGED Fighter, FAC, mission package, or agency will be performing exactly as

stated by the air tasking order.

ASPECT Request/comment regarding target aspect information.

APHID/ARCHER Training term used to denote simulated launch of enemy heat seeking
missiles.

ATTACK/ATTACKING ( ) Indicates air-to-surface attack on a specific ground target.

AUTHENTICATE ( ) To request or provide a response for a coded challenge.

AUTONOMOUS Aircrew is operating without benefit of GCI/AWACS control.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 201

BANDIT Known enemy aircraft.

BASE (Number) Reference number used to indicate such information as headings,

altitudes, fuels, etc.

BEAM/BEAMER (Direction) Aircraft maneuvering stabilized within 70—110° aspect; generally given
with cardinal directions; east, west, north, south.

BELLY CHECK A momentary unloaded bank to check the blind side of a turning aircraft.

( ) BENT Identified system inoperative.

BINGO Fuel state at which RTB must commence.

BLIND No visual contact with friendly aircraft; opposite of term "VISUAL."

BLOW THROUGH Directive/informational call that indicates aircraft will continue straight
ahead at the merge and not turn with target/targets.

BOGEY A radar/visual contact whose identity is unknown.

BOGEY DOPE Request for target information as briefed/available.

BONE Term used to indicate the formation will remain in a racetrack-type

holding pattern (with all wingmen's turns into lead); exit formation must
be specified by lead.

BOX Groups/contacts/formations in a square or o set square.

BRACKET Indicates geometry where aircraft will maneuver to a position on opposing

sides either laterally or vertically from the target.

BREAK (Up/Down/Right/Left) Directive to perform an immediate maximum performance turn in the

indicated direction. Assumes a defensive situation.

BREVITY Term used to denote radio frequency is becoming saturated/degraded and

briefer transmissions must follow.

BROADCAST Request/directive to switch to broadcast control.

BROKE LOCK Loss of radar/IR lock-on (advisory).

BUDDY SPIKE (Position/Azimuth) Receiving friendly AI RWR.

BUGOUT (Direction) Separation from that particular engagement/attack; no intent to

re-engage.

BULLSEYE An established reference point from which the position of an aircraft can
be determined.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 202

BUMP A fly-up to acquire line of sight to the target or laser designation.

BURNER Directive to select/deselect afterburner.

BUZZER Electronic communications jamming.

CAP/CAP (Location) An orbit at a specified location. Establish a combat air patrol at (location).

CHAFF Call indicating cha has been detected or to deploy cha .

CHAMPAGNE An attack of three distinct groups with two in front and one behind. The
leading two groups are attempting to bracket with the trailing third group
flying up the middle.

CHATTERMARK Begin using briefed radio procedures to counter comm jamming.

CHECK ( ) A directive statement made to momentarily monitor (specified

items/systems). No response is required if status is normal.

CHECK ( °Left/ °Right) Turn ( ) degrees left/right and maintain new heading.

CHICKS Friendly fighter aircraft.

CHRISTMAS TREE Directive to briefly turn on exterior lights to enable visual acquisition.

CIRCLE ( ) Flight lead directed defensive maneuver in which the flight establishes a
circular holding pattern for mutual support.

CLEAN No radar contacts.

CLEARED Requested action is authorized (no engaged/support roles are assumed).

CLEARED DRY Ordnance release not authorized.

CLEARED HOT Ordnance release is authorized.

CLOSING Bandit/bogey/target is getting closer in range.

COLD In context; attack geometry will result in a pass or roll out behind the
target; or, on a leg of a CAP pointed away from the anticipated threats.
Air-to-surface, dry or no ordnance attack.

COMEBACK (Left/Right) Directive to reverse course.

COME OFF (Left/Right/High/Low) A directive to maneuver as indicated to either regain mutual support or to
deconflict flight paths for an exchange of engaged and supporting roles.
Implies both "visual" and "tally."

COMMITTED/COMMIT Fighter intent to engage/intercept; weapons director continues to provide

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 203

information.

CONTACT Radar/IR contact at the stated position; should be in bearing, range,

altitude (BRAA), bullseye, or geographic position format.

CONTINUE Maneuver for attack; does not imply clearance to engage or expend
ordnance.

COVER Directive to assume briefed support position and responsibilities.

CRANK (Direction) F-pole maneuver; implies illuminating target at radar gimbal limits.

CROSS TURN/CROSS A 180° heading reversal by a flight where aircraft turn into each other.

CUTOFF Request for, or directive to, intercept using cuto geometry.

DEADEYE Informative call by an airborne laser designator indicating the laser is

inoperative.

DEFENSIVE Aircraft is under attack and in a defensive position and maneuvering

within the context of a VISUAL BFM situation/fight.

DEFENDING Aircraft is under attack and in a defensive position and maneuvering

within the context of a SAM / AD threat.

DEPLOY Directive for the flight to maneuver to briefed positioning.

DIVERT Proceed to alternate mission/base.

DOLLY Data link equipment.

DRAG/DRAGGING (Direction) Aircraft maneuver to 60° or less aspect.

ECHELON (Cardinal Direction) Groups/contacts/formation with wingman displaced approximately 45°

behind leader's wing line.

ELEMENT Formation of two aircraft.

ENGAGED Maneuvering with the intent of achieving a kill. If no additional

information is provided (bearing, range, etc.), engaged implies visual/radar
acquisition of the target.

ESTIMATE Using information available to provide required data; implies degradation.

EXTEND (Direction) Directive to gain energy and distance with the possible intent of returning.

EYEBALL Fighter with primary visual identification responsibility.

FADED Previous radar contact lost.

FAST Target speed is estimated to be 600 knots ground speed, Mach 1 or

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 204

greater.

FEET WET/DRY Flying over water/land.

FENCE Boundary separating hostile and friendly area.

FENCE CHECK Set cockpit switches as appropriate.

FEW Two to four aircraft.

FLANK/FLANKING Target with a stable aspect of 120—150°.

FLOAT Directive/informative to expand the formation laterally within visual limits

to maintain a radar contact or prepare for a defensive response.

FLUSH/FLUSHED Precautionary launch or aircraft for survival.

FOLLOW DOLLY Follow data-link commands.

FOX Air-to-air weapons employment.

FOX ONE Simulated/actual launch of semi-active radar-guided missile.

FOX TWO Simulated/actual launch of IR-guided missile.

FOX THREE Simulated/actual launch of an active radar-guided missile.

FURBALL A turning fight involving multiple aircraft.

GATE Radio Brevity Code for us MAX power available. i.e. Afterburner

GADGET Fire control radar.

GIMBALS (Direction) Radar target is approaching azimuth or elevation limits.

GO ACTIVE Go to briefed Have Quick net.

GO SECURE Directive to activate secure voice communications.

GORILLA Large force of indeterminable numbers and formation.

GREEN (Direction) Direction determined to be clearest of enemy air-to-air activity

GROUP Radar target(s) within approximately 3 NM of each other.

GUN (Direction) Visual acquisition of gunfire, AAA site, or AAA fire.

GUNS An air-to-surface gunshot.

HARD (Direction) High G energy sustaining turn.

HEAVY 3 or more aircraft in a group

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 205

HEADS DOWN Call to inform aircrew that leader/wingman is head down in the cockpit
and leader/wingman is responsible for clearing.

HEADS UP (Direction/Altitude) Enemy/bogey got through; no kill.

HIGH Target between 25,000 MSL and 40,000 MSL.

HIT Radar return in search (air-to-air).

Weapons impact within lethal distance (air-to-ground).

HOLD DOWN Directive to key transmitter for DF steer.

HOLDING HANDS Aircraft in visual formation.

HOME PLATE Home airfield.

HOOK (Left/Right) Directive to perform an in-place 180° turn.

HOT In context; attack geometry will result in roll out in front of the target; or
on a leg of the CAP pointing toward the anticipated threats (air-to-air).
Ordnance employment authorized, expected, or completed (air-to-ground).

HOTEL FOX HF radio.

ID Directive to intercept and identify the target; also aircrew ID

accomplished, followed by type aircraft.

IN PLACE (Left/Right) Perform indicated maneuver simultaneously.

JINK Unpredictable maneuvers to negate a tracking solution.

JOKER Fuel state above bingo at which separation/bugout should begin.

JUDY Aircrew has radar/visual contact on the correct target, has taken control
of the intercept, and only requires situation awareness information;
weapons director will minimize radio transmissions.

JUDY ANGLE Aircrew is taking control of intercept in azimuth only; weapons director
continues to provide range information.

KILL Directive to commit on target with clearance to fire; in training, a fighter

call to indicate kill criteria have been fulfilled.

LADDER Three or more groups/contacts/formations/aircraft side-by-side

separated by range.

LINE ABREAST Two groups/contacts/formations/aircraft side-by-side.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 206

LOCKED (Group/Position) Final radar lock-on; sort is not assumed.

LOW Target altitude below 5,000 feet AGL.

MAGNUM Launch of ARH missile.

MANY Five or more aircraft in a group.

MARKING Leaving contrails or otherwise marking aircraft position.

MEDIUM Target altitude between 5,000 feet AGL and 25,000 feet AGL.

MERGED Informative that friendlies and targets have arrived in the same visual
arena.
Call indicating radar returns have come together.

MICKEY Have Quick time of day (TOD) signal.

MIDNIGHT Initiate advisory control (due to loss of GCI-type radar).

MIL Directive to select military power.

MUD (Direction) Indicates RWR ground threat displayed; followed normally by clock
position.

MUSIC Electronic radar jamming. On AI radar, electronic deceptive jamming.

NAKED No RWR indications.

NO JOY Aircrew does not have visual contact with the target/bandit;
opposite of "TALLY."

NOTCH (Direction) All-aspect missile defensive maneuver to place threat radar/missile near
the beam.

OFF (Direction) Informative that attack is being ceased and repositioning in the indicated
direction.

OFFSET (Left/Right) Informative call indicating maneuver in a specific direction with reference
to the target.

PACKAGE Geographically isolated collection of groups/contacts/formations.

PADLOCKED Informative that aircrew cannot take eyes o another aircraft/ground

target without losing tally.

PAINT Friendly AAI/APX interrogation return.

PARROT IFF transponder.

PICTURE Situation briefing which includes real-time information pertinent to a

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 207

specific mission.

PIGEONS (Location) Magnetic bearing and range to a specified point.

PITCHBACK (Left/Right) A call for fighter/flight to execute a nose-high heading reversal to

reposition as stated.

PLAYTIME Amount of time which aircraft can remain on station.

POINT Directive for an element to turn towards each other either as a defensive
response or to reestablish a mutually supportive formation.

POP Starting climb for an air-to-surface attack.

POPEYE Flying in clouds or area of reduced visibility.

POSIT Request for position; response normally in terms of a geographic

landmark, or o a common reference point.

POST ATTACK (Direction) Weapons director's transmission to indicate desired direction after
completion of the intercept/engagement.

POST HOLE Rapid descending spiral.

POWER Reminder to set the throttles appropriately considering the IR threat and
desired energy state.

PRESS Directive to continue the attack; mutual support will be maintained.

Appropriate engaged and supporting roles will be assumed.

PUMP Directive to perform a pre-briefed sequential maneuver to stop relative

forward motion while maintaining situation awareness on the threat.

PURE Call indicating pure pursuit is being used or directive call to go pure
pursuit.

PUSH (Channel) Go to the designated frequency.

RANCH HOUSE (Altitude) Informative or directive indicating subject fighters will/should return to
CAP.

REFERENCE (Direction) Directive to assume stated heading.

RIFLE Air-to-surface missile launch.

ROGER Indicates aircrew understands the radio transmission; does not indicate
compliance or reaction.

SAM (Direction) Visual acquisition of a SAM or SAM launch. Should include position.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 208

SANDWICHED A situation where an aircraft/element find themselves between opposing

elements.

SAUNTER Fly at best endurance.

SEPARATE Separation from a specific engagement.

SHACKLE One weave; a single crossing of flight paths; maneuver to adjust/regain

formation parameters.

SHADOW Follow indicated target.

SHIFT Directive to illuminate second target with laser designator.

SHOOTER Aircraft designated to employ ordnance.

SHOTGUN Launch of antiradiation (SHRIKE) missile by Wild Weasel.

( ) SICK Described equipment is degraded.

SILENT "GO SILENT" directive to initiate briefed EMCON procedures.

SINGER (type/direction) Informative call of RWR indication of SAM launch.

SKIP IT Veto of fighter targeting; usually followed with further directions.

SLICE (Left/Right) Directive to perform a high G descending turn in the stated direction;
usually 180° turn.

SLOW Target with ground speed of less than 300 knots.

SNAP SHOT High angle/high LOS gun shot.

SNAP ( ) An immediate vector (bearing and range) to the group described.

SORTED Criteria have been met which ensure individual flight members have
separate contacts; criteria can be met visually, electronically (radar) or
both.

SPARKLE Target marking by a gunship or FAC using incendiary rounds.

SPIKE RWR indication of an AI threat in track or launch. Include

bearing and clock position/azimuth and threat type if able.

SPITTER (Direction) An aircraft that has departed from the engagement.

SPLASH Target destroyed (air-to-air); weapons impact (air-to-ground)

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 209

SPLIT Request to engage a threat; visual may not be maintained; requires flight
lead acknowledgment (airto- air). Also, directive to begin pre-briefed
maneuver/attack.

SPOOFING Informative that voice deception is being employed.

SPOT Informative that laser target designation is being received.

SQUAWK ( ) Operate IFF as indicated or IFF is operating as indicated.

STACK Two or more groups/contact/formation with a high/low stack in relation

to each other.

STATUS Request for an individual's tactical situation; response is normally

"o ensive," "defensive," or "neutral." May be su xed by position and
heading.

STERN Request for, or directive to, intercept using stern geometry.

STINGER Formation of two or more aircraft with a single trail.

STRANGER Unidentified tra c that is not participant in the mission.

STRANGLE ( ) Turn o equipment indicated.

STROBE AI radar indications of noise radar jamming.

SUNRISE A minimum of broadcast control is available (due to return of weapons

director's radar).

SUPPORTING Act of assisting the engaged fighter in killing the bandit while maintaining
overall battle situation awareness.

SWITCH/SWITCHED Indicates an attacker is changing from one aircraft to another.

TALLY Sighting of a target/bandit; opposite of "NO JOY."

TARGET Specification of sort responsibility. Directive call that may not necessarily
follow the sort contract.

THREAT (Direction) (GCI/AWACS) Informative that an untargeted bogey is within 10 NM of a friendly.

TIED Positive radar contact with an element/aircraft.

TRACK A series of related contacts indicating direction of travel.

TRACKING Stabilized gun solution.

TRAIN (Formation) Tactical formation of two or more aircraft following one another.

TRAILER The last aircraft in a formation.

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 210

TUMBLEWEED Indicates limited situation awareness; no tally, no visual, a request for

information.

UNIFORM UHF/AM radio.

VERY HIGH Target altitude above 40,000 feet MSL.

VERY LOW Target altitude is below 300 feet AGL.

VIC Three groups/contacts/formations with the single closest in range and an

element in trail.

VICTOR VHF/AM radio.

VISUAL Sighting of a friendly aircraft; opposite of "BLIND."

WALL Three or more groups/contacts/formations line abreast/side by side.

WEAVE Continuous crossing of flight paths.

WEDGE Tactical formation of two or more aircraft with the single in front and the
other aircraft laterally displaced on either side behind the leader's wing
line.

WEEDS Indicates that aircraft are operating close to the surface.

( ) WELL Described equipment is functioning properly.

WHAT LUCK Request for results of mission/tasks.

WHAT STATE Request for armament/fuel status; reported as follows:

( ) Radar = # radar missiles remaining.
( ) Heat = # heat missiles remaining.
( ) Fuel = pounds of fuel or time remaining.

WILCO Will comply with received instructions.

WINCHESTER No ordnance remaining.

WORDS Pertinent mission information.

WORKING ( ) Wild Weasel is gathering electronic order of battle on a designated

emitter.

ZIPPER Acknowledge radio transmissions with two clicks of the mike button.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 211

Attachment 5 - TURN PERFORMANCE CHART

These speeds and performances are accurate within +/- 5 KIAS, as tested within DCS World version 2.8.3.38090.
DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 212

Attachment 6 - WHITEBOARD BFM DEBRIEFING ICONS

DCS F/A-18C Combat Aircraft Fundamentals 213

Attachment 7 - REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

Subsonic Energy Maneuverability: Diagrams for Selected DCS: World Aircraft, Contact Light | Revised: September 2022

NATOPS FLIGHT MANUAL NAVY MODEL F/A-18A/B/C/D 161353 AND UP AIRCRAFT

CNATRA P-912 Low Altitude Training.

CNATRA P-1288 TACFORM T-45

CNATRA P-1209 STRIKE T-45 MPTS AND IUT

CNATRA P-825 (07-14) BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERING (BFM) AND ALL WEATHER INTERCEPT (AWI)

Eagle Dynamics DCS F/A-18C Hornet Flight Manual

Chucks Guide DCS F/A-18C Hornet